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Post-Graduate. Several Varying 1 year For students wishing to Studentships in amount take up post-graduate work Prizes. R.C. Christie, Esq. L21 French literature Martin Holloway. L15, 15s. ——————————————————————————————-
UNIVERSITY OF LONDON, UNIVERSITY COLLEGE.
Cost of Tuition in Arts: From L24, 3s. to L42 per annum. Cost of Tuition in Science: L35 per annum. Cost of Residence in College Hall (optional): From L53 to L82 per annum.
Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes.
Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. Entrance. Andrews Entrance L30 1 year Arts and Science. Age Scholarships(3) limit, 18 Campbell Clarke L40 3 years English Language and Entrance Scholarship Literature. Age limit, 18 Goldsmid L30 3 years Science. Age limit, 18 Rosa Morison L30 3 years Arts. Age limit, 18 Member's Scholarship L30 3 years Classics West L30 1 year English and English History Morris L16 2 years St Pancras College fees for Limited to candidates born 3 years in St Pancras Campbell Clarke L40 2 or 3 years English Language and Literature
Undergraduate. Andrews Scholarships L30 1 year Arts and Science Derby Zoological L60 2 years Ellen Watson Memorial L15 1 year Science. Candidates must be under 21 Fielden Research L50 1 or 2 years Research in German Eleanor Grove L30 1 year Research in German (may be renewed) John Oliver Hobbes L20 1 year Modern English Literature Hollier L60 1 year Greek and Hebrew Jews' Commemoration L15 2 years Arts or Science Joseph Hume L20 1 year Jurisprudence and Political Economy Malden Medal and L20 1 year Proficiency in Greek Scholarship Mayer de Rothschild L40 1 year Pure Mathematics John Stuart Mill L20 1 or 2 years Philosophy of Mind or Logic Rosa Morison L30 1 year English Language and Literature Ricardo L20 3 years Awarded every third year for Political Economy Tuffnell L100 2 years Science. Candidates must be under 24
Post-Graduate. George Jessel L50 1 year Research in Mathematics Studentship Jevons Memorial L35 1 or 2 years Research in Political Economy Physics Research L60} 1 year Studentships(2) L40} Quain L150 3 years English. Awarded every third year Quain L100 3 years Biology. Awarded every third year
Prizes. Quain L50 English Essay
WESTFIELD COLLEGE.
Cost of Residence and Tuition: L35 a term. Cost of Tuition for Out-students: L15 a term. All Scholarships at Westfield College are for women only.
Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes.
Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. Entrance. Draper's Company(2) L50 3 years Candidates must be under age of 20 Amy Sanders Stephens L50 3 years College Scholarships L35 to L50 3 years (2 or more)
UNIVERSITY OF MANCHESTER.
Duration of Course in Arts or Science, Pass and Honours: 3 years. Cost of Tuition in Arts: L18 per session. Cost of Tuition in Science: Pass, from L20 to L30 per annum. Honours, from L12, 12S. to L45 per annum. Cost of Residence in Ashburne Hall or Langdale Hall (optional): From L40 to L52, 10S. per annum.
Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes.
Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. Rogers L40 2 years Biennial. Classics Seaton L40 2 years Biennial. Mathematics Dalton L40 2 years Mathematics Hulme L35 3 years English and History Jones L35 2 years History James Gaskill L35 2 years Mathematics and Chemistry John Buckley L30 3 years Mathematics and Science Grace Calvert L30 2 years Science. Biennial Bleackley L15 3 years Science (not till 1915) Theodores L15 1 year French and German Dora Muir L30 3 years Alice Fay L25 Not more than 3 years Ashburne Hall L60 3 years Marjory Lees L40 3 years Old Ashburnians L30 1-3 years Jevons L70 1 year Economic Science (once in six years) Russian L60 1st year} 2 years L25 2nd year} Bishop Fraser L40 2 years Classics Oliver Heywood L50 2 years Classics Dieschfield L30 1 year Robert Platt L50 1-2 years Zoology and Botany Robert Platt L50 2 years Physiology Education(2) L50 1 year Intending Teachers Faulkner (Arts) and L100 1 year Beyer (Science)(3) Victoria L40 1 year Classics Wellington L30 1 year Greek. Biennial Walters L30 1 year French. German Bradford L35 1 year History Shuttleworth L45 1 year Political Economy Dalton L35 1 year Mathematics Derby L30 1 year Mathematics Heginbottom L15 1 year Physics Dalton L50 2 years Chemical Mercer L30 1 year Chemistry
#Post-Graduate.# Roscoe L50 1 year History (renewable) Gilchrist L80 1 year Modern Languages Graduate L25 1 year One in each Honours School in Arts and Science Travelling L60 for 1st year, Russian and L75 for 2nd year #1851 Exhibition# L150 2 years Science Schuster L50 1 year Engineering or Chemistry
Fellowships. John Harling L125 1-2 years Physics, English Honorary Schunk L100 1 year Chemistry Jones L150 2 years History John Bright L100 2 years Public Health(2) L50 1 year
Prizes. Lee Greek Testament L15 Senior Warburton L30
UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD.
Duration of Course in Arts or Science: 3 to 4 years. (Pass candidates are not accepted at the Women's Colleges.)
Women are not eligible for any University Scholarships or Prizes. All Scholarships at the Women's Colleges are for women only. The University does not grant degrees to women.
SOMERVILLE COLLEGE.
Combination Fee: From L84 to L105 per annum.
Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes.
Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. Entrance L40-L60 3 years Scholarships(3) Entrance L20-L30 3 years Exhibitions(2) Shaw Lefevre L50 Awarded only to students in residence
Certificated Students. Mary Ewart Travelling Scholarship L100-L200 Awarded occasionally, and open to women graduates of Durham and Dublin, as well as to all certificated students of the Women's Colleges at Oxford and Cambridge
LADY MARGARET HALL.
Cost of Tuition: L27 per annum. Cost of Residence (obligatory): From L65 to L75 per annum.
Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes.
Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. Entrance. Jephson Scholarship L50 3 years College Scholarship L40 3 years College Scholarship L35 3 years
ST HILDA'S HALL.
Cost of Tuition: L26, 5s. per annum. Cost of Residence (obligatory): L75 per annum.
Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes.
Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. Entrance. College Scholarship L50 3 years College Scholarship L30 3 years Hay Scholarship L25-L45 3 years Cheltenham Scholarship varies in amount Open only to pupils of 3 years Cheltenham Ladies College
ST HUGH'S COLLEGE.
Combination Fee: From L70 to L95 per annum.
Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes.
Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. Entrance. Old Students' L30 3 years Scholarship College Scholarship L30 3 years College Scholarship L25 3 years Clara Evelyn Mordan Scholarship L40 3 years Awarded every third year
SOCIETY OF HOME STUDENTS.
Cost of Tuition: From L24 to L30 per annum.
The Society of Home Students provides for the education of students who are not in residence at any College. It undertakes to prepare students for pass as well as honours examinations.
Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes.
Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. Ottley Scholarship L40 3 years Open only to pupils of Worcester High School. Gilchrist Travelling L100 1 year Open to certificated women students at Oxford
UNIVERSITY OF SHEFFIELD.
Duration of Course in Arts or Science, Pass and Honours: 3 years. Cost of Tuition varies according to subjects chosen. Cost of Residence in the University Hostel (optional): From 29 to 43 guineas per annum.
Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes.
Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. Entrance. Fifth L30 3 years Arts, Science Corporation L30 3 years Arts, Science Town Trustees(2) L50 3-4 years Tenable at Sheffield, Oxford and Cambridge Education Committee L15, 1st year} L20, 2nd year}3 years L25, 3rd year} Town Trustees(4) L50 3 years Open only to candidates under 19 years of age educated in Sheffield Education Committee L50 3 years Applied Science Earnshaw[1] L50 at least 1 year Open to inhabitants of the or more City of Sheffield, and tenable at any University in the United Kingdom. Awarded for Mathematics or Classics. Mechanics' Institute L50 and free admission to lectures 1-2 years Whitworth Exhibitions(30)L50 3 years Awarded on the results of Examinations of the Board of Education Whitworth(4) L25 3 years Awarded on the results of Examinations of the Board of Education Technical L20, 1st year; L25, 2nd year; L30, 3rd year; and free admission to lectures 3 years Education Committee L50 3 years Arts Education Committee(4) L50 3 years Pure or Applied Science
#Post-Graduate# Frederick Clifford L50 circa 2 years Open to graduates residing within a radium of 40 miles of the University #1851 Exhibition# L150 2 years Science
Fellowships. Sorby Interest on L15,503, Chemistry. Next award 1914 16s. 6d. 5 years Town Trustees L75 1 year
[Footnote 1: This does not appear to come under either of the categories of County and Borough Scholarship alluded to in Note 3, p. 28. The Editor therefore includes it here.]
UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, NOTTINGHAM.
Students read for the external degrees of the University of London.
Cost of Tuition in Arts: L12, 12s. per annum. Cost of Tuition in Science: L18 per annum. Cost of Residence at Hylton House (optional): L30 per annum.
Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes.
Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. Entrance. Scholarships(3) L30 1 year Arts and Science. For (renewable) students not over 19 years of age Studentships Remission of fees 1 year (renewable) Parker Senior L25-L50 3 years For daughters of residents Exhibitions in Nottingham County Council College and travelling Open to candidates under Scholarships fees, and books 19, ordinarily resident in the County
Undergraduate. Weinberg Scholarship L15 1 year For students in need of pecuniary assistance College Studentships L10 to L18 1 year For students in need of pecuniary assistance
#Post-Graduate.# Science Research(2) L50 and free admission 1 year Heymann Research L35 1 year May be divided between two candidates. Preference given to students in the Faculty of Arts #1851 Exhibition# L150 2 years For Research work in #Scholarship# Science. Tenable at any University.
UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, READING.
Students read for the external degrees of the University of London.
Cost of Tuition in Arts: L20. per annum. Cost of Tuition in Science: From L20 to L24 per annum. (There is a reduction for local students.) Cost of Residence in St Andrew's Hall, Wessex Hall and St George's Hostel (obligatory for students not residing with parents or guardians): From L32 to L42 per annum.
Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes.
Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. Entrance. Open Scholarships— L69} 2 years Science Major(2) L65} (renewable) Arts Minor(2) Remission of College fees 2 years (renewable) County Borough of Reading— Minor Scholarships(2) Remission of College For candidates educated fees. 1 year in Borough of Reading (renewable) St Andrew's Hall. L40 2 years (renewable)
St Andrew's Hall Amount variable Students in need of Bursaries pecuniary assistance Exhibition Remission of College For graduates, whether fees 1 year already students of the College of not. Secondary Education Course
HARTLEY UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, SOUTHAMPTON.
Students read principally for the external degrees of the University of London.
Cost of Tuition in Arts: L20 per annum. Cost of Tuition in Science: L24 per annum. There is no Hall of Residence.
Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes.
Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. Entrance. College(2) L26, 8s., 1st year} L34, 8s., 2nd year} 3 L36, 8s., 3rd year}years College(2) L26, 8s., 1st year} 2 L34, 8s., 2nd year}years Exhibitions(4) L15 and L18 3 years Open to candidates between the ages of 16 and 19 Thomas Godolphin L23 1 year Open to candidates who Rooper have been educated for at least 2 years at a Public Elementary School in the late Mr. Rooper's Inspectorial District
IRELAND.
UNIVERSITY OF DUBLIN.
TRINITY COLLEGE.
Duration of Arts Course, Pass and Honours, 4 years. Duration of Science Course: Pass, 4 years; Honours, 5 years. Cost of Tuition: L16. 16s. per annum. Cost of Residence in Trinity Hall (for women not residing with their parents or guardians): From L11 to L15 a term.
Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes.
Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. Entrance. Exhibitions(12) L20 (6)} 2 years Examination results L15 (6)} of Irish Board of Intermediate Education Junior Exhibitions(16) L20 (12)} 2 years Candidates under 19 L15 (4) } Sizarships(10) College fees Students in need of pecuniary assistance Non-foundation L30 5 years Arts or Science Scholarship James Patrick Kidd L80 4 years Arts or Science Irish Society L60 3 years Open only to pupils of an Scholarship Intermediate School in Londonderry or Coleraine
Undergraduate. Senior Exhibitions(16) L20} 2 years Arts or Science L15} Lloyd Exhibition L16 2 years Mathematics Mullins Exhibition L17 3 years Classics Ekenhead Scholarship L32 3 years Science. Open only to natives of Antrim FitzGerald Memorial L50 1 year Research in Science Scholarship Blake National History L85 4 years Scholarship
Prizes. Bishop Law's Mathematics L20 Algebra and Trigonometry McCullogh L30 and L20 Mathematics Townsend Memorial L22 Mathematics Vice Chancellor's L20 Classics Ferrar Memorial L18 Classics Marshal Porter Memorial Interest on L500 Classics Wray Prize L30 Mental and Moral Philosophy Cobden Prize L20 Essay on Political Economy Hebrew Chaldee and L40 Syriac Ferguson Memorial L20 Celtic Literature
M'CREA MAGEE COLLEGE LONDONDERRY.
(In connection with the University of Dublin.)
Duration of Course in Arts: Pass, 3 years 9 months to 4 years; Honours 4 years. Duration of Course in Science, Pass and Honours: 4 years. Cost of Course in Arts or Science: From L32, 12s. to L50. 8s. for the course. There is no Hall of Residence.
Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes.
Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. Bigger L30 1 year Grocers' Company L25 1 year M'Crea Science L25 1 year Mathematics and Physics Adams' Bursary L15 1 year M'Crea Science L30 1 year Mathematics and Physics Grocers' Company L25 1 year Findlater L25 1 year Irish Society L20 1 year Mabel L20 1 year Modern Literature
NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF IRELAND.
All students of the University are eligible for University Scholarships in accordance with the regulations laid down in each case.
Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes.
Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. University Undergraduate. Dr Henry Hutchinson L30 3 years Awarded on results of Stewart Literary First Examination in Arts Scholarship Tipperary County L50 3 years Council
University Post-Graduate. Coyne Memorial L32 1 year Awarded in alternate years Scholarship for Essay on Political Science University Travelling L200 2 years In Arts and Science Studentships(3) subjects in rotation
UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, DUBLIN.
Duration of Course in Arts or Science, Pass and Honours: 3 years. Cost of Arts Course: L28, 10s. Cost of Science Course: Variable, according to subjects chosen. Cost of Residence in Loreto Hall or St Mary's Dominican Hall (optional): From L30 to L40 per annum.
Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes.
Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. Entrance. Scholarships(4) L50 1 year Scholarships(4) L40 1 year Scholarships(4) L30 1 year Scholarships(4) L20 1 year
Undergraduate. Scholarships(4) L50 2 years Arts and Science. For 2nd year students Scholarships(4) L40 2 years Arts and Science. For 2nd year students Scholarships(4) L30 2 years Arts and Science. For 2nd year students Scholarships(4) L20 2 years Arts and Science. For 2nd year students First Class Exhibitions L20 1 year Result of Examination in (4) 2nd year
Post-Graduate. Scholarships(5) L60 1 year Result of B.A. and B.Sc. Honours Examination Scholarship L30 1 year Scholarships(2) L15 1 year First Class Exhibitions L20 1 year Result of B.A. and B.Sc. (3) Examination
UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, GALWAY.
Cost of Tuition in Arts: L10 per annum. Cost of Tuition in Science: L15 per annum. There is no Hall of Residence.
Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes.
Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. Entrance. College(4) L30 1 year College(8) L25 1 year
Under-Graduate. College, 2nd year L30 1 year Arts College, 2nd year(3) L25 1 year Arts College, 2nd year L30 1 year Science College, 2nd year(2) L25 1 year Science Blayney L30 1 year Scholars must attend Honours Courses Dr and Mrs W.A. Browne L32 1 year Modern Languages
Post-Graduate. College(4) L60 1 year
Prizes. Irish L15
UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, CORK.
Cost of Tuition in Arts: L9 per annum. Cost of Tuition in Science varies according to subjects chosen. There is no Hall of Residence.
Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes.
Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. Entrance and Undergraduate College Scholarships(12) L20-L40 1 year Honan Scholarships(3) L50 3-5 years To candidates born in one of the counties of Munster other than Clare Cork County Council(10) L24 3 years Kerry County Council(2) L50 3 years Open to candidates of not more than 19 years of age Kerry County Council(3) L30 — Open to candidates of not more than 19 years of age Waterford County L50 3 years Open to candidates of not Council(3) more than 19 years of age Waterford County L50 3 years Open to candidates of not Borough(2) more than 19 years of age College Scholarships(8) L20-L40 2-3 years Open to 2nd year students
Post-Graduate Scholarships. Studentships (2) L150 3 years
QUEEN'S UNIVERSITY, BELFAST.
Duration of Course in Arts or Science, Pass and Honours: 3 years. Cost of Tuition varies according to subjects chosen, but does not exceed L11, 11s. per annum for the Arts Course.
Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes.
Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. Entrance and Undergraduate Entrance(12) L40 1 year Arts, Science, and Medicine Second and Third Year L40 2 years Arts and Science Porter L20 1-3 years Porter L40 1 year Sullivan L40 circa 1 year Open to pupils of the Royal Belfast Academical Institution Sullivan(2) L40 circa 3 years Open to teachers in Irish National Schools Sir Hercules Pakenham L20 1 year Science Emily Lady Pakenham L20 1 year Arts Reid-Harwood L40 circa 1 year Modern Languages Andrews Studentship L36, 10s. 2 years Awarded alternate years for Chemical and Physical Science Blayney L27 1 year Arts County Borough(4) L40 3 years Arts, Science, Medicine, Law, Commerce Antrim(2) L40 3 years Tenable at any University in Ireland Donegal(2) L45 3 years Tenable at any University in Ireland Kildare(4) L50 3 years Tenable at any University in Ireland by non-Roman Catholic students King's County L50 3 years Tenable by non-Roman Catholics Monaghan(3) L50 3 years Tenable at any University in Ireland by a non-Roman Catholic student Monaghan Bursaries(2) L25 3 years Tenable at any University in Ireland by a non-Roman Catholic student Westmeath(3) L50 3 years Tenable in the National University of Ireland or in Queen's University, Belfast Wexford(3) L50 3 years Tenable in any University or College in Ireland by a non-Roman Catholic student Wexford Bursaries(2) L25 3 years Tenable in any University or College in Ireland by a non-Roman Catholic student
Post-Graduate. Studentships(5) L50 1 year Arts Studentships(4) L50 1 year Science Dunville Studentships(2) L50 1st year } L100 2nd year}2 years Physical Science and Biological Science Purser L108 1 year Mathematics Studentship L80 1 year Arts
ALEXANDRA COLLEGE, DUBLIN.
