The following table taken from the latest returns of the Board of Education contrasts the number of women and men employed in the elementary schools of England, and the number of women and men employed in the better paid higher elementary schools of the country, for the year 1910-11.

Higher Elementary Elementary Schools Schools.

No. of Head Teachers (certificated) Men : 12,477 : 36 " " " " Women : 16,648 : 4 " Assistant " " Men : 18,659 : 161 " " " Women : 46,881 : 117 " " (uncertificated) Men : 5,091 : 4 " " " Women : 34,910 : 2

An examination of statistics with regard to the salaries of teachers in England, taken from the same returns, year 1910-11, shows that—

I. Average salaries (Elementary Schools) were:— L s. d. Head Teachers (Certificated) Men 176 3 11 " " " Women 122 18 1 " " (uncertificated) Men 94 8 0 " " " Women 68 3 5 Assistant Teachers (certificated) Men 127 9 11 " " " Women 92 8 6 " " (uncertificated) Men 65 2 11 " " " Women 54 14 1

II. (1) 67.93 per cent. of the certificated head masters receive less than L200 per annum.

(2) 93.9 per cent. of the certificated head mistresses receive less than L200 per annum.

(3) 93.38 per cent. of the certificated assistant masters receive less than L200 per annum.

(4) 97.73 per cent. of the certificated assistant mistresses receive less than L150 per annum.

III. The salaries of certificated teachers (England) were:—

Head Teachers. Assistant Teachers. Men. Women. Men. Women. Under L50 1 2 2 352 Totals L50 and under L100 394 4,967 3,838 29,915 " 100 " " 150 4,506 8,032 9,933 15,548 " 150 " " 200 3,575 2,631 3,651 1,065 " 200 " " 250 2,395 742 1,235 1 " 250 " " 300 963 209 —— —— " 300 " " 350 422 65 —— —— " 350 " " 400 125 —— —— —— " 400 " " 450 93 —— —— —— " 450 " " 500 2 —— —— —— " 560 1 —— —— ——

IV. The salaries of uncertificated teachers are usually lower than the wage of a skilled artisan—the average for men head teachers being below L100, and for women head teachers below L70, whilst 7,855 assistant teachers receive less than L50.

V. Supplementary teachers usually receive, of course without board or lodging, a salary equal to the money-wage of an average domestic servant. They are commonly less well qualified than is she, for the work undertaken.

The chances of promotion to a headship are obviously so few, that the certificated teacher will probably remain an assistant all her life. Chances of head-teacherships are being still further reduced by the amalgamation of departments under a head master.

In the schools of many large urban education authorities, less than 1 per cent. of the assistant teachers obtain promotion in twelve months. The total number applying for the 163 places to be filled in the last promotion list that was formed by the London Education Authority, was 2,337, so that, as a direct result of the publication of that list, 2,174 teachers resumed their work after the summer vacation of 1911 with feelings of less hopefulness with regard to their future prospects. The issue of a promotion list is in itself a fact to be deplored, seeing that it acts as a check to mental alertness. For the 2,174 unsuccessful candidates for inclusion, their application has now either destroyed hope, or suspended any chances of its realisation for at least two years. There is a consciousness in the unsuccessful applicant of somehow being worth less than she was before, since she is now an assistant mistress without potentiality for head teachership. This feeling does not promote good work. The issue of a promotion list is from every point of view bad policy, and although its direct action is confined to London, its sphere of indirect influence is very far-reaching, since London County Council applicants for country posts are often asked whether they have been included in it.

The essential qualification in a mistress of an elementary school is ability to teach a great variety of subjects: she must be qualified for and prepared to teach all the subjects which make up the curriculum of her school. The diversity of these will be seen from the subjects taught in an average typical elementary school:—

Girls' Department.—Reading, writing, arithmetic, English grammar, literature, history, geography, nature study, hygiene, physical training, drawing (including brush-work), needlework (including cutting-out), knitting, scripture.

Infants' Department.—Reading, writing, number, kindergarten and other varied occupations, physical exercises (dancing and games), needlework and knitting, singing, drawing, painting, modelling, recitation, oral composition, dramatising stories, scripture.

The ordinary day is divided into two sessions: the morning session lasting from 9 A.M. to 12 noon, and the afternoon session from 2 P.M. to 4 P.M. (infants), 4.30 P.M. (girls).

The strain of a teacher's life in an elementary school, and the deadening influence of routine work will be realised when it is stated that, besides teaching all the subjects above-mentioned, she is in front of her class of sixty pupils during the whole of the two sessions each day, from Monday morning to Friday afternoon.

In addition to the purely teaching work the mistress has to take her share in the various activities which are now centring in the school—Care Committees, After-Care Committees, the feeding of necessitous children, the cleansing of children, medical inspection, and so forth. There are also such social activities as old girls' clubs, school journeys and school parties, in which she has to co-operate; finally, the strain is not lessened by the fact that she has to satisfy two sets of inspectors, viz., those of the Board of Education and those of the local authority who require her to keep special report books, varying in character and in the amount of detail required, according to the idiosyncrasies of the particular inspectors who may happen to be allocated to her district.

In spite of the building regulations of the Board of Education, many school premises are far from satisfactory with regard to lighting, ventilation, construction, and often even cleanliness; these defects naturally have their effect on the health of the teachers, so that notwithstanding medical inspection during training and the rejection of the unfit, an alarming number of cases of consumption has been reported to the Benevolent Fund of the National Union of Teachers. In addition to this, the strain (already referred to) under which teachers in the Metropolitan and larger urban districts work, is resulting in an increasing number of nervous breaksdown.

The conditions under which a teacher works in a school in a rural district are so unsatisfactory that they deserve special mention. There are 245 schools in Wales and 2,199 in England with an average attendance of less than 40; such schools are staffed by a head teacher, assisted, in all probability, only by a supplementary teacher. Education suffers in these circumstances as a result of the number and the manysidedness of the responsibilities which devolve upon the head teacher; while the consciousness of her inability to realise her ideals will re-act unfavourably upon her health. Another factor that must be borne in mind is that these rural schools, being small, should, to secure efficiency, be proportionately expensive for up-keep. In order to keep the cost of maintenance as low as possible, however, the remuneration offered to teachers in rural schools is so small as to be a national disgrace. To this must be further added the fact that many rural teachers are compelled to live 5, 10, and even 15 miles away from a railway station, so that the cost of living is much more than it would be in town. Thus it is that rural schools which should cost more for up-keep than large urban schools, work out at a smaller figure per scholar.[7]

Not only is her salary low, but a mistress in a rural school often has to live in a state of semi-isolation from social and intellectual activities. It should excite no surprise, therefore, that mistresses are reluctant to apply for such posts. This difficulty of shortage of supply is having a sinister and subtle effect on the economic interests of married women teachers, for, owing to the difficulty in obtaining assistant teachers in rural districts, it frequently happens that where the head teacher is a master, his wife, who may be a fully qualified certificated teacher, has to act as his assistant and receive the pay of a supplementary teacher.

During her years of service, each mistress in an elementary school is required to contribute L2, 8s. per annum to the Government Superannuation Fund. These contributions purchase a small annuity to which the Government add a pension at the rate of 10s. for each year of service. When she becomes qualified for a pension, the mistress must surrender her certificate and cease to practise as a teacher, so that, if we assume she has begun work at the age of twenty and has continued teaching to the age of sixty-five, she will, after forty-five years of recorded service, receive a pension of L22, 10s. per annum, plus the annuity which her contributions will have purchased. It should, however, be mentioned that London and a few other towns have established complementary schemes whereby teachers, though contributing more, obtain pensions more commensurate with their salaries. Under the Government scheme, the superannuation allowance cannot become payable until the teacher has attained the age of sixty-five years, and, even then, it can be obtained only by a teacher whose years of recorded service are not less than half the number of years which have elapsed since she became certificated; thus, if the mistress, being certificated at the age of twenty, marries and, by the regulations of the local authority, is forced to resign, she forfeits all claim to the Government contribution, unless she has completed twenty-two years of recorded service: nor are her contributions returned to her.

Teachers in elementary schools are well organised for the purpose of self-protection. The National Union of Teachers is a powerful body, having a membership of 78,000 men and women teachers. It is directly represented in Parliament, both on the Liberal and Labour sides, and owes its influence largely to the voting power of its members.[8]

When the National Insurance Act of 1912 came into force, there were 85,000 elementary teachers to whom its clauses applied, and who therefore found it advisable to join an approved society. For this purpose the Teachers' Provident Society of the National Union of Teachers was re-organised as an approved society under the Act. In addition to providing protection for its members, the National Union of Teachers, by means of its Benevolent and Orphan Fund, helps those, who, through ill-health or other causes are in need of assistance. It also maintains two orphanages—one for boys in London, and one for girls in Sheffield.