Students read for the Examinations of the University of Dublin, the National University of Ireland, and Queen's University, Belfast. Duration of Course in Arts or Science, Pass and Honours: 3 to 4 years. Cost of Tuition: From L17 per annum. Cost of Residence in Alexandra Hall: From L58 to L68 per annum. Alexandra College is for women only.
Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes.
Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. Entrance and Undergraduate. Skinners' Entrance L22 total value Candidates must be under Scholarship 17 on 1st. Jan. Governess Association L42 total value Candidates must be under Scholarship 17 on 1st. Jan. Pfeiffer Entrance L30 total value Candidates must be under Scholarship 17 on 1st. Jan. Stearne Scholarships(2)L20 total value Candidates must be under 17 on 1st. Jan. Wilson Suffern L15 Candidates must be under 17 Skinners' Senior L27 total value Awarded in alternate years Scholarship Pfeiffer Senior L30 total value Scholarship Pfeiffer Literature L30 total value Jellicoe Memorial L24 total value Scholarship (Governess Association) Jellicoe Memorial L25 total value Trench Memorial L15 total value (Senior) Trench Memorial L15 total value Candidates must be under (Junior) 17 R.P. Graves Memorial L15 total value
SCOTLAND.
SCHOLARSHIPS TENABLE AT ANY SCOTTISH UNIVERSITY.
Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes.
Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. David Anderson(2) L30 4 years Restricted to candidates from specified schools or districts Duart L32 3 years Restricted to candidates from specified schools or districts Maclean L25 4 years Restricted to candidates from specified schools or districts James Stewart L35 3 years Restricted to candidates from specified schools or districts Strang-Steel L30 4 years Restricted to candidates from specified schools or districts Glenbuck L27 3 years Restricted to candidates from specified schools or districts Ferguson Bursaries L25 to L30 4 years Restricted to candidates from specified schools or districts Louson L20 4 years Dumfries L30 3 years Spence(2) L30 1st year} 2 years For 2nd year Arts students L40 2nd year} Menzies L45 4 years Tenable at St Andrews, Glasgow, or Edinburgh Patrick A. Lowson L70 2 years Tenable at any University in the United Kingdom Cowan L30 for 2 years } Tenable alternately at L20 for 3rd year} Edinburgh and Glasgow 3 years
SCHOLARSHIPS, ETC., OPEN TO STUDENTS OF ANY SCOTTISH UNIVERSITY.
Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes.
Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. Undergraduate. Franco-Scottish Society L15 1 year For students wishing to Travelling Scholarships study in France Spence Bursaries — — See above, Scholarships tenable at any Scottish University James Stewart Bursary — — See ante, Scholarships tenable at any Scottish University
Post-Graduate. Ferguson Scholarships(3) L80 2 years Arts and Science. Open to Masters of Arts Carnegie Research L150 2 years Arts, Science, Medicine Fellowships Carnegie Research L100 1 year Arts, Science, Medicine Scholarships 1851 Science Scholarship L150 2 years Tenable at any approved institution Shaw Philosophical L150 5 years Mental Philosophy. Open to Fellowship Arts Graduates George Heriot L30 1 year Open to graduates of Bursary for Women the United Kingdom for training as teachers. Tenable at St. George's Training College, Edinburgh
UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN.
Duration of Pass Course in Arts or Science: 3 years. Duration of Honours Course in Arts or Science: 5 years. Cost of Tuition in Arts : L10, 10s. per annum. Cost of Tuition in Science : L21 per annum. There is no Hall of Residence.
Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes.
Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. Entrance and Undergraduate. Adam(9) L20 (3)} Arts L15 (6)} 4 years Campbell(6) L18 4 years Arts Cargill(8) L20 4 years Arts Crombie(8) L15 4 years Arts Fullerton(9) L15 4 years Arts Gammie L35 2 years French and German Gordon and Cuming L20 4 years Hutton(7) L29 (2) } Competitors must not be L20 (3) } 4 years under 14 L18 (2) } Macpherson(3) L20 4 years Arts. Gaelic-speaking candidates. Mather(4) L15 4 years Arts Melvill(2) L15 4 years Arts Milne and Fraser L20 4 years Arts Moir(14) L20 (4) } 4 years Arts L15 (10) } Red Hyth, Smith and L25 4 years Arts or Science Short Reid and Cruden L20 4 years Arts Rolland L25 4 years Arts Rose L20 4 years Arts Simpson(5) L30 4 years Arts Highland Society of L15 3 years Gaelic-speaking candidates London
Post-Graduate. Robert Fletcher L30 2 years Mathematics Fullerton, Moir, and L100 (4) } 2 years Arts Gray(7) L75 (3) } 3 years Fullerton L100 2 years Science Knox Income on L2,000 Arts 1 year Reid Scholarships —- 1 year Amount not specified. Arts or Science Croom Robertson L200 3 years Arts Fellowship James Day Scholarship L100 1 year Graduate in Arts intending to take up teaching Fullerton Scholarship L100 2 years Science
Prizes Arnott Interest on L1,000 Natural Philosophy Dr Black L28 Latin Blackwell L20 English Essay Caithness L20 History Greig L30 Natural Philosophy Simpson and Boxill L65 and L28 Mathematics Simpson L65 Greek
UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH.
Duration of Pass Course in Arts or Science: 3 years. Duration of Honour Course in Arts: 4 years. Duration of Honour Course in Science: 5 years. Cost of Tuition in Arts: L10, 10s. per annum. Cost of Tuition in Science: L15, 15s. per annum for 5 years for M.A. and B.Sc. L21 per annum for B.Sc. only. Cost of Residence in Muir Hall (optional): From L10 to L13, 10s. a term.
Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes.
Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. Bursaries. George Heriot Bursary L20 3 years Arts or Science Heriot High School L30 3 years University R. Johnstone Bursary L19, 13s. 4 years Chrystie Bursary L18 4 years Pringle and Wardrop L19, 4s. 4 years Bursary Mitchell and Shortt L27, 5s. 4 years Dundas L36 4 years Fraser L22, 4s. 7 years Arts Grant L45 4 years Arts Stuart L17, 12S 3 years Arts or Science Jardine L42, 12S. 6d. 4 years Arts or Science. Limited to natives of Scotland Bruce(4) L40 (1) } 4 years L30 (3) } Patrick L45 4 years Ayrshire Club L30 2 years Peebleshire Society L20 4 years Arts or Science Rhind L20 4 years Bruce of Grangehill and L35 (3) } 3 years Arts. 1st and 2nd year Falklands Bursaries L20 (2) } 3 years Students Horsliehill Scott L39, 16s 2 years 3rd year Arts Students Harrison L25, 18s. 6d. 2 years 3rd year Arts Students Border Counties and L30 (1) } 4 years Arts or Science. For Walter Scott L20 (1) } students having attended schools in certain specified counties. Natives of Argyllshire, Bute, or Western Islands Argyllshire L20 3 years Arts or Science. For students having attended schools in certain specified counties. Natives of Argyllshire, Bute, or Western Islands Ardvorlich L15, 13s 4 years Arts. Students must come from certain specified parishes Sibbald L30 3 years Arts and Science. Specified parishes Edinburgh Angus Club— L25 4 years Preference given to Dalhousie Bursary candidates from the County Orkney and Zetland L40 3 years For natives of Orkney and Zetland Grierson(5) L20(4) } 4 years Preference given to L24(1) } natives of parishes of Cranford or Leadhills Lanarkshire L20(4) 4 years Johnstone of Harthope L17,2s. 4 years Natives of Moffat, Bursary Peebles, and students of name of Alexander or Johnstone preferred Marshall L36,18s. 4 years Restricted Fothringham and Forrest L24 4 years Restricted Marquess of Zetland L40 3 years Arts. For natives of County of Orkney and Zetland Thomson L25 4 years Patterson L16 2 years In Anglo-Saxon Grammar or Literature John Welsh(8) L20 4 years Mathematics and Classics Mackinnon(3) L22,4s.6d. 3 years Arts. Gaelic-speaking students Whitelaw(3) L24,12s. 3 years Arts Renton L19,11s. 1 year Student must be between age of 16 and 21. Arts and Science Newton L23,5s. 2 years Natural Philosophy and Mathematics Mann L29,6s.6d. 3 years Candidates must reside in Nairn Allan L30 3 years Arts or Science James Fairbairn L33,4s.6d. 4 years Jardine or Thorlieshope L40,10s. 4 years Open to natives of Roxburghshire and Dumfriesshire Mackenzie L22 4 years Maclaurin L91,12s.8d. 4 years Restricted to students of name of founder Bailie Cousin's L32,15s. 3 years Maule L21,2s. 6 years Donald Fraser L50 1 year For Science Research work Baxter of Balgavies L30 3 years For students educated at High School, Dundee Masterton Memorial L30 3 years For sons and daughters of ministers of United Free Church London Inverness-shire L18 3 years Preference to students of Association County of Inverness Lanfine L35 2 years Auchairne L53,15s.4d. 3 years Natives of County of Ayr Edinburgh Morayshire L20 3 years Arts or Science. Natives Club of County of Moray
Undergraduate. Vans Dunlop L100 3 years Arts and Science Fettes Exhibition(2) L60 4 years Skirving L50 3 years Mackay Smith L27 2 years Natural Philosophy Nichol Foundation L50 1 year Laboratory Work Hope Prize L30 1 year Chemistry Misses Baxter of L40 1 or 2 years Men and women educated in Balgavies High School of Dundee
Fellowships. Guthrie L86 4 years Classical Literature Hamilton L100 3 years Philosophy Edmonstonne Aytoun L85 3 years English Literature Falconer Memorial L123 2 years Science
Post-Graduate. Pitt Club Classical L76 4 years Mackenzie Club Classical L118 4 years Sir David Baxter L68 4 years Mathematical Sir David Baxter L68 4 years Philosophical John Edward Baxter L100 3 years Arts and Science Drummond Mathematical L103 3 years Bruce of Grangehill and L100 3 years Classical Falklands Bruce of Grangehill and L100 3 years Mental Philosophy Falklands Bruce of Grangehill and L100 3 years Mathematics Falklands Gray L97 2 years Arts or Science Rhind L95 2 years Graduates and undergraduates of not more than 3 years standing. Arts Charles Maclaren L110 3 years Mathematics and Natural Philosophy Neil Arnott L40 1 year Experimental Physics George Scott(Travelling) L40 1 year To enable graduates to travel for purpose of Research Macpherson L85 1 year For study of Celtic Kirk Patrick L64 1 year History C.B. Black L74 2 years Greek. Open to graduates and undergraduates George Heriot's L100 1 year To graduates intending to Travelling become teachers of Modern Languages Baxter Physical Science L80 2 years Baxter Natural Science L80 2 years
Prizes. Ellis L30 Physiology Lord Rector's L26.5s. Essay Bruce of Grangehill and L20 Logic and Metaphysics Falkland Scott and Dunbar L15 Greek Cousin L15 Essay Blackie Celtic L60
UNIVERSITY OF GLASGOW.