At the present time there is a strong probability of a dearth of qualified teachers for elementary schools in the near future. There are several factors which have been influential in bringing about this state of affairs—one is, the uncertainty of employment, even after a long and comparatively costly training. This defect will be remedied only when a rational method of regulating the supply of teachers is established, so that each candidate may be certain that, if she qualifies, she will be guaranteed employment.

Many desirable persons are debarred from entering the teaching profession, because the rate of remuneration is low, considering the responsibility of the work; and this drawback is still further emphasised by the very inadequate pension which is offered at the close of the teacher's career. This difficulty can be overcome only when the main burden of the cost of education is removed from local taxation and placed on the national exchequer.

Another factor which tends to make the teaching profession unattractive, is the very strenuous life which it entails under modern conditions. Again, so far as women are concerned, there is not complete security of tenure, though apart from the regulation that obtains under some local authorities, requiring women to resign on marriage, teachers in elementary schools, owing to the efforts of their various organisations, possess far greater security of tenure than teachers in any other branch of the profession. Another point in favour of the teachers in elementary schools, is their freedom from the burden of extraneous duties, and from the nightmare of external examinations.

When schools can be more generously staffed, so that, for example, the number of assistant teachers exceeds the number of classes to be taught, a good deal will have been done to relieve the strain under which teachers are at present working.

Finally, when education authorities and the public generally, become sufficiently enlightened to realise that it is uneconomical to dismiss a teacher when she marries i.e., when by her experience she is most capable of preparing her pupils for life—then women will be encouraged to enter the teaching profession, and to realise that they must equip themselves as well as possible for what is to be their life-work.

[Footnote 1: In this connection, the work of the Care-Committees, now an integral feature of the elementary education system, must not be forgotten. It will be fully considered in a later volume of this series. [EDITOR.]]

[Footnote 2: The conditions for registration were issued on 22nd November 1913, after this book had gone to press. [EDITOR.]]

[Footnote 3: Vide Article on Education in Ireland, by May Starkie in The New Statesman Supplement on "The Awakening of Ireland," 12th July 1913. [EDITOR.]]

[Footnote 4: Since this paper was written, a fresh report (Code 6707) has been published by the Board of Education. The statistical tables do not materially differ from those given above.]

[Footnote 5: On the other hand, the Board seldom proceeds against teachers who have broken their bond. [Editor.]]

[Footnote 6: The experiment of ending the College course for certain students at Easter, is now being made. But the movement is too young, and the Colleges experimenting are too few, to make it possible to draw deductions. At any rate it looks like a move in the right direction.]

[Footnote 7: This is a matter, the investigation of which should be included in Mr Lloyd George's Land Campaign. There is an obvious connection between the status of the agricultural labourer and the inefficiency of rural schools. [EDITOR.]]

[Footnote 8: The women members are in a large majority, but, being women, do not, as yet, possess the vote. Their peculiar interests, of course, do not obtain representation.]



V

TEACHING IN SCHOOLS FOR THE MENTALLY AND PHYSICALLY DEFECTIVE

The particular branch of teaching which forms the subject of this paper—namely, that carried on in schools for mentally or physically defective children—affords scope for a lifetime of very happy work to women who are really fitted for it.

The qualifications required by teachers in these schools are the ordinary certificates accepted by the Board of Education, but, in practice, a preference is given to women who have taken up studies which bear on their particular work. For instance, it is obvious that a good grounding in psychology, physiology, and hygiene is especially valuable in schools of this description, and proofs of the successful study of these subjects undoubtedly carry weight in deciding appointments to these schools. Also, it is unusual to appoint young teachers, coming straight from Training Colleges, with very little practical experience in dealing with children, though under special circumstances such appointments are occasionally made. The large majority of women appointed to the London mentally defective or physically defective schools are, however, teachers of several years' standing, who are also under the age limit of thirty-five.

The salary of assistant teachers in the London special schools is L10 a year more than the salary such assistants would be getting in the ordinary Council schools. This extra pay only obtains until the normal maximum salary of assistant mistresses is reached, i.e., L150, so that the monetary advantage is confined to reaching the maximum a little earlier than would otherwise be the case. With regard to head teachers, the extra salary varies with the size of the school, L10 being allowed for a one-class centre, L20 for a two-, three-, or four-class centre, and L30 for a five- or six-class centre. Schools of six classes are unusual; the majority of schools contain three or four classes. Elder mentally defective boys from several neighbouring schools are frequently grouped together in a special centre under masters, and there are a few schools specially for elder mentally defective girls, naturally under mistresses. For elder physically defective girls there are centres in London where they may be specially trained in blousemaking and fine needlework. These centres have, in addition to an ordinary teacher, a trade mistress duly qualified in the particular branch of work undertaken. The age of compulsory retirement from teaching in special schools is sixty-five, as in the case of ordinary schools. For both branches of the service married women are eligible. The hours of work in mentally defective schools are from 9.30 to 12 and from 2 to 4. In physically defective schools the hours are nominally from 9.30 to 12, and 1.30 to 3, but in practice they are longer, as the children begin to arrive at school in their ambulances by 8.45, and in the afternoon the last children rarely leave till an hour after the time of stopping actual lessons. It is usual to arrange things so that the teacher who comes "early" one week, is free to come "late" the next, and it is also usually taken in turns to stay late in the afternoons. The short dinner recess is due to the fact that most of the children necessarily have their dinner at school, so there is no reason to allow the usual two hours for going home and coming back. During the dinner-hour the children are in charge of the school nurse and the ambulance attendants.

Work in both sorts of special school has its own particular difficulties. One great drawback is the impossibility of adequate classification. In a small three-class centre, there will be children from five years old up to sixteen years. That, of course, in physically defective schools means that the work usually divided among all the classes of an ordinary infant school must be done in the lowest class, the second class must take the work of standards I. to III., while the highest class must take that of standards IV. to VII. It is true that the special schools have a great advantage over ordinary schools in that the classes never contain more than twenty-five children, but even granted the small numbers, the need for taking several groups in a class makes the work very exhausting. The more successful the teacher, that is to say, the more truly she draws out the individual powers of each child, the harder does her work become, for she tends more and more to have a class of children working at varying stages. In the mentally defective schools it is not possible to reach the work of the higher standards, so that there is not the same difficulty, but there is the even greater one of dealing with different standards of defect, instead of different standards of attainment.

Another difficulty encountered in the physically defective schools is the interrupted school-life. Children will frequently drop out for three months, six months, or a year at a time in order to have some operation performed in hospital, or to go to a convalescent home, or because of an attack of illness. Both branches of the special schools are faced with the peculiar difficulty of the "spoilt" child—the lame girl who, by reason of her helplessness, has been indulged and waited on by the healthy members of her family; the ill-balanced boy whose brain-storms have been so disturbing that any opposition to his will has been shirked. It must not be thought that these children are in the majority at special schools, but they do form a certain proportion of the children there; they give much trouble, and they call for a great deal of tact and patience. Patience is so continually needed in special-school work that women who are not particularly patient would find themselves definitely unfit for it. Indeed, although patience and the hopeful spirit do not figure on the list of qualifications demanded of candidates, they might well head it, for most certainly an irritable or despondent woman could not find any work for which she was more unsuited, or in which she was more likely to be miserable and unsuccessful.

A further difficulty of the special-school teacher lies in the "all-round" demands made on her. The children she must teach, are defective in mind or body, or both. Some will respond to one subject, some to another; some will make poor progress with headwork, but will do excellent handwork. The teacher must be able to help each child along its own path, and must be familiar with the various forms of simple handwork as well as with the more usual school subjects. Basket-weaving, clay-modelling, raffia-work, fretwork, bent-ironwork, strip-woodwork, rug-making, painting, and brush-work, as well as different forms of needlework and embroidery, are all branches of handwork helpful in different degrees to these children. The importance of handwork to them is felt so keenly, that the special-schools time-tables usually show a morning devoted to headwork followed by an afternoon occupied by handwork.