QUEEN MARGARET COLLEGE.
Duration of Arts Course: Pass, 3 years; Honours, 4 years. Duration of Science Course, Pass and Honours: 3-4 years. Cost of Tuition in Arts: L10, 10s. per annum. Cost of Tuition in Science: L63 the course of 3 or 4 years. Cost of Residence at Queen Margaret Hall (optional): From 17s. to 25s. a week without lunch.
Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes.
Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. Entrance. Barbour (Kilbarchan)(1) L25 3 years Arts. Candidates must not be over 18 John Clark(24) L30 4 years Arts Crawford and Brown(1) L19, 13s. 4d 4 years Arts Forfar(5) L58 4 years Arts Forrester(1) L20 3 years Arts Foundation(2) L20 4 years Arts Gartmore(1) L22 3 years Arts General Council(5) L20 2 or 3 years Arts Glasgow City Education L25 4 or 2 years Arts Endowments(10) L50 George Grant(1) L40 3 or 4 years Arts George Grant Junior(1) L40 4 years Arts Hamilton Educational L20 3 years Arts. Competitors to Trust(3) pupils from public or State-aided schools in burgh and parish of Hamilton. Hastie(1) L27 4 years Highland Society, L20 3 years Glasgow (12) Hill(6) L20 3 years Arts. For pupils in School Board district of Govan James Laing(8) L25 4 years Arts. For candidates educated at least 3 years in schools in County of Stirling Lanfine(6) L27 2 years Lorimer(4) L25 and L17 3 years Mathematics Alexander Manderson(1) L15 3 years Arts. Natives of the Lower Ward of Renfrewshire Marshall Trust(20) L30 4 years Arts. Pupils from public or State-aided schools in Lanarkshire or Stirlingshire Sir Walter Scott L25 4 years A. and B. Stewart(13) L20 3 years Arts Stewart(3) L15 4 years Arts King Williams(2) L15 3 years Arts Ayrshire Society(4) L15 3 years Arts or Science. For descendants of Society or natives of Aryshire and Glasgow Denny(4) L30 4 years Arts or Science. Students over 14 who have been 2 years at Dumbarton Burgh Academy Dumfriesshire Society(2) L15 4 years Arts or Science Hart(2) L30 5 years Arts or Science. Preference to students born in Ayrshire Pratt(2) L20 4 years Arts or Science
Undergraduate. Will. Houldsworth L150 2 years Research in Science Mackay Smith L48 2 years Natural Philosophy and Chemistry MacKinnin L60 1 year Science and Modern Languages Thomson Experimental L20 1 year Science
Post-Graduate. Breadalbane (2) L56 3 years Arts or Science George A. Clark L170 4 years Arts or Science John Clark L50 4 years Arts Alexander Donaldson L44 2 years Chemistry Robert Donaldson L66 2 years Science Eglinton L65 2 years Arts William Euing L80 5 years Arts Luke L95 3 years Arts Metcalfe L120 3 years Arts Reid Stuart L60 3 years Arts Walter Scott L80 2 years Arts Mackinnon L60 1 year Geology, Natural History, Modern Languages Examination as for Final Hons. Degree
Prizes Arnott L25 and L15 Examination Cobden L20 Essay Findlater L38 Examination Gladstone Historical L25 Examination Henderson L21 Essay William Jack L35 Thesis for D.Sc. Kelvin L35 Thesis for D.Sc. Macfarlan and Cook L21 Examination MacKenzie L25 Essay Reid L25 Original Research Watson L50 Examination
UNIVERSITY OF ST ANDREWS.
UNITED COLLEGES.
Duration of Pass Course in Arts: 3 years. Duration of Honour Course in Arts: 4 years. Duration of Pass and Honour Courses in Science: 4 to 5 years. Cost of Tuition in Arts: L10, 10S. per annum. Cost of Tuition in Science: L15, 15s. per annum. Cost of Residence in University Hall (optional): From L45 to L75 per annum.
Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes.
Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. Entrance and Undergraduate. Foundation Bursaries(4) L20 4 years Foundation Bursary(1) L50 4 years Patrick Kidd L32 3 years William Byers L39 3 or 4 years Preference given to students of Mairs and Strathmartine. Arts Russell(6) L30 (5) } 3 years Arts and Science L40 (1) } Simson(6) L20 (5) } 3 years L30 (1) } Valentine L25 3 years Restricted to women residing in the County of Fife, Ross or Cromarty, or in village of Findhorn, Morayhire Fife, Clackmannan, and L5 3 or 4 years Restricted to students Kinross Bursary coming from the above counties Wilkie L19 4 years Henry L15 4 years Madras L20 4 years Fairweather L25 3 years Arts or Science. For pupils from any school in Dundee Blyth(2) L20 3 years George Scott L27 3 or 4 years Arts. Restricted to applicants who are natives of the Parishes of Dull, Weem, Logierait in Perthshire Wood of Orkie L20 3 or 4 years Restricted to pupils who have attended public or state-aided schools in the Parishes of Newburn, Kilconquhar, Scoonie, Largo, Kennoway, Elie, Largoward Lumsden L35 1 to 3 years For women students educated at St Leonard's School, St Andrews Ramsay L40 4 years Baxter(2) L21 2 years For 2nd year students Cheape(2) L23 3 years For 2nd year students Thomas Thow L50 1 year Arts. For 2nd year students natives of and resident in Dundee or the County of Forfar Stephen Williamson L47 1 year For 4th year Honours students Smeaton L20 1 year For 4th year Honours students
Post-Graduate.
Bruce and Falkland L50 2 years Berry L80 1 year May be continued for 2nd year. Arts or Science Grants(6) L20 1 year For students entering on Course of Training for Secondary Teachers
Prizes. Miller(2) L30 Arts and Science Arnott(2) L20 and L10 Chancellor's L21 Essay
DUNDEE COLLEGE.
Duration of Course in Arts: Pass, 3 years; Honours, 4 years. Duration of Course in Science: Pass or Honours: 3 years. Cost of Tuition in Arts: L10, 10s. per annum. Cost of Tuition in Science: L21 per annum. Cost of Residence in Mayfield Hostel (optional): L1 per week.
Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes.
Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. Entrance. Armitstead L20-L15 1 year David Myles — — Entrance Scholarships(9) L15 1 year Educational Endowment L25 3 years
Undergraduate. Bursaries(11) L15 to L20 1 year For second and third year Bursaries(8) L15 to L20 1 year For fourth and subsequent years Bute Bursary Income of L1,000 3 years
Post-Graduate. William Strong(2 Income of L3,240 or more) 1 year
Prizes. Gladstone Memorial L20 (in books) Essay
WALES
UNIVERSITY OF WALES
Scholarships, etc., not connected exclusively with one College.
Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes.
Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. Undergraduate. Price Davies L30 2 years Tenable at Aberystwyth or Scholarship(2) Bangor
Post-Graduate. University L125 2 years Fellowships(3) University L65 2 years Awarded on nomination by Studentships(6) the Colleges Eyton Williams L65 2 years Studentships(6) Isaac Roberts L150 1 year Open to graduates of any Scholarship (renewable) University in the United Kingdom. Science. Tenable at Cardiff 1851 Science Scholarship L150 2 years Tenable at any approved institution Gilchrist Modern L80 1 year Open to graduates Language Studentship intending to teach Modern Languages. Tenable abroad
ABERYSTWYTH UNIVERSITY COLLEGE.
Duration of Pass Course in Arts or Science: 3 years. Duration of Honour Course in Arts or Science: 3 to 4 years. Cost of Tuition in Arts: L12 per annum. Cost of Tuition in Science: L16 per annum. Cost of Residence in Alexandra Hall (optional): From L11,11s. to L17, 17s. per annum.
Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes.
Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. Entrance and Undergraduate. David Davies L40 1 year Entrance (renewable) Open L40 1 year Entrance (renewable) Visitor's L15 1 year Entrance (renewable)
Commercial Travellers of L20 1 year Entrance North Wales (renewable)
Scholarship(1) L20 1 year Confined to students (renewable) intending to proceed to the Degree of B.Sc. in Agriculture and Rural Economy Brereton L15 1 year Entrance (renewable) Elizabeth Davies L20 1 year Entrance. (renewable) Limited to women natives of Cardiganshire or Carmarthenshire Cynddelw Welsh L20 1 year For students undertaking Scholarship to pursue a course of Welsh study Humphreys Owen L20 1 year (renewable) For natives of Montgomeryshire
Post-Graduate. Keeling Resewell L40 1 year Scholarship
Thomas Davies L54 1 year For Research work in Chemistry or Agriculture
UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF NORTH WALES (BANGOR).
Cost of Tuition in Arts or Science: L12 per annum. Cost of Residence in University Hall (optional): L25 to L42 per annum.
Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes.
Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. Entrance and Undergraduate. Eyton Williams L40 3 years Eyton Williams L30 3 years Eyton Williams L20 3 years Exhibition Piercey L30 3 years Confined to candidates from Flintshire or Denbighshire Richard Hughes L50 1 year Isaac Roberts(2) L50 Not less than 1 yr.
Post-Graduate. Osborne Morgan L40 Not more Open to past and present than 3 years students
UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF SOUTH WALES AND MONMOUTHSHIRE (CARDIFF).
Cost of Tuition in Arts: L10 to L12 per annum. Cost of Tuition in Science: L10 to L16 per annum. Cost of Residence in Aberdare Hall (optional): L34 to L43, 10s. per annum.
Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes.
Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. Entrance and Under-graduate. Drapers' Company L35 1 year Science (renewable) Sir Alfred Thomas L20 3 years Caroline Williams L25 3 years College L25 3 years Craddock Wells(5) L20 and 1 year Open to candidates under fees 19 years of age Studentships Fees and Open only to natives of maintenance Glamorgan and Monmouth, grant 3 years the City of Cardiff and the County Borough of Newport
Post-Graduate. Catherine Buckton L40 1 year
TABLE II.
In addition to the University Post-Graduate Studentships mentioned in the above table, the following Research Scholarships in Arts and Science, not restricted to graduates of any one University, are open to women:—
TABLE II.
In addition to the University Post-Graduate Studentships mentioned in the above table, the following Research Scholarships in Arts and Science, not restricted to graduates of any one University, are open to women:—
Subject. Title. By whom awarded. Restrictions (if any). Annual Value and Duration
Subject not fixed. A.K. Travelling A Board of Trustees who receive nominations British Subjects who are L600 and L60 for Fellowship from Vice-Chancellors of Universities in the University graduates books; 2 awarded United Kingdom, the President of the Royal annually for 1 year Society, and the President of the British Academy
Physical Science McKinnon Research Royal Society — L150 for 2 years Fellowship
Biological Science McKinnon Research Royal Society — L150 for 2 years Fellowship
Bio-Chemistry — Lister Institute of Preventive Medecine — L150 for 1 year, renewable for a 2nd year.
Bacteriology — Lister Institute of Preventive Medecine — L150 for 1 year, renewable for a 2nd year.
Physiology George Henry Lewes Special Trustees; application to Professor Investigator must be in need L200 for 3 years (renewable) Scholarship Langley, Cambridge of pecuniary help to prosecute research
Philosophy George Henry Lewes University of Toronto Graduates who have specialised L50 for 1 year Scholarship in Philosophy
Subject not fixed. Price Fellowship Federation of University Women Women graduates who have L120 for 1 year already published the results of independent research
Natural Science Research Studentship Board of Agriculture and Fisheries Science graduates who are L150 for 3 years, part prepared to research in of which must be spent subjects under the purview abroad, and all 3 at of the Board, and afterwards approved institutions to adopt a career in agricultural science
Economics Shaw Research London School of Economics — L105 for 2 years
Economics Hutchinson Research London School of Economics — L105 for 1 year
Natural Sciences The Ellen Richards American Association for Advancement of Thesis 1,000 dollars Research Prize Research Work by Women. Hon. Sec., (L204, 10s.) Mrs A.D. Mead, 283 Wayland Avenue, Providence, R.I.
SECTION II
THE MEDICAL PROFESSION INCLUDING DENTISTRY
I
MEDICINE AND SURGERY
It may be safely claimed that, although there is still much to be done, in medicine women have gained as good a position as in any other branch of labour.
One of the most important considerations in discussing any branch of women's work is what sort of women are suited for it. The following are the chief requisites for the medical profession:—
(1) The first and most important qualification is enthusiasm. It is impossible to follow this profession with success, unless it is work for which one has not only aptitude but also natural taste. It necessitates a very strenuous life, and many unpleasant details of work, which are unimportant to a person to whom the occupation is acceptable as a whole, but which would be quite insuperably disagreeable to any one to whom the total idea of life embodied in it was unattractive.
(2) Another very important qualification is a knowledge of men and things. A doctor must never forget that she is dealing primarily with human nature; certainly human nature which may be for a time unhinged, or the mechanism of which may not be working smoothly, but nevertheless with the human individual as a whole.
The so-called "bedside" manner which is the butt for so much ridicule is not so purely ridiculous as one might be tempted to think. Its basis is to be found in this very knowledge of human nature which is so essential, although the superstructure is often nothing more than vapid futility. In addition to this the ideal doctor should possess a trained scientific mind, and, of the two, the former is infinitely the more important, although the latter is very valuable, not only for itself, but for the training which it gives in "tidy" thinking.
(3) Good health. A sick doctor is an anomaly and many people prefer to be indifferently treated by some one who is cheerful and healthy, rather than have the most expert advice from a woeful person.
(4) A good general education is essential. This should include a certain amount of Latin, which is needed throughout medical work. The student must also possess the necessary capacity for acquiring knowledge. It is very usual to find among the general public—women in particular—an idea that a tremendous amount of a vague quality which they describe as "cleverness" is necessary in order to follow one of the learned professions. Certainly this is not so in medicine. It is, however, necessary to be possessed of average intelligence and a good memory, and it is difficult for people to pass the qualifying examinations if they have for many years given up "school work"—i.e., the habit of learning large numbers of new facts.
(5) Money. For three reasons: (i.) The training is expensive, (ii.) It is also strenuous, making a certain amount of margin for suitable recreation very desirable, (iii.) Earning capacity, although ultimately high, so far as women are concerned, is much delayed, and the work itself is one of considerable nerve-strain. It is, therefore, very important that economic worry should, if possible, be avoided.
Medicine is one of the few professions in which women receive as high remuneration as men. A very strenuous battle was fought between the public authorities and medical women on the subject of equal pay for equal work. All sorts of dodges have been used to get cheap woman labour, but, so far, the victory has been almost completely on the side of medical women. By the word "almost" is meant the fact, that if two or three posts of varying grades and remunerations are created under a health authority the woman nearly always gets the lowest, whatever her qualifications and experience. With this exception the victory has been complete, and this has been entirely due to two things:—
(1) The very able support given by the British Medical Association, which practically served as a Trade Union for doctors, stated the lowest rate of remuneration to be accepted, and kept a black list of posts which were advertised at salaries below this rate. The Association has throughout supported with absolute consistency, the principle of equal pay for equal work for the two sexes, and has helped us as medical women to fight many battles.
(2) The other factor has been the public spirit of the medical women concerned, without which nothing could have been done. One of the forms of public service most essential at the present day and for which the individual gets neither honour nor even thanks, is that of refusing "black leg" labour. It is generally admitted by those who have to deal with the question of salaries and conditions of work under public authorities, that medical women, as a whole, have shown at least as great public spirit as men in refusing unsatisfactory terms. To lose a post which would give one enough for one's own needs and which would mean so much more in the way of experience and adequate scope for one's energies, and to refuse it simply because it would lower the market rate of pay, is a very fine thing to do. Unless, however, this high tone is maintained the position of medical women will become as bad as that of some other working women. If, on the other hand, it can be maintained, the position already gained may be used as a very powerful lever in raising the rate of pay in other departments of women's work. There is sufficient support for us amongst medical men. Everything, therefore, depends upon the personnel of the women doctors, and, as things become easier for the students, it becomes more and more difficult to convince the new recruits of the strenuousness of the fight in earlier years and of the need for constant vigilance and self-sacrifice at the present time.
Those who fought so nobly in the past have earned the lasting respect and gratitude of those who come after them. An account of their labours has been written by Mrs Isabel Thorne, and is called a "Sketch of the Foundation and Development of the London School of Medicine for Women."[1] It reads like a romance and shows the absolute determination and pluck which were needed by the women in order to gain their point. As one learns of the rebuffs and indignities which they endured, it reminds one of the struggle which is at the present time going on for the parliamentary vote. There is one thing which makes one inclined to "back the women every time," and that is their stupendous patience. A very short resume of the facts may not be out of place here. Miss Elizabeth Blackwell, English by birth but resident in America, succeeded in 1858 after much difficulty in obtaining the degree of M.D. of the University of Geneva, United States of America. She then applied to have her name placed upon the register of duly qualified medical practitioners of the General Medical Council of Great Britain and Ireland, and it was discovered to the dismay of the authorities that she could not be refused. The next step was taken by Miss Garrett, now Dr Garrett Anderson. She decided to qualify herself for the medical examinations of the Society of Apothecaries, London, who also, owing to the wording of their charter, were unable to refuse her, and in 1865 she successfully passed the required tests. In order, however, to prevent a recurrence of such "regrettable incidents," the society made a rule that in future no candidates should be admitted to their examinations unless they came from a recognised medical school, and, as no such school would admit women, this closed their doors.
In the meantime Miss Jex-Blake had applied to Edinburgh University for medical education, but had been refused on the score that it was impossible to make such alterations "in the interests of one lady." Mrs Thorne, Miss Chaplin, Miss Pechey, and Mrs de Lacy Evans then decided to join Miss Jex-Blake, thus making five instead of one. They were allowed to matriculate, but forced to form separate classes and to guarantee 100 guineas for each class. They were not, however, allowed to receive scholarships, to which their work would have entitled them, on the score that they were women. Mrs Thorne states that their "success in the examination lists was their undoing," as, owing to this, and to the fact that they were unjustly debarred from receiving the distinctions that they had gained, a great deal of bad feeling was aroused.
As the agitation increased, the efforts of these pioneers to obtain a qualifying course for women in Edinburgh, were supported by a committee of sympathisers, which speedily rose to five hundred members, and, after a severe struggle, the question of clinical teaching in the Infirmary was settled partially in the women's favour in 1872. Later, the question of the validity of the original resolutions admitting women to the University was raised and decided against them. They had, therefore, been four years at the University and were finally excluded. This, however, proved to be only temporary as, in later years, the University reopened its medical degrees to women; but not in time to allow of the return of these courageous pioneers.
In the meantime Dr Garrett Anderson, having taken her degree in Paris, had been steadily working in London, forming the nucleus of the present New Hospital for Women, and the pioneers from Edinburgh came to London and helped her to start a school of medicine for women.
This was successfully accomplished owing to the kind help of many people, both within and without the profession, but no clinical teaching could be obtained, as all the big London hospitals were closed to women students. Finally, however, arrangements were made with the Royal Free Hospital in Gray's Inn Road. It had no men's medical school attached to it, and the admission of women to the hospital was due to the kind intervention of the Rt. Hon. J. Stansfeld, M.P., who met the Chairman of the hospital, Mr James Hopgood, while away on a holiday, and induced him to persuade the hospital authorities to give the dangerous experiment a trial. So seriously was it regarded, that the women students had to guarantee an indemnity to the hospital of 300 guineas annually in addition to their fees, as it was felt that the general support might decrease by, at least, this amount when the public became aware that there were medical women studying at the hospital! This was soon found not to be the case, and the yearly indemnity was generously remitted by the hospital authorities, the students simply paying the usual fees for instruction. In connection with this subject, it may be of interest to note that to-day the presence of medical women at the hospital is evidently found by the authorities to be an important means of gaining the sympathy of the general public, for appeals for funds may frequently be seen in London omnibuses stating, as the ground for an appeal, the fact that this is the only general hospital in London where women medical students are trained.
The medical school which began in a small Georgian house has now a fine block of buildings with all modern appliances, and the hospital is, at the time that this book goes to press, undergoing extensive alterations and additions, including enlargement of the students' quarters.
The success of this pioneer work has been sufficiently amazing, but it is most important that every one should realise that the fight is still going on. Not a day passes but somebody tries to get medical women to work either for less pay or under less honourable conditions than those required by their medical brethren, and one of the most trying parts of work in this profession at the present time is the constant alertness required both for detecting and defeating these attempts. That they should be made is not surprising, when we remember the lower market value attached to women's work in almost every other occupation. Practical examples of the sort of attempts made, may be of service.
Example 1.—A medical woman went as locum tenens for a practitioner in a country town during the South African War. The practitioner himself was at the time absolutely incapacitated by a severe form of influenza, complicated by ocular neuralgia which made work absolutely impossible. Owing to the War, he was quite unable to get a man to act as locum tenens. A woman consented to help him in his extremity, at considerable inconvenience both to herself and to the people with whom she was working at the time. She carried on the practice during the depth of the winter, having on some occasions to go out in the snow-sleigh and frequently to drive in an open trap at night in the deadly cold. She carried on the work with such conspicuous success that her "chief" asked her to stay on as his assistant when he was convalescent. For this he offered her L85 a year, living in, saying, without any shame, that he knew that this was not the price that any man would command, but that it was plenty for a woman. He was bound to admit that he had lost no patient through her, that he charged no lower fees when she went to a case than when he did, that she did half the work while acting as his assistant, and that she had kept his practice together for him while he was ill. Fortunately, owing to the fact that she had behind her means of subsistence without her salary, she was able to refuse his unsatisfactory offer, although at considerable violence to her feelings, for she had made many friends in the neighbourhood.
Example 2.—A husband and wife, both medical, went to settle in a town in the north of England. They both practised, the qualifications of both were excellent, but the woman was the more brilliant of the two, having better degrees and more distinctions. Both applied to be admitted to the local medical society. The man was, of course, accepted, the woman refused on the score of her sex, this meaning that she would be cut off from all opportunity of hearing medical papers and discussing medical subjects with her colleagues. During the next few months a local friendly society was anxious to obtain a medical officer and was offering terms regarded as insufficient by the local doctors. Among others approached by this society was the medical woman in question. Directly the officials of the medical society, which had banned her when her own benefit was concerned, heard that she had been approached by the friendly society, they elected her without asking her consent to the very society from which they had previously excluded her, in order that she might be unable to take the post in question, whereby they might have financially suffered.
Example 3.—The exclusion from medical societies referred to under Example 2, like many similar actions in life, tends to recoil on its instigators. For instance, a medical woman in another northern town applied for and accepted a post which the local men had decided was unsatisfactory in some particulars, and for which therefore none of them had applied. They were loud in their denunciations of the woman in question, but owing to the fact that her men colleagues had not recognised her professionally in other ways, she was quite unaware of her offence for several months after undertaking her new duties.
Example 4.—Men and women are sometimes appointed on apparently equal terms and conditions to posts which are not, however, really equal, in that there is a chance of promotion for the men but none for the women.
Example 5.—In another town in the north of England men and women appointed to do the work of school medical inspection on equal terms recently considered that they were not sufficiently remunerated. They met and decided that they would together apply for better terms. A rumour was then set abroad that the authority under whom they worked would certainly not consider such an increase in expenditure. In this crisis the men on the staff, although they had so far joined with their women colleagues in sending up their petition, sent up another of their own, without informing or consulting the women at all, in which they said that they considered it was time that this equality of remuneration for both sexes should cease. They begged the authority to neglect their public appeal, but to grant instead increased remuneration to the men, and the men only. One of the reasons given for this suggestion on the part of the men was that their liabilities were greater. The result of enquiry, however, proved that of the three men, one only was engaged to be married, the other two had no one dependent upon them; whereas of the three women, two were supporting other people—one being a married woman separated from her husband and with two children to support and educate.
Example 6.—The following is an instance of the way in which the Government is sometimes responsible for encouraging women's "black leg" labour. Dr Leslie Mackenzie in his evidence given recently before the Civil Service Commission said that the Treasury refused to allow the Scottish Local Government Board to have a woman medical inspector at a medical inspector's salary, but permitted them to engage a woman with medical qualifications at a woman inspector's salary, which was, of course, much less. Sad to relate a woman was found to accept this post.
These examples have been given because it is necessary that a woman intending to adopt the profession of medicine should know the sort of work, quite apart from the treatment of her cases, which a medical woman, worth her salt, has to do. It may be asked how it is, if these difficulties are still constantly arising, that our pioneers were so successful? For several reasons: first, because they were in the best sense women of the world: they understood when to be firm and when to give way. They understood mankind. Secondly, they had an assured position. This is probably the most essential condition of all for success. Before decent terms and conditions of work can be demanded, the worker must be in such a position financially that she can, if necessary, refuse the work in question, and if possible the employer must be aware of this fact. So often women enter the labour market only when driven by stark necessity, that it is unfortunately the easiest thing in the world to exploit them. People of either sex faced by starvation for themselves or those dependent on them must take the first thing that offers if the conditions be in any way bearable. In my opinion, next to the parliamentary vote, the most powerful lever in raising the condition of women will be the entrance into the labour market of a considerable number of women so trained in Economics that they will always "play the game," and at the same time sufficiently remote from want to be able to resist the sweating employer.