But as well as the difficulties attendant on teaching in special-schools, there are some very real advantages. Foremost, perhaps, is the opportunity it affords of knowing and understanding each child in a way that is not possible when the class consists of sixty children. Very closely allied with this, is the great advantage of freedom in the preparation of syllabuses, in the choice of subject matter and the manner of teaching it. Time-tables must be approved by the proper authorities, and the superintendents and inspectors must be satisfied as to the character of a teacher's work, but, when those conditions are fulfilled, originality on the part of teachers is welcomed, and completely happy relations between teacher and children are possible. It can be readily understood that with a class numbering twenty-five, each child can take a much larger and much more active share in the work, can be free to express his own views, ask his own questions and work out his own ideas in a way impossible with a class of sixty. When, in addition, it is remembered that the teacher is free to frame her plans of work according to the actual needs of the children, as shown to her through discussions and questions, the reason why the work attracts women in spite of its obvious difficulties is apparent.

The real thought and care spent by the education authorities on these schools must have struck every one who has worked in them. If we compare what is now done for these deficient children with what was done some fifteen years ago, the stage of progress at which we have arrived is nothing short of wonderful. Yet every one must also be convinced that things are not well, so long as the supply of children for these special schools continues to grow; those who work in them can see two ways in which that supply might be checked. Teachers in mentally defective schools continually mourn the sad fact that the children under their care have been guarded from wrong, and guided to right along happy paths of busy interest until they are sixteen, only to be turned adrift into the world at an age when, more than ever before in their lives, they need a kindly and wise influence "to strengthen or control." For want of some further plan of continued supervision, the patient work of years is too often rendered nugatory, and the child slips back into the very slough from which the school had hoped to save it. It must be remembered that the defect in many children in these mentally defective schools shows itself as a lack of self-control, a want of mental balance, a missing sense of moral values, an incapacity for concentration—the very characteristics which render their unhappy possessors the easiest prey to the evil-minded. Teachers who know both the good to which the child can attain when properly safe-guarded, and also the evil into which it will too probably fall when left alone, are very anxious to see some step taken which will ensure that every child who needs continued control shall have it.[1]

Teachers in physically defective schools can also see the need for prevention of defect rather than its mere alleviation. The more usual forms of defect are missing limbs, tuberculous troubles (notably in joints), heart cases, paralysis, cases of chorea, and cases of general debility. The list must not be taken as complete, for there are, of course, various unusual forms of defect too. It sometimes happens that after a stay of some time in a physically defective school, a child becomes so much better that it is able to return to the greater strain of an ordinary school; on the other hand, it is often apparent, that if certain children had been admitted earlier to the physically defective school, their particular trouble might have been greatly minimised, if not altogether avoided. What then appears to be needed is an intermediary type of school to which children might be drafted who are not as yet absolutely defective, but who are liable to become so. Children of tubercular tendencies, who should be guarded against falls or blows more carefully than normal children; those highly-strung nervous children who, if exposed to the strain of ordinary school life run the risk of chorea; children suffering from the after-effects of diseases such as rheumatic or scarlet fever, who need particularly to avoid over-exertion or too violent exercise; children of such marked general debility that their power of resisting disease is abnormally low—all these, if neglected, tend to become qualified candidates for the physically defective schools. If they could attend a school designed to suit their needs, they would in many cases be quite able to return, after varying periods, to their places in the ordinary schools. The open-air schools are an attempt to meet this need on the very best lines, but there are far too many of these border-line children for the available accommodation. If the great expense entailed by new schools of this description be considered, it seems not unreasonable, while waiting for them, to allow the admission of these children to the invalid schools already working, by simply making the term "physically defective" elastic enough to include a latent as well as a developed defect. Whatever the apparent expense of such measures may be, any extension of the preventive side of this work cannot but be a real economy.[2]

There is just one other point for the consideration of women who think of taking up work in special schools. They should be thoroughly strong and healthy, or they will prove unequal to a strain which tells at times even on the strongest. But to women of good health who possess the right temperament, these schools offer a field of useful and congenial work.

[Footnote 1: Something in this direction will be achieved by the new Act, to which, however, there are counterbalancing grave objections which cannot be considered here. [EDITOR.]]

[Footnote 2: Open-air schools, and school sleeping camps such as those established experimentally in various urban slum-districts, are other efforts to meet the needs of physically defective children. Teachers in open-air schools in provincial towns, work under approximately similar conditions to those described by Mrs Thomas. [Editor.]]



VI

THE TEACHING OF GYMNASTICS

No school of any importance is considered properly equipped unless the staff includes a gymnastic and games mistress. Several systems of gymnastics are practised in England, but the Swedish system is steadily proving its superiority; so much is this felt that a number of teachers who have previously taken a two years' course of training in some other system, are at the present time taking, or have just completed, a second two years' course in the Swedish system. As long ago as 1878 the London School Board introduced the Swedish system into its schools, but it was not till 1885 that the first physical training college was opened in this country, and this was for women only. In 1903 this system was adopted for the navy, and in 1906 for the army; it has also been adopted in the Government schools and Training Colleges, as well as in all the principal private schools and colleges for girls, and in many boys' schools, including, among others, Eton, Winchester, Clifton, and Repton. The following remarks, therefore, apply only to the Swedish system.

Until 1885, the rationally trained teacher of gymnastics was unknown in England, and the physical training of the girls in this country was monopolised by dancing mistresses and drill sergeants, most of whom were ignorant of the laws which govern the human body. In that year Madame Osterberg started a Physical Training College for women students at Hampstead, the college being removed to Dartford Heath, Kent, in 1895. Since then similar institutions have been opened at Bedford, Erdington, Chelsea, etc., and there is a growing army of women qualified to teach gymnastics and games, and in many cases dancing and swimming. These trained teachers have studied Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene; they have themselves experienced what they teach others; they have been trained to observe, and deal gently and carefully with growing girlhood. They have also studied deformities such as spinal curvature, round shoulders, and flat feet, and are able to take all such cases under their special care.

The course of training lasts from two to three years, and the cost in a residential college, is about L100 a year. To ensure success as teachers, students should be tactful, observant, and sympathetic; they should be medically fit, and physically suited to the work, and should produce evidence of a good general education. The requirements of the colleges vary as to educational qualification, some being satisfied with a school-leaving certificate while others demand Matriculation. This raising of the standard is a step in the right direction and may hasten the time when the gymnastic teacher will be thought worthy of a University degree or diploma.

The training includes theoretical as well as practical work, and the idea which used to be prevalent, is now practically exploded, that a girl who could not pass examinations but who was fairly good at gymnastics or games might make a good gymnastic teacher. The theoretical subjects include Physiology, Hygiene, Anatomy, Theory of Movements, Psychology, and a certain amount of Pathology; whilst the practical side includes Educational Gymnastics and Teaching, Remedial Gymnastics and Massage, Games (hockey, cricket, lacrosse, lawn tennis, net-ball, and gymnasium games), Swimming and Dancing. Dancing is becoming more and more, a necessary part of the equipment for the successful gymnastic teacher, who must be able to teach the ordinary ball-room dances as well as Morris and country dances.

A typical week's work in the second year's course in one of the colleges includes six hours' Gymnastics; five hours' Remedial Gymnastics, and five hours' actual treatment under supervision, of patients in the clinic; six hours' Anatomy, two hours' Physiology, two hours' Hygiene, two hours' Vaulting, three and a half hours' Dancing. In addition to this, four afternoons (from 2 to 4 P.M.) are devoted to games; class singing-lessons are given twice a week for half an hour, in addition to a quarter of an hour's practice every day, and each student teaches in the elementary schools three half hours a week, and also gets some practice in the high school. Add to all this the time required for private study, and it will be seen that the work is fairly strenuous and that none but strong, healthy girls should undertake it.

After the course of training the gymnastic teacher usually takes a post in a school, and having had a few years' experience, may then become an organiser or inspector to an education committee, a trainer in an elementary training college or physical training college, the head of the gymnastic department of a school clinic, or she may prefer to start a private practice, holding classes, treating cases of deformity, and also acting as visiting gymnastic teacher or games-coach to schools in the neighbourhood.

The rate of remuneration varies according to the kind of work undertaken; the initial salary in schools is usually L60 to L80 per annum resident, or L100 to L120 non-resident. Organisers and inspectors command a much higher salary; the three Government inspectors start at L200 rising to L400 with first-class travelling expenses, and the four woman-organisers employed by the London County Council Education Committee start at L175, rising by L10 a year to L240 plus actual travelling expenses. Some women do well in private practice, making from L200 to L300 a year. The salaries of the gymnastic teachers in the London County Council secondary schools are fixed at L130 a year with no possibility of advancement, and, though this may compare favourably with the initial salaries of other teachers on the staff, it must be remembered that the teaching life of a gymnastic teacher is shorter and there are no headmistress-ships to which to look forward. The few "plums" of the profession are the inspectorships of the Government and of the more important education committees. For the latter, women have often to compete with men, and even in cases where both men and women inspectors are employed—the men doing the same work in the boys' schools as the women do in the girls'—the men's salaries are considerably higher, despite the fact that most women give up professional work on marriage, either voluntarily or compulsorily, and have therefore a shorter time in which to recover the cost of their training, whereas if they do not marry, they have to make provision for old age and in many cases to contribute to the support of others besides themselves.

With regard to this employment of women after marriage, there would seem to be no reason why the principals or assistants of colleges or institutes, or the women with private practices should not continue their work; but in schools, even where the terms of the appointment do not demand resignation on marriage, it is not customary for married teachers to be employed.

Up to the present, the supply of trained gymnastic teachers has scarcely satisfied the demand, and fresh openings are from time to time created. When physical exercises were made compulsory in all the elementary schools, the class teacher had and still has, to give this instruction to her class, but there has been an increasing demand for organisers to teach the elementary school teacher and superintend her work. This has also led to specialist teachers being appointed to all the elementary training colleges and pupil teachers' centres. Then came medical inspection, and with it the need for school clinics, which could not be complete without a department for treating curvatures, flat feet, etc., and giving breathing exercises, especially after the removal of adenoids. Though these clinics are only in the experimental stage they are sure to expand, and it is expected that a large number of trained gymnastic teachers will be required for them. Further it is possible, and may be found desirable, that specialist teachers should be appointed for groups of elementary schools, so relieving the class teachers of this part of their work. Large secondary and private schools often appoint two, three, or four trained teachers who are jointly responsible for gymnastics, games, dancing, swimming, and the treatment of deformities throughout the school. Besides all these openings a considerable number of gymnastic teachers find work in the colonies, especially in South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand.

To band together the teachers of Swedish gymnastics and to guard their interests generally, the Ling Association was founded in 1899. Though it is open to men and women, very few men have joined, as the number of men with the necessary qualifications is very small. Members must have trained for at least two years at a recognised college, and it was not till 1912 that the first training college for men was opened in England.

With a view to standardising the training and diplomas of gymnastic teachers, the Ling Association in 1904 started a diploma-examination. Though the syllabus drawn up is practically the same as those used in the different colleges, most of the colleges still grant their own diplomas at the end of the course.

It is hardly possible at present, to specify the usual age of retirement for gymnastic teachers, but when a woman becomes too old for regular school teaching she can organise, supervise, and inspect, or continue to practise remedial work which includes massage.

Most of the gymnastic teachers who come within the scope of the Insurance Act have joined the University, Secondary and Technical Teachers' Provident Society.



VII

THE TEACHING OF DOMESTIC SUBJECTS

There are several reasons why instruction in the domestic arts and in the management of a house has not until quite recently formed part of the curriculum in girls' secondary schools. In the first years of the existence of these schools, no handicraft was encouraged except needlework, and this was soon almost crowded out of the time-table. It was assumed that household management was taught by the mother. There was a second assumption made even more confidently than the first, that a well-informed young woman with an active brain would find no difficulty in arranging her domestic affairs. This theory was founded on still another assumption—that there would always be on hire a sufficiency of servants already well trained for their work.

It is obvious nowadays that the mistresses of the first two decades of high-school teaching, being the first college-bred women, were suffering from a reaction against domestic interests, and the manner in which these had absorbed the old-fashioned woman. Their best pupils were at once destined for college; they were considered too good for mere domestic life, and were prepared for careers, mostly for teaching. This tendency was naturally accentuated by the fact that all mistresses were single women, with little prospect of any but a celibate life.

In the earlier stages of girls' education, then, it was the teacher who urged the promising girl to have a career; but the more recent development is that the parents, harassed by increasing economic pressure, and encouraged by the instances they meet of successful professional women, press more and more strongly for their girls to be educated for professions, whether they are exceptionally gifted or not. It is recognised in almost all grades of the middle class that the chance of a daughter marrying, and, further, the chance of her marriage being an assured provision for her maintenance throughout life, is by no means a certainty.

These considerations must militate against the appearance of domestic subjects in the school time-table, but there are others working in exactly the opposite direction. These are the increase in house rent and general rise in prices which make economy in domestic affairs, and good management, more valued; the dearth of servants; and the decay of the old traditions of housekeeping. Another factor is the new cult of hygiene, and increased interest in diet, shown especially by the inhabitants of large towns, who bewail their lack of energy and fitness.

If the home is to establish itself as an acknowledged success in modern conditions, it ought to be run by women with brains. It is now becoming acknowledged that the work needs the application of the scientific method of thinking. It may be true that home-making in the non-material sense is an art, but housekeeping nowadays is a science; and so much a science that a woman who has the chance of making herself an expert will be tempted to make housekeeping a career, and to undertake the job on a much larger scale than is needed in the ordinary house.

Thus, while there was practically no teaching of domestic subjects in girls' secondary schools until about seven years ago, a demand for teachers of the kind has sprung up very recently, and is rapidly increasing.

The headmistress anxious to undertake something of the sort has had many difficulties to face in the immediate past. The only teachers of domestic arts whom she could engage had received a very different education from the other members of her staff. If their whole time were not taken up with teaching their subject, they had few or no subsidiary subjects to offer, nor were they prepared for those curiously mingled clerical and pastoral duties which fall to the lot of a form mistress. In general education they might, indeed, be obviously below the girls in the upper forms, whose general culture had been sedulously cultivated for years. If teachers of this kind were, nevertheless, not to be kept for selected "stupid girls," it was possible (1) to introduce domestic work of the simple handicraft nature into the middle school, leaving it out of the upper school where there was a greater pressure on the time-table, or (2) to organise a post-school domestic course for girls who were not preparing for a profession.

The type of woman offering herself as a teacher in domestic arts has meanwhile been changing and developing, owing to the fact that a marked advance has taken place in the facilities for training. The minimum qualifications now required by most education authorities are diplomas for cookery, laundry-work, and housewifery, granted by a training school recognised by the Board of Education. It is advisable to take a fuller course which includes needlework and dressmaking. Most training schools for domestic arts provide a two or three year-course, according to the subjects taken. The three-year course, including cookery, laundry-work, housewifery, dressmaking, and needlework, costs about L75. Scholarships are offered both by the training schools and by public bodies. These cover the whole normal period of training, and an extension course for scientific study. The subjects included are the principles and processes involved in cookery, laundry-work, and household management, the last comprising such diverse matters as the selection and furnishing of various types of houses, repairing furniture, the choice and care of household linens, simple upholstery, management of income, first-aid, home-nursing, and the care of infants and young children. Many training-schools arrange for their students to gain experience in a creche or similar institution, and to visit homes of various types. Practical experience is gained in housekeeping and catering, superintending the arrangements for meals, ordering stores and keeping accounts. Voice production and blackboard drawing are also taught, while science is studied concurrently with the above. The course in science embraces some Theoretical and Practical Chemistry, Physics, Physiology, Hygiene (personal and school hygiene and preventive measures), and the Theory and Practice of Education. Domestic Science students gain teaching experience not only in the various departments of the training-school, but also in elementary and secondary schools; happily the training is the same for those intending to take up either elementary or secondary teaching.

Thus it is seen that the present-day teacher of household arts is much more fitted to train the well-educated girl to organise household matters, than was her predecessor. Not only is manipulative skill acquired, but scientific reasons for processes and methods are outlined, and improvements are suggested. There is, however, still the danger that the student's training in science has been so subordinated to the acquirement of manipulative skill that her knowledge of scientific facts is not sufficiently based on scientific training and method.

Much, then, is to be urged in favour of the woman with a science degree taking courses in domestic arts, but it is essential for her to attain a high standard of practical work. It has sometimes been found that a very academic and scientific method of treatment has tended to lower the standard of manipulative skill. Nevertheless qualified graduates find themselves, at the moment, greatly in demand. The economical headmistress must always be on the look out for an acquisition to her staff who will, like Count Smorltork's politics, "surprise in herself many branches." If the headmistress can solve her difficulty about her domestic arts teacher by engaging a college-bred woman, with a degree to put on the prospectus, all sorts of ordinary subjects for her odd hours and undertaking to teach cooking as well, she will jump at the chance, and pay her L10 to L20 more salary than the ordinary assistant-mistress. She will economise greatly by the arrangement. If she has some amount of money to back her schemes, and a large school to administer, she will prefer two people to one composite one. But she will beg them to collaborate and to work together. She will not expect the woman with the science degree and a brief subsequent training in the arts to have the manipulative skill of the one who has done something like one thousand hours of actual practice, according to the prescription of the Board of Education. She will ask the former to show the girls how modern science is connected with the modern house, and how the scientific way of thinking helps in keeping a house, as it does in keeping one's own health and fitness.