Some people discourage women of independent means from entering the labour market through the mistaken idea that if such women work they are taking away the chance of some other women who are in need. In case any reader may be in doubt on this question, I should like to point out that it is the groups of workers among whom no such economically independent individuals are to be found, that are always exploited by the unscrupulous employer; they are such easy prey.
What really makes women workers afraid of their independent sisters is that extremely pernicious system of payment euphemistically known as "pocket-money." This should be swept off the face of the earth. Even the richer woman has some rights, notably the right to work, and I would suggest that she has this particular, and certainly not unimportant function of raising the rate of remuneration. From my knowledge of her, I consider that she is most anxious to do nothing but good to her fellows. The only thing she needs in order to become a help instead of a menace to her poorer sisters is knowledge of the rules that govern the economic labour market.
Owing to the necessary expense and prolonged training for the medical profession it has probably attracted a larger proportion of working women who were not subject to immediate economic stress than most other branches of work, and it is, in my opinion, due to the presence of such women, that the conditions in it as a whole are so satisfactory.
Having discussed the sort of woman suitable for the medical profession, I now pass on to a consideration of the course of training which must be taken in order to fit her for the work.
Before beginning her training, the student has to decide what medical qualification she will take. Her choice lies between
(1) A degree of one of the universities, and (2) A diploma.
It is essential to go to some University or Examining Board which admits women and not to one, such as Oxford or Cambridge, where women are denied the degree to which their work entitles them. As a matter of fact, women medical students are not accepted at Oxford and Cambridge. It is not possible to practise medicine, in a satisfactory way unless one is actually in possession of the qualification. Any one who does so, however well trained, ranks as a quack, and is not legally entitled to sign death certificates nor to recover fees.
The degrees open to women in medicine, as in other branches of learning, are those of London, Glasgow, Trinity College, Dublin, and, in fact, of all the Universities of the United Kingdom except the two just mentioned.
Qualifying diplomas other than degrees are those granted by:—
(1) The Conjoint Examining Board of the Royal Colleges of Physicians and Surgeons of England. (2) The Royal Colleges of Scotland. (3) The Royal Colleges of Ireland. (4) The Society of Apothecaries of London.
The authorities at the Women's Medical School strongly advise students to take a degree, and that the best open to them, namely, in Great Britain, that of London for the south, or one of the good Scottish Universities for the north. Their reason for this advice is that they feel that it is extremely important that medical women should rank as high as possible in their profession.
At London University there are no sex restrictions. A woman is eligible not only to take the examinations on equal terms with a man, but all the rights and honours (except, of course, the Parliamentary vote) are also open to her. Women may vote for and sit upon the Senate, become members of Convocation and take any of the exhibitions, medals, or scholarships which are offered to candidates at examinations. For this reason women feel attached and like to belong to the London University, and to do it honour.
Having decided which qualification she wishes to take, the candidate applies to be entered as a medical student at a definite school. If she elects to work in London she must follow the course of study at the Royal Free Hospital School of Medicine for Women at 8 Hunter Street, Brunswick Square.
At Glasgow the students are all entered at the Women's College (Queen Margaret's). The medical course is taken in conjunction with men students. At the Royal Infirmary some wards are open to women for clinical instruction.
At Dublin the students are admitted to the degrees and diplomas in medicine, surgery, and midwifery on the same conditions as men. A special anatomical department with dissecting room, etc., has been erected by the Board of Trinity College for them.
At Edinburgh the arrangements for women students are largely separate from those for the men. The degrees are open to them.
At Durham the degrees are open to women, and most of their work is done with the men.
The same applies to Liverpool, Manchester, Leeds, Birmingham, and Sheffield.
The course takes from five to six years, but it is wise to allow the longer time. The preliminary examination in general subjects is taken before admission to the medical school. After this, the first year at the medical school is spent in scientific study, such as Biology, Inorganic Chemistry, etc. Having passed her first scientific examination, the student proceeds to the study of the human individual, and deals for the next two years with Anatomy, which includes dissection, Physiology, the study of drugs in Materia Medica and Pharmacology, and Organic Chemistry. When the examination in these subjects has been satisfactorily negotiated, she passes on to medical work proper, the study of disease and the result of accident in the living person—in other words, she walks the wards of the hospital and undertakes duties as clerk to physicians and dresser to surgeons, from whom she receives instruction in medicine, surgery, and pathology. Special branches are also studied, such as midwifery, women's diseases, and affections of the throat, ear, eye, and skin. The treatment of minor accidents also receives special attention. During the whole of this time the student also attends regular courses of lectures on these subjects, and she then takes her final examination. If this be a degree examination, she becomes, on passing it, Bachelor of Medicine, or M.B., and Bachelor of Surgery, Ch.B. or B.S. Having obtained a diploma, she is generally entitled to style herself a Member or Licentiate of the college of which she has passed the qualifying examination, for example, M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P. or L.S.A. On application, she is then placed upon the Medical Register, and is known as a registered medical practitioner.
The cost of the training is approximately as follows :—
For a London Degree.
Fee at the Medical School for Women, if paid as a composition fee in five yearly instalments of L28, L51, L45, L40, and L15; Total:—L179, or, if the whole sum is paid on entrance to the school, L160. In addition there is a fee of three guineas for the special study of fevers. These fees include everything in the way of material, except books and instruments for which it is wise to allow another L30. The examination fees of the university are L25. These amounts make no allowance for any failures, and consequent revision of work, and re-entry for examination. In reckoning the expense, the necessary cost of living for the six years must also be included. For those students whose homes are not in London there are flats and boarding-houses where it is possible to live very reasonably. Suitable board and residence can be obtained from about 25s. a week.
For the Diploma of the Conjoint Board.
The school fees are the same; the examination fees are, however, higher, namely L42.
For other qualifications, the school fees are L20 less for the course.
Certain scholarships are available for students, of which all particulars can be obtained from the secretary of each school.
When a woman becomes a registered medical practitioner, she is for the first time legally entitled to treat patients herself, and is entrusted with responsibility. As in most other branches of knowledge in the world, while she has simply been learning and carrying out her duties under authority, she has had no opportunity of really testing her own knowledge. It is, therefore, very generally felt amongst newly qualified medical practitioners that they need more experience before undertaking quite independent medical work. This experience is best gained by taking hospital posts. By this is meant positions of moderate responsibility, such as that of resident house physician or resident house surgeon in a hospital, where the newly qualified doctor is under the authority of an experienced visiting "chief," but is expected to deal with ordinary incidents as they may arise, to realise the relative importance of different symptoms, and report those that matter to the visiting physician or surgeon.
It is at this stage that the doctor must decide whether she wishes to become
(a) a "specialist" in some particular branch of medicine or surgery, (b) a general practitioner, or (c) whether she wishes to work in the public service.
(a) If she wishes to be a specialist she must so arrange her future work as to gain experience in the branch which she selects. For this purpose it is necessary to take posts at special hospitals, and ultimately to become a member of the staff of some hospital in the department chosen. Here women find that they are heavily handicapped. The only hospital of any size in London of which the members of staff are all women is the New Hospital, Euston Road, and this admits only of a small staff, giving opportunities to comparatively few women for special experience.
The Royal Free Hospital, where women take their training as students, has now two women on its staff in the department for gynaecology. It has also a woman anaesthetist, and some of the minor posts, such as clinical assistant to the outpatients, pathologist, etc., are open to them. All the physicians, the surgeons, and the assistant physicians and surgeons are, however, men.
Of the hospitals for special ailments in London, none so far admits women to the staff, and it has only recently become possible for them even to form part of the medical audience at the outpatients' department at some of these special hospitals.
No London Hospital for Diseases of Women and Midwifery (except that of Dr M'Call), or for Diseases of Children (except one recently started by women), or for Diseases of the Eye, or for Diseases of the Ear, Nose and Throat, or for Diseases of the Nervous System, admits women to its staff, although several of them allow women to take appointments as clinical assistants, pathologists, anaesthetists, and other minor posts. Their admission to the full staff is, perhaps, merely a question of time, and of the naturally slow movement of the British mind towards admitting women to positions of responsibility.
There has, however, been of late years a tendency on the part of medical women themselves to take this matter into their own hands, and new women's hospitals are being started about London where the staff is exclusively composed of women.
(b) If, on the other hand, the newly qualified doctor decides to become a general practitioner, her course is much simpler. She takes such posts as are available, which she thinks will aid her general knowledge of medicine. Then she selects a neighbourhood, puts up a plate, and waits.
This course also involves delayed earning capacity, as she must be prepared to face outlay for several years without much return. During this time she generally augments the income which she gets from her private practice by other part-time paid work, notably by giving lectures in first aid, etc., by school inspection, where part-time officers are appointed, and other such work. She also generally does a certain amount of voluntary work on that most pernicious system of giving her services in order to get known. It is in this way that doctors are everywhere so terribly exploited. When they are all so busy doing work which they think will bring them into the public view, this becomes of no particular use to any of them, and the only people who benefit, and at the same time scoff, are the members of the general public, who become so used to getting the doctor to work for nothing or next to nothing, that it comes as a shock when they have to pay. It is a healthy sign that the long-suffering doctor is at last beginning to show symptoms of fight, and in the future it may be hoped that doctors, like lawyers, will not be required to give their services free to the community. It may be true that if a man will not work neither shall he eat, but the converse should also be true, that if a man works he should eat, and at present it is not by any means always true of the doctor.