During the past five years one secondary school after another has taken up Domestic Arts as a school subject. The initiative usually comes from the headmistress, and is a matter of personal judgment, so that the introduction is still an experiment on trial, and the method of trial varies. Before giving some indication of the methods tried, we must return to the demand for teachers. It will be clear from what has been said, that a science graduate who has studied and practised household arts and cooking, or a trained teacher of Domestic Arts who has also some science certificate and a high standard of general education, will at this moment command a higher salary than the ordinary secondary schoolmistress, and is practically certain of a post. But either of these individuals requires an unusually long period of training, for which most people have neither the time nor the spare capital.

One woman's college in London has started courses of its own in "Home Science and Economics," and awards a three-year certificate to its students; also a diploma for science graduates who take a year's course, and a certificate to Domestic Arts teachers who take a closely related year's course. This is King's College for Women, which has just obtained the formal approval of London University for its three years' curriculum. In a very short time arrangements will be made to grant a University Diploma to the students who have taken this course, the fee for which amounts to 30 guineas a session. A scholarship, covering the cost of tuition, is from time to time awarded to undergraduate students, and there is also a one-year post-graduate Gilchrist scholarship of 50 guineas. The name of "Household and Social Science" is recommended by the Royal Commissioners for the new co-ordination of subjects. Various American universities and colleges give diplomas of the same kind: and the New Zealand University has just initiated one. The three-year course at King's College for Women may possibly be modified by the University authorities: at present it consists of two years' training in various branches of pure science, and a third year in which these branches are applied to household matters of all kinds. For instance, the usual type of academic course of Inorganic, Organic, and Physical Chemistry gives place in the third year to the study of food, cooking utensils and cookers, soap and other cleansing materials, and woven materials. Biology and Physiology give place to household Bacteriology and Hygiene. Practice in Housewifery and Cooking occupies one day per week throughout the three years. A very important feature in this course is the introduction of Economics. As with the natural sciences, two years' study of ordinary Economics, chiefly industrial, is followed by a year of Economics applied to the household, in which an attempt is made to show the present and past relations of the household to society. King's College for Women is the first institution in England to see the great importance of studying the connection of domestic life with the outside industrial world, instead of treating it as an isolated phenomenon.

This is the outline of the three-year course: students are encouraged to stay a fourth year for special work; the appointments which they take up at the end of three or four years are not always as teachers, but in various other vocations which need not be specified here. As teachers, the holders of these certificates are subject, of course, to a double fire of criticism. The science specialist thinks they do not know enough science, and points out that, beyond a few elementary facts in Chemistry, Physics, and Physiology soon picked up in an elementary training in these subjects, there stretches a region of very abstruse science which cannot be attacked except by specialists in Organic Chemistry, in the Physiology of Nutrition, and so on. But it is now suggested that many scientific problems connected with domestic subjects are waiting for solution. If some of these were solved, they would bridge the gulf between the elementary and the abstruse, but they must show themselves of sufficient interest to investigators. Here is a field for work eminently suited to the scientific woman with a practical turn of mind. Meanwhile, the cookery diplomee thinks, often justifiably, that the new teachers have not had sufficient practice in the art of cooking. Criticism of this kind is inevitable whenever a new co-ordination of subjects is attempted, and it will keep the new arrangement on its trial until it can justify itself. The question at issue in this case, as probably readers will have divined if they are interested in the problem, is whether the whole method and tradition of teaching housekeeping ought not to be under revision, so that it may in a few years be a "subject" vastly different from the traditional handing-on and practising of receipts. Once the barrier is broken down between the scientifically trained and the domestic woman, the whole aspect of affairs changes. It is a sign of the change that the training-colleges and cookery-schools, besides introducing more Chemistry, Hygiene, and Physiology into their curricula, are definitely asking that the teachers they employ for these subjects, shall be women with science degrees as well as some knowledge of domestic arts. For instance, at the Gloucester School of Cookery at least one former teacher had taken the Natural Science Tripos at Girton as well as Domestic Science Certificates: at Battersea Polytechnic a recent appointment is that of a Domestic Science diplomee, who subsequently took a science degree at Armstrong College, while at the National Training School of Cookery, one member of Staff is at present a science graduate, who subsequently obtained the King's College for Women Diploma in Home Science and Economics. Again, the new Government report just issued on handwork in secondary schools, while in many ways non-committal, distinctly prefers special training for teachers of Domestic Subjects following on a good general education—i.e., a University degree plus technical qualifications, rather than a teaching diploma in Domestic Subjects plus a little science. There is, then, likely to be an increasing number of openings for women who can afford the double training. Schools of housecraft to give all-round training to educated women, are springing up in all parts of the United Kingdom: in those which are attached to Polytechnics and similar institutions the fullest advantage is taken of the pure and technical science teaching available in their laboratories.

To those who look for a real advance in household science the weak point of the present situation is the want of proper correlation and standardisation of the work going on. The Board of Education does not examine; it accepts the diploma given by any one of a fairly large number of domestic science schools. In consequence, teachers from different quarters may be using quite different processes and methods in laundry work, cooking, or housekeeping. It is time some fundamental things were agreed upon, and although standardising must not be allowed to become stereotyping, at present constructive generalisation is needed, as well as the upsetting of out-grown traditions. In this context it would be well to discuss a question more properly to be taken at the end of this paper—the connection between the teaching in elementary schools and that in secondary schools. There is no reason to introduce differentiation in the training of the teachers: it is obvious, for instance, that the recent development of including economics in that training, is of extraordinary value to the elementary school teacher. But it is difficult to correlate the instruction given in the management of a middle-class household, with from eight to twenty rooms, and from one to a dozen servants, with that given in the management of a workman's cottage or of a flat without assistance. The connection which does need systematising and establishing is between the management of a middle-class house and the training of domestic servants, which ought naturally to form part of the trade or technical after-school work for elementary scholars. Here again, if training is to be followed by certificates, and the domestic servant is to be in the smallest degree an expert, some standardisation of training is necessary. We may, of course, find that domestic service becomes so much a matter of expert work that it is taken up on a large scale by middle-class girls, but that can hardly be prophesied yet, although the "lady servant" is an existing phenomenon. It is, of course, also possible that a modern curriculum of "Household and Social Science" may attract a certain number of men of the suitable type of mind. The attitude of the community is changing so rapidly that one may hope those fears to be groundless which speak of "relegating women back to the limited sphere of domesticity," and thereby losing so much that has been gained with regard to their education.

We must now return to give a few particulars which have been passed over. Any information on this subject is, however, liable to be very soon out of date. A secondary school that elects to teach cooking and laundry work will want a specially fitted room, which will cost about as much as a simple science laboratory, and will be arranged in as close connection with the science laboratory as is convenient. This means serious expense, and the headmistress is naturally anxious to have considerable use made of the room. Thus she will be led to introduce the subject into a large proportion of the classes, instead of limiting it to one or two middle-school forms, or to a selected part of the upper-school. She may, however, try to solve the economic problem by making it a post-school course for which special fees are charged. Certain schools, notably Clapham and Croydon High Schools and Cheltenham Ladies' College are able to make a very important feature of this type of course. To make it a success, the prestige of the school, its influence over girls and their parents, must be great and commanding. Otherwise, unless the girls are aiming definitely at some professional work after the course, there is a tendency to laxness in attendance, or to the relinquishment of the work in the middle, which tendency is engendered by the nature of the subject. The mother's excuse for getting her grown-up girl's company and help will naturally be, "Gladys can boil the potatoes at home instead of at school." A valid answer will be that Gladys is being taught to free her mind from the eternal English boiled potato by learning many other ways of treating it, and at the same time learning its proper place in a diet.

Failing the post-school course, the admittance of domestic subjects to a notable place in the general school curriculum leads to great stress being laid on the teaching of the elements of Physical Science. The eminently "feminine" subject, Botany, gives place to Physics and Chemistry in the middle-school, followed by Physiology and Hygiene in the upper-school. The subjects are to be illustrated whenever convenient, by reference to home life. A student choosing her science subjects at College should bear these in mind as likely to be at present of the best market value. Though it is very true that a practical woman who is a good teacher will nowadays connect any science subject with home life, still a parallel course of domestic arts will draw chiefly on the lessons given in these four.

Another fact worthy of notice is that a married woman who is anxious to continue her former profession of science teaching will not as a rule have to suffer the usual unfavourable handicap. That a married woman should teach the domestic subjects is quite a reasonable proposition to many who would exclude her from most professions: if she be also a mother it may even count as an asset instead of a disadvantage.

The Delegacy for Oxford Local Examinations has been the first, as far as we know, to set a paper in domestic science to senior candidates. There has been a demand for it in the London Matriculation, but objection has been raised on the score of its being a smattering and a soft option. The Oxford Delegacy has introduced two new headings—Domestic Science and Hygiene—and sets two papers under each, without any practical work. The first paper is the same under both headings—Elementary Physics and Chemistry, and the preparation for this is intended to be made at least one school year before the preparation for the second paper. It should be noted that the Hygiene paper is for boys and girls; it includes a little Physiology, Personal Hygiene, and Hygiene of Buildings. The Domestic Science paper is for girls only; it has several details in common with that in Hygiene, but its main features are the simple outlines of the chemistry of foods and of cleansing substances. In a few years the suitability of these subjects for both sexes may have impressed the community.

We may notice, lastly, the arrangements made for instruction in Domestic Subjects in elementary schools.[1] This is given in a specially equipped Centre attached to a public elementary school, the girls from that and other schools attending either for a half or whole day weekly during their last two years at school. In some cases for about fifteen weeks before they leave school, girls give half the week to Domestic Subjects. This experiment has been so successful, that it is likely to be extended in the future. A carefully graded syllabus is followed; due proportion of time is given to theory and demonstration as well as to practical work. Each girl is required to do a certain amount of work by herself, and much thought has been expended in order to make the lessons as useful as possible. The care of infants and young children is receiving increased attention, and it is hoped that much may be done to mitigate evils of wrong feeding and treatment. As far as possible, the teaching in the Centres is correlated with that in the schools. Where there are science laboratories the experiments are made on food-stuffs, changes wrought by application of heat in various ways, the chemistry of common objects, and so on.

The opportunity for definite science training in connection with Domestic Subjects teaching in elementary schools is still very small, and will probably remain so while the school-leaving age is fourteen. The problem before the teacher in some instances is to combat not only an entire ignorance of the home arts, but also, in poor districts, an active experience of household mismanagement and vicious habits. The teaching in these cases has to be intensely practical, and to aim chiefly at character-building; the manual work of the subject has been found of the greatest educational value in this respect. Though the training of all Domestic Subjects' teachers should reach the same standard of scientific knowledge, yet the actual work to be done in different types of schools is thus seen to be necessarily widely divergent in character.

In higher elementary or "central" schools, where the pupils normally remain until the end of the school year in which they reach the age of fifteen, Domestic Subjects' teaching may have a much wider scope than at the ordinary Centre, as the pupils are at a very intelligent age, and represent the best of the elementary scholars. A special syllabus is prepared according to the individual need of each school, by the Domestic Subjects' teacher and the headmistress; the instruction is a very definite part of the curriculum, and the teacher a member of the school staff.

In London and other large towns, and with certain County Councils, the Centre is under the general supervision of the headmistress of the school to which it is attached, but technical details are entirely in the hands of the teacher of Domestic Subjects and of the superintendent who visits periodically. In some rural areas, the conditions are not so satisfactory. Frequently one teacher has to serve several villages, visiting them for instruction on certain days. The accommodation in such places is often sadly deficient, and much ingenuity and resource are needed to overcome difficulties which do not occur when the Centre is well-equipped and in continuous use, and the teacher, as she should be, a regular member of the school staff.

On leaving school, there are many scholarships open to the girls for further training, (a)for a home course, (b) for domestic service, (c) for the trades of laundress, needlewoman, dressmaker, and cook. These scholarships are held at Technical Institutes, or Trade Schools, and the training given is admirable in kind.

A qualified teacher who wishes to take up elementary school work will have no difficulty, if physically fit, in obtaining a post under a County Council or other educational authority at a salary of L80 per annum, usually rising by annual increments to L120. The maximum is not so high as that for teachers of ordinary subjects, and pensions are not universal, though most councils make fairly adequate provision for retirement, breakdown, and ill-health.

There is at present very little direct promotion open to the Domestic Subjects' teacher in elementary schools. In London there are practising-centres for students in training, and training centres for teachers during the probationary period, the managers of which hold very responsible posts that carry extra salary. The inspecting staff is usually chosen from teachers of experience, but this is necessarily limited in numbers, vacancies occurring only rarely. The salary attached to these posts is from L150 to L300. Many good posts in the Colonies have been obtained by Domestic Subjects' teachers in elementary schools. Some teachers have become foreign missionaries, Children's Care Committee visitors, or home mission workers and visitors. Some have established model laundries, others have taken charge of students' hostels and boarding-houses; while many have been successful in the needle-trades, luncheon and tea-rooms, and in lecturing and demonstrating for gas and electric companies.

Several organisations for self-protection and the advancement of the profession are open to teachers of Domestic Subjects. The Association of Teachers of Domestic Subjects was founded in 1896, and has done valuable work for the members. It is affiliated to the Association of Teachers in Technical Institutes, and is thus enabled to obtain good legal advice. A representative has been appointed to sit on the Council for the Registration of Teachers. The Association is helping to educate public opinion, and to review and consider the pedagogy of domestic subjects in all classes of schools. Domestic Subjects' teachers are also admitted to membership of other Teachers' Associations, which safeguard the interest of their members and offer advantages for training and travelling. Members of the Association of Teachers of Domestic Subjects have the right to join for the purposes of the Insurance Act the "Approved" section of the Secondary, Technical and University Teachers' Provident Society. The London County Council has secured "exception" from the Act for their Domestic Subjects' teachers, their allowance for sick leave being better than the provisions of the Act. The Association of Teachers of Domestic Subjects has obtained special terms for members from two assurance companies for deferred annuities or endowment assurances. The London Teachers' Association has also a provident section.

We have seen that Domestic Arts may now claim a position of importance in both the elementary and secondary school curricula, and that the teaching of these subjects may rank as a profession in which there is a great deal of scope. The attitude of mind towards these subjects has much changed during the last few years, largely owing to the efforts of those who have taken them up as subjects of scientific study. Much, however, remains to be done, both in organising the teaching in schools, and in the training of teachers in domestic subjects. Only those who have had scientific training, are competent to put the work on a sound scientific basis.

[Footnote 1: An interesting sidelight on economic conditions is afforded by the instructions issued by the London County Council for the guidance of teachers of Domestic Subjects (Syllabus of Instruction in Domestic Economy. Revised, March 1912). The girls are to be taught account-keeping in order to "cultivate a well-balanced sense of proportion in spending and saving. ... Weekly incomes suitable for consideration in London, to begin with, are 35s., L3, and 28s. taken in that order." The number in family is supposed to be six, i.e., parents and four children.

The obvious inference is that experts do not find it possible to deal satisfactorily with cases in which there are, say, six children and an income of 25s. An income of L1 a week is not even mentioned, though many a London school-girl must know "in the last three years of her school-life" that her mother has not more than this to spend. Translated into concrete quantities of food, clothing, and rent, this "living wage" is found insufficient for daily needs. The teacher therefore is encouraged to ignore the economic conditions of most of her pupils. [EDITOR]. ]



TABLE I.

Cost and duration of courses for the first degree in the Faculties of Arts and Science, together with Scholarships in those Faculties available for Women at the Universities and University Colleges[1] of the United Kingdom.

NOTES.

1. Scholarships, etc., printed in italics are available for Women only.

2. Scholarships, etc., printed in black type are not restricted to graduates of any one University.

3. County Council and Borough Scholarships are included only when tenable at a specified University or College. Particulars of others should in each case be obtained from the respective Director or Secretary of the Education Committee.

4. No scholarship or prize is included of which the value is less than L15.

[Footnote 1: University Colleges are those in receipt of a Government Grant and doing work of a University standard. Thus the Polytechnics and Colleges such as the Albert Memorial College, Exeter, are not included, although they prepare students for degree examinations.]

ENGLAND.