(c) Should she decide to enter the public service, she will still require to take a certain number of posts, especially those dealing with eyes, ears, and skin, and must also obtain the Diploma of Public Health. To gain this diploma she will need to devote several months to post-graduate study in that subject before taking the necessary examination.
The chief posts at present open in the public service to a woman are:—
(1) School medical officer, or assistant medical officer of health. (2) Assistant medical officer in some asylums and poor law infirmaries.
There is one woman inspector of prisons who is a medical woman, but she is not a medical inspector and was not appointed in that capacity. It is much to be hoped that women prison medical officers will speedily be appointed on equal terms with their medical colleagues. The conditions for women prisoners from the standpoint of health are, at the present time, extremely unsatisfactory.
The tendency is to employ more and more women in the public service, and therefore the opportunities are likely rapidly to become more numerous.
The Act, under which medical school inspection was made obligatory, particularly mentioned the suitability of women for much of this work. It is therefore becoming usual all over the country to have at least one woman school doctor, and in some districts there are several on the staff. This work is not extremely arduous, is free from the heavy strain of private practice, and, if the school medical officer is allowed reasonable freedom in her work, may be made of much interest. It is, however, somewhat monotonous, and has the great disadvantage that at present the stimulus of promotion is largely absent, as the higher administrative posts are almost universally in the hands of men. This is a disadvantage which will also be gradually, perhaps rapidly removed as the prejudice against women in authority dies down.
After having practised medicine for some years, further degrees indicating experience are open to the medical practitioner; thus, if she has taken the Bachelorship of Medicine she may, after the lapse of three or four years, enter for her Doctorate. This is gained either by a further examination or by writing a thesis on some subject of original research. If she has taken the Diploma of the Royal Colleges, it is open to her to sit for the Fellowship in Surgery or Membership in Medicine. She is also open to election to the Fellowship in Medicine.
It is extremely difficult to give anything like an adequate idea of the remuneration to be obtained in medicine, as it varies tremendously.
The first posts, which are taken soon after qualification, if really first-rate in the experience which they give, seldom include any salary at all, though board and lodging are provided. Posts which rank as slightly inferior to these, but still give a considerable amount of experience, are often associated with honoraria varying from about L50 to L150 a year, including board and lodging.
(a) If we turn again to our three sub-divisions we find that a specialist or consultant cannot expect to earn her working expenses for a good many years. She must have one room at least in a certain specialist quarter of the town, known as the consultants' area, and there the rents are usually high, in London about L150 a year, in the provinces slightly less.
We have already stated that she requires some hospital post; for this she will receive no remuneration, but if the hospital where she works has a medical school attached to it, she may expect to get a certain number of patients through the recommendation of students whom she teaches at the hospital. There is generally also some teaching at the hospitals, for which the students pay definite fees. She may also augment her income by lectures and work of that description. She will probably find it necessary to write papers on her special branch of work and on the cases which come under her observation, but for this she will very seldom be paid. It is, therefore only possible for a girl with some monetary resources independent of her work, to take up successfully a special branch of medicine.
If she elect to become a surgeon, a hospital post is an absolute necessity, and her income will, as in the case of the medical specialist, be delayed. Eventually, however, if she is successful, it is greater than that to be obtained on the medical side. The fees are high, and therefore money can be made more speedily in this branch of the work. People, however, hesitate as a rule to trust a very young surgeon, so she will at first get her work chiefly as assistant to her seniors and must be content to wait some years for the much bigger fees which she will get as principal. Ultimately she should make L1,000 to L2,000 a year.
(b) If she elect to become a general practitioner, her outlay at first is probably as great as that of the specialist, if not greater, but the return is quicker, and a great deal depends upon the choice of a neighbourhood. If she chooses an upper middle class district she also, like the specialist, must be content to wait, and in fact she is ill-advised to choose such a neighbourhood unless she can rely on some good social introductions.
If she choose a district partly middle and partly lower middle class her return will be infinitely quicker. She may expect to cover her expenses in the course of two or three years. The work is, however, incessant and rather harassing. If she select a working-class neighbourhood and have a dispensary, her return will be still quicker, such places frequently paying their expenses in the first or second year. The people are nice to deal with, and the work is interesting, but it is apt to be very distressing for two reasons—(1) that owing to the poverty of the patients they can so seldom be attended under conditions in which they have a fair chance of recovery, and (2) there is apt to be an appreciable amount of dirt.
The most varying reports are given as to the incomes to be made in private practice and it is almost impossible to get at the truth, because it is obviously to everybody's interest to make them appear as high as possible. A woman's practice also is admittedly rather a specialist one. She does not get the general local practice of the ordinary practitioner, but instead certain selected women who want to consult a member of their own sex. These often live at considerable distances, thus making the work more difficult to arrange and the travelling more expensive than in the case of the ordinary medical man. It is rare for a woman to be able to buy a practice. She must generally build it up for herself, as it is of little or no use for her to buy a man's practice, and there are only very few women's available.
Generally, it may be stated that a woman covers her expenses by about the third or fourth year after starting, and she may ultimately make, according to the district and her success, anything between L400 and L1,500 a year. Frequently two medical women settle together, which seems to be a very good arrangement.
(c) If she elect to enter the public service her outlay is very small. Beyond equipping herself for this work in certain special branches already described, all that is necessary is that she should be able to keep herself until she obtains a suitable post. The salary given for whole time work in the public service should not be less than L250 a year rising to L400 or L500 a year. In most cases the school doctor gets the school holidays, including the whole of every Saturday.
English women who go to India, do so generally in connection with either
(1) a missionary society, or (2) a hospital under the Dufferin Fund.
(1) Many missionary societies engage medical women to treat the native women. Salaries, of course, differ, but are, on the whole, low, as the aim of a missionary is not supposed, primarily, to be financial gain. Generally somewhere about L110 in English money is given, with an allowance for carriage and house including the chief items of furniture. Leave is also granted with second class return fare every five years—in some missions every three years. The medical experience is excellent, the opportunities of doing good professional work are practically unlimited, and the professional position of the doctor quite untrammelled. She is assisted, usually, by good nurses, under a proper scheme, these being Indian girls superintended by fully trained English sisters.
(2) Under the Dufferin Fund[2] things are very different. It is somewhat difficult to speak of this branch of the work, as it is, at the present time, the subject of enquiry, and it may be legitimately expected that it will, before long, be put on a more satisfactory basis. The fund was originally started by Lady Dufferin as the direct result of a command by the late Queen Victoria, and it was intended to provide the services of medical women for the Purdah women of India who, owing to the strictness of their rules, were not infrequently debarred from the full benefit of medical treatment by men. Unfortunately, however, the doctor in charge of most of the Dufferin Hospitals is under the local senior civil surgeon, who is a man. As he has the right, if he wishes to exercise it, of seeing any of the patients, and doing any of the operations or other treatment necessary, it is obvious that the hospitals are of little or no use to Purdah women, as they have no guarantee against treatment by a man.
There is also no security of tenure for the doctor who is not allowed to be present at the meetings of the governing body, and may find herself dismissed or transferred from a good post to a bad one at short notice.
The remuneration varies roughly between L250 and L500 a year, with house but no carriage allowance. The doctor is entitled to add to her salary by private practice. In some towns this is a considerable item, whereas in others it is quite negligible. There is no definite furlough allowance, and the doctor may be removed from her post and required to keep herself on very little for a considerable period of time before being appointed to another hospital. All this causes a severe drain on the resources of doctors without private means. The staff is also frequently inefficient, and the nursing is sometimes very indifferent, being undertaken by Eurasian girls under partly trained women who have never been "home."
In the practice of medicine as in all other branches of women's labour, the question of the effect of marriage upon work is a very important and difficult one. In its general aspect it lies at the very heart of the whole question of the working woman. Its effect on the medical woman varies according to the branch of her profession which she selects. If she wishes to become (a) a specialist or (b) a general practitioner, she has perfect freedom of choice as to what she will do in the event of marriage; and some women retire while others continue their work. The latter is a much more desirable course from the point of view of medical women as a whole. The medical woman who is married can, better than any one else, render to society certain services in her profession, and it is desirable that these should not be lost. In any event no woman need retire from her work on marriage, though it is, of course, most important that the married medical woman should not deny to herself and to her husband the normal healthy joy of having children. To continue in practice, however, while bearing a child requires a certain amount of expenditure, as such a doctor will need to retire from practice for at least two or three months, probably longer, and is therefore put to the expense of engaging a locum tenens. This ought, however, to be possible when both husband and wife are earning incomes.
From the point of view of society as a whole, it is waste that any one who has had such a long and arduous training as that required for the medical profession should not use it in service to the community. There is a form of selfishness not sufficiently recognised, which consists not in acquiring goods but in acquiring knowledge without rendering it again in service to one's fellow men and women. |
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