UNIVERSITY OF BIRMINGHAM.

Duration of Pass Course in Arts or Science: 3 years. Duration of Honours (M.A., M.Sc.) in Arts or Science: 4 years. Cost of Tuition in Arts: 54 guineas for the course. Cost of Tuition in Science: From 47 guineas to L186, 2s. for the course, according to subjects chosen. Cost of Residence (optional): From 40 to 55 guineas per annum.

Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes.

Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. Entrance(2) Not more than L25 1 year Fentham's Trust L75 3 years Awarded on to candidates who have resided for 5 years in the City of Birmingham University(2) L30 1 year Science University(2) L30 1 year Arts University(15) Free tuition and not more than L30 maintenance 4 years Theodore Mander L24 2-3 years Open to sons and daughters of burgesses of Wolverhampton, and awarded to those intending to take Degree Courses in the Faculties of Science of Commerce Polytechnic(2) L45 circa 3 years Ascough L36 circa 1 year Chemistry (renewable) George Henry L45 3 years Classics Marshall German L50 — Offered each year for 5 years from 1913. Education Committee L50 3 years Major(5) Corbett L28 circa 1 year For 2nd year students. Mathematics.

Post-Graduate University(4) L50 1 year Arts and Science Research(4) L50 1 year Arts and Science Priestley(3) L96 circa 1 year Chemistry Research (renewable) 1851 Exhibition L150 2 years Scientific Research



UNIVERSITY OF BRISTOL.

Duration of Course in Arts or Science, Pass or Honours: 3 years. Cost of Tuition in Arts: 18 guineas per annum. Cost of Tuition in Science: 20 guineas per annum. Cost of Residence (optional) at Clifton Hill House: 40 guineas per annum.

Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes.

Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. Bursaries, variable Tuition fees and in number maintenance grant 1 year Awarded (to children of Bristol ratepayers only) according to qualification Vincent Stuckey Lean Interest on Science Scholarship L1,000 1 year

Post-Graduate. Catherine Winkworth L30 1 year Arts Catherine Winkworth L30 1 year Science Capper Pass Scholarship L25 1 year Metallurgy Hugh Conway Scholarship L20 1 year English Literature



UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE.

The only University Scholarships for which women are eligible are the Arnold Gerstenberg Studentship (income of L2,000) for Philosophical Research and the Benn W. Levy Studentship for Research in Biological Chemistry (L100 a year). Scholarships at Girton and Newnham are for women only.

The University does not grant degrees to women.

GIRTON COLLEGE.

Duration of Course in Arts or Science: 3 years. (Pass candidates are not accepted.)

Cost of Course: L105 per annum, including tuition, examinations, and residence. For out-students the fees are L12 a term.

Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes.

Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. Jane Agnes Chessar Not less than L88 4 years Classics Russell Gurney L40 3 years History Sir Francis Goldsmid L45 3 years Mary Anne Leighton About L16 3 years Barbara Leigh Smith About L44 3 years Bodichon Todd Memorial About L35 3 years Higgins L40 3 years Henry Tomkinson At least L20 3 years Clothworkers L60 3 years Skinners L50 3 years Gilchrist L50 3 years Also tenable at Newnham Queen's School, L30 3 years Chester Dove L20 3 years For girls from St. Leonard's School, St. Andrew's. Classics

For Certified Students Gilchrist Studentship L100 1 year For Professionals. Open to Students at Newnham and Girton Old Girtonians' Not less than Studentship L48 1 year John Elliot Cairnes Not less than L58 1 year For research in Political Economy or Economic History Sir Arthur Arnold L30 1 year Harkness About L70 1 year Geology. Also tenable at Newnham. Awarded biennially

Fellowships. Pfeiffer L120 2 years Girton College L300 Various Open to students of all Universities

Prizes. Gamble Interest on L500 Therese Montifiore Interest on L1,700

NEWNHAM COLLEGE.

Duration of Course in Arts or Science: 3 years (Pass candidates are not accepted).

Cost of Course: From L90 to L105 per annum, including tuition, examinations, and residence. For out-students the fees are L12 a term.

Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes.

Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. College(2) L50 3 years Clothworhers L50 3 years College(1 or more) L35 3 years Classical L50 3 years Also tenable at Girton Modern Languages L50 3 years Also tenable at Girton Liverpool Clough L50 2-3 years For those entering the teaching profession, only Gilchrist L50 3 years Also tenable at Girton Mary Ewart L100 3 years For students who have been in residence three terms Harkness L70 1 year Geology. Also tenable at Girton. Awarded biennially

Certificated Students Arthur Hugh Clough L40 1 year Mary Ewart L150 1 year Travelling scholarship Gilchrist L100 1 year Tenable only by those entering a profession. Held alternate years at Newnham and Girton Bathurst L75 or under 1 year Awarded from time to time for proficiency in Natural Science. Not restricted to Newnham students Marion Kennedy L80 1 year Holder eligible for 2nd Studentship year

Fellowships. Associates(2) L100 1 year Awarded alternate years Mary Bateson L100 1 year "N" L100 1 year

Prizes. Creighton L15 Awarded for an essay on Memorial History or Archaeology

UNIVERSITY OF DURHAM.

DURHAM COLLEGE.

Duration of Course in Arts: Pass 2 years; Honours, 3 years. Duration of Course in Science: Pass and Honours, 3 years. Cost of Tuition, Arts and Science: L21 per annum. Cost of Residence in Abbey House (optional): From L12 to L16 a term.

Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes.

Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. Entrance.

Foundation Scholarships L70 1 year May be renewed. Arts Foundation Scholarships L40 1 year May be renewed Foundation Scholarships L30 1 year May be renewed Entrance Exhibitions(2) L20 1 year May be renewed Pears Scholarship L50 3 years Arts Scholarships(2) L70 1 year Scholarships(2) L30 1 year Exhibitions(2) L20 2 years Persons of limited means

Undergraduate. Scholarships(2) L30 1 year 2nd year students Scholarships(2) L30 1 year 2nd year students Gisborne Scholarship L30 1 year 2nd year students University Classical L30 1 year Scholarship University Mathematical L30 1 year Scholarship University Hebrew L20 1 year Scholarship Thorp Scholarship L20 1 year Newby Scholarship L18 2 or 3 yrs. Arts Scholarships(3) L20 1 year Modern B.A.

Prizes. Gibson L20 Essay

ARMSTRONG COLLEGE, NEWCASTLE-ON-TYNE.

Duration of Pass Course in Arts or Science: 3 years. Duration of Honour Course in Arts or Science: 3 to 4 years. Cost of Tuition: L20 per annum. There is no Hall of Residence.

Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes.

Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. Entrance. Exhibition L20 1-2 years Science Exhibition L15 1-2 years Science Exhibitions(2) L15 1-2 years Arts Newcastle-upon-Tyne Free admission to a Open to candidates Corporation degree course resident in Newcastle. Exhibitions(10) 2 years Arts (renewable) Newcastle-upon-Tyne Free admission to a Open to candidates Corporation degree course resident in Newcastle. Exhibitions(10) 2 years Arts (renewable) Newcastle-upon-Tyne Free admission to a Open to candidates Corporation degree course resident in Newcastle. Exhibitions(10) 2 years Science (renewable) Gateshead Corporation Free admission to a Open to candidates Exhibitions(10) degree course resident in Gateshead. 2 years (renewable)

Undergraduate.

Junior Pemberton L30 and remission of Awarded on the results of two-thirds of the the first B.Sc. class fees 1 year examination Thomas Young Hall L20 with remission of Awarded on the results two-thirds of the of the first B.Sc. class fees 3 years examination Nathaniel Clerk L15 1 year Awarded on the results of the first B.Sc. examination Senior Pemberton L40 and fees 1 year Candidates must have passed the first B.Sc. examination

Post-Graduate. Research Studentships(2) L62, 10s 1 year 1851 Exhibition L150 2 years Science 1851 Exhibition Probationary Bursaries L70 1 year Science Research

Johnston Chemical L60 1 year Open to Bachelors of Science of any British University of not more than 3 years' standing

Fellowships. College L125 1 year Pemberton L120 3 years Open to graduates in Science of Durham University of not more than 6 years' standing from their first degree

UNIVERSITY OF LEEDS.

Duration of Pass Course, Arts or Science: 3 years. Duration of Honour Course, Arts or Science: 3 to 4 years. Cost of Tuition in Arts: L19 per annum. Cost of Tuition in Science: L27 per annum. Cost of Residence at University Hall (optional): From L32 to L41 per annum.

Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes.

Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. Emsley L20 2 years Edward Baines L20 2 years Charles Wheatley L25 3 years Arts William Summers L35 3 years Arts Brown L40 2 years Science (renewable) Senior City(14) L50 3 years Open to candidates of not (renewable) less than 17 and not more than 30 years of age County Major L55 circa 3 years Open to candidates of not (West Riding)(14) less than 16 and not more than 30 years of age Free Studentships Tuition Fees 3 years (West Riding) Major (North Riding)(4) L60 1-3 years Open to women of not less than 16 and not more than 20 years of age Scholarships (East L60 1-3 years Riding) Salt L20 2 years Arts City Council Not specified

Post-Graduate. 1851 Exhibition L150 2 years Science University (limited L25 1-2 years Awarded ordinarily on number) Final Honours Examinations Gilchrist L80 1 year Modern Languages John Rutson L70 1 year Arts (renewable)

Fellowships. University L100 1 year

UNIVERSITY OF LIVERPOOL.

Duration of Pass Course in Arts or Science: 3 years. Duration of Honour Course in Arts: 3 to 4 years. Duration of Honour Course in Science: 4 years. Cost of Tuition in Arts: L19 per annum. Cost of Tuition in Science: L25 per annum. Cost of Residence in University Hall (optional): From 35 to 50 guineas a session.

Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes.

Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. Bibby(2) L20 3 years Open to candidates of not more than 18 years of age Morris Ranger L20 3 years Ladies' Educational L30 3 years Open to women of not less Association than 16 and not more than 19 years of age Elizabeth James L40 3 years Arts or Law Tate (Arts) L35 3 years Open to candidates who have been educated in one of the schools of Liverpool or the neighbourhood and who are not more than 18 years of age Tate (Science)(3) L35 3 years Senior City(8) L30 and free admission Open to candidates of not to lectures less than 16 and not more 3 years than 19 years of age Senior City Technical(2) L50 and free admission Open to candidates of not to lectures less than 16 and not more than 25 years of age 3 years Derby(2) L35 3 years One without limit of age, one for candidates of not more than 18 years of age Canning L28 3 years} Iliff L20 3 years} Arts including Mathematics, or B.Sc. Honours in Mathematics William Rathbone L20 3 years} Gossage L70 circa 3 years Open to pupils of schools in the Borough of Widnes Lundie Memorial L15 3 years Wallasey Borough L35 3 years Open to candidates under Council 19 years of age W.P. Sinclair Interest on L1,000 Arts or Honour School of 3 years Mathematics Henry Deacon L50 3 years Open to candidates of not more than 19 years of age who intend studying in the Honour School of Chemistry Sheridan Muspratt L50 2 years Chemistry Thomas Hornby L20 1 year Greek (renewable) Korbach L20 1 year Undergraduates reading (renewable) German in the Honour School of Modern Languages or graduates wishing to proceed with German study or research Henry Warren Meade-King Interest on L1,000 Economics 2 years Holt Travelling L50 1 year Architecture Isaac Roberts(2) L50 1 year Science. Open to graduates (renewable) and under-graduates Sir John Willox L50 2 years Chemistry

Post-Graduate Korbach L20 1 year See above, undergraduate (renewable) scholarship of same name Gilchrist L80 1 year Modern Languages Isaac Roberts(2) L50 1 year See above, undergraduate scholarship of same name 1851 Exhibition L150 2 years Tenable at any University in England and abroad, and to be used for Science Research work University(2) L25 1 year 1851 Exhibition Bursary L70 1 year Derby L45 circa 1 year Mathematics (renewable) Owen-Templeman Interest on L450 1 year (renewable) Celtic Stanley Jones Interest on L1,300 Economics Fellowships. University — 1 year Charles Beard L75 1 year History Oliver Lodge Interest on L2,650 Physics 1 year

UNIVERSITY OF LONDON.

The duration of the Course in Arts or Science, Pass and Honours, is 3 years. (See under separate Colleges for Fees.)

All students of the University are eligible for University Scholarships, Exhibitions, and Prizes in accordance with the regulations laid down in each case.

Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes.

Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. University Undergraduate. Exhibitions(5) L40 2 years Arts and Science Scholarships(19) L50 1 year Arts and Science Mitchell Exhibitions(4) 2 of L25} 1 year For candidates from the 2 of L20}(renewable) city of London Si Dunstan Exhibitions L60 3 years For residents in London of for Women(3) restricted means Gilchrist L40 2 years One in Arts, one in Scholarships, for Science (the latter may Women(2) be increased by L10)

University Post-Graduate. The Lindley Studentship L100 For research in Physiology (awarded every 3rd year) The University L50 For research Studentship in (undergraduates are also Physiology eligible) George Smith Studentship L100 + L5 worth Awarded to the best of books Internal Candidate for B.A. Honours in English on condition of preparation for M.A. Gilchrist Studentship L100 For graduates in Honours for Women who undertake to prepare for and practise some profession Gilchrist Studentship in L80 For internal graduates in Modern Languages Honours (French or German) who undertake to follow abroad a course of preparation for the profession of Modern Language Teacher Carpenter Medal (or its L20 Awarded every 3 years for pecuniary equivalent) a Thesis in experimental Psychology presented for a Doctor's Degree Ouseley Memorial L50 Oriental Languages, not Scholarships(3) restricted to graduates Gilchrist Scholarships(2)L50 Oriental Languages, not restricted to graduates

Grants are also made from the Dixon Fund in aid of scientific investigations.

BEDFORD COLLEGE FOR WOMEN.

Cost of Tuition in Arts: 27 guineas per annum. Cost of Tuition in Science: From 27 to 38 guineas per annum. Cost of Residence in College (optional): From 58 to 68 guineas per annum. All Scholarships at Bedford College are open to women only.

Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes.

Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. Undergraduate. Reid Scholarships(2) L30 3 years Arts Clift Scholarship L30 3 years Arts Courtauld Scholarship L30 3 years Arts Henry Tate Scholarship L50 3 years Science Arnott Scholarship L50 3 years Science Pfeiffer Scholarships(2) L50 3 years Reid Scholarship L60 3 years Jane Benson Scholarship L60 2 years Awarded biennially to a student of Bedford High School

Post-Graduate Reid Fellowship L50 2 years Awarded biennially either to an Arts or a Science graduate



EAST LONDON COLLEGE.

Cost of Tuition in Arts or Science: L10, 10s. per annum. There is no Hall of Residence.

Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes.

Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. Entrance. Drapers' Company(2) L40 3 years Arts. Candidates must not exceed 19 years of age Drapers' Company(2) L40 3 years Science. Candidates must not exceed 19 years of age

Post-Graduate. Research Studentship Conditions not yet published

UNIVERSITY OF LONDON KING'S COLLEGE FOR WOMEN.

Cost of Tuition in Arts: L25, 4s. per annum. Cost of Tuition in Science: L31, 10s. per annum. Cost of Residence in King's Hall (optional): From L17, 10s. to L26, 5s. per term. All Scholarships, etc., except the three which are specified, are open to both men and women, and are tenable by the former at King's College, Strand.

Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes.

Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. Entrance. Skinners' Company L40 3 years Arts Scholarship Merchant Taylors' L40 3 years Arts or Science Scholarship Sambrooke Scholarship L25 2 years Classics Sambrooke Scholarship L25 2 years Science

Undergraduate. Inglis Scholarship L30 1 year English or History in alternate years Sambrooke Exhibition L50 1 year Classics

Post-Graduate. Inglis Studentship L100 1 year Awarded on the result of the B.A. Honours Examination in English and in History in alternate years. The selected Student is required to prepare for M.A. and to give some assistance in teaching Layton Research L150 2 years Science Studentship Gilchrist Scholarship L52, 10S 1 year For graduates intending to in Home Science take the Post-Graduate Diploma in Home Science and Economics. For women only

Prizes. Carter Prize L15 in books and gold English Verse medal Carter Prize L15 in books and gold Botany medal

ROYAL HOLLOWAY COLLEGE.

Cost of Residence and Tuition: L100 per annum. Cost of Tuition for out-students: L12 per term. All Scholarships at Royal Holloway College are for women only.

Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes.

Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. Entrance. Founder's L60 3 years Scholarships(4) Entrance L50 3 years Scholarships(8) Martin Holloway L35 3 years Several Bursaries Not exceeding L30 3 years

Undergraduate. Driver(3) L30 3 years For students who have been at least three terms in residence Christie L60 2 years For History