46. One of the chief advantages of pork is that about nine-tenths of the entire dressed animal may be preserved by curing and smoking. Originally, these processes required a period of 2 to 3 months for their completion, but they have gradually been shortened until now only a few days are required for the work. Pork cured and smoked by the new methods, however, does not possess such excellent flavor and such good keeping qualities as that so treated by the longer process. Any one who has the right storage facilities to care for the meat properly will find it much more economical to purchase a whole carcass or a part of one and then salt, smoke, or pickle the various pieces that can be treated in this way than to purchase this meat cut by cut as it is needed or desired.

CUTS OF PORK

47. NAMES OF PORK CUTS.—The butcher usually buys a whole carcass of pork. He first divides it into halves by splitting it through the spine, and then cuts it up into smaller pieces according to the divisions shown in Fig. 14, which illustrates the outside and the inside of a dressed hog. As will be observed, the method of cutting up a hog differs greatly from the cutting of the animals already studied. After the head is removed, each side is divided into the shoulder, clear back fat, ribs, loin, middle cut, belly, ham, and two hocks.

48. USES OF PORK CUTS.—Hogs are usually fattened before they are slaughtered, and as a result there is a layer of fat under the skin which is trimmed off and used in the making of lard. The best quality of lard, however, is made from the fat that surrounds the kidneys. This is called leaf lard, because the pieces of fat are similar in shape to leaves. Such lard has a higher melting point and is more flaky than that made from fat covering the muscles.

49. The head of pork does not contain a great deal of meat, but, as the quality of this meat is very good, it is valuable for a number of special dishes, such as headcheese and scrapple.

The hocks contain considerable gelatine, so they are used for dishes that solidify, or become firm, after they are made.



50. A shoulder of pork cut roughly from the carcass is shown in Fig. 15. This piece provides both roasts and steaks, or, when trimmed, it may be cured or smoked. The front leg, which is usually cut to include the lower part of the shoulder, is shown in Fig. 16. The ribs inside this cut, when cut from underneath, are sold as spareribs. This piece, as shown in Fig. 17, is generally trimmed to make what is known as shoulder ham.



51. The ribs and the loin cut in one piece are shown in Fig. 18. From this piece are obtained the most desirable chops and roasts. When a roast is desired, the rib bones are removed from the rib cut, which then resembles the piece shown in Fig. 19. Directly under the backbone in these cuts is the tenderest piece of pork to be had. When this is removed in one piece, it is, as in beef, called the tenderloin. Very often, however, it is left in to be cut up with the rest of the loin.



52. The middle cut is commonly used for bacon, while the belly is most suitable for salt pork. These two cuts consist of large quantities of fat and only narrow layers of lean. They are especially valuable for enriching and flavoring foods, such as beans, that are neither rich in fat nor highly flavored.



53. The hind leg, or untrimmed ham, just as it is cut from the carcass, is shown in Fig. 20. When this piece is trimmed and ready for curing or for roasting, it appears as shown in Fig. 21. As will be noticed, the outside skin, or rind, is not removed from either the shoulder or the ham.



54. TABLE OF PORK CUTS.—As is done in explaining the meats that have been considered previously, there is here presented a table, designated as Table III, that gives the names of the pork cuts and the uses to which they may be put. This table will assist the housewife materially in learning the names and uses of the various cuts of pork.

TABLE III

NAMES AND USES OF PORK CUTS

NAMES OF CUTS USES OF CUTS

Head Headcheese, boiling, baking Shoulder Steaks, roasting, curing, smoking Spareribs Roasting, boiling Belly Salt pork, curing Middle cut Bacon, curing, smoking Ribs Chops, roasting Loin Chops, roasting Ham Roasting, curing, smoking Back fat Lard Hock Boiling, making jelly Internal organs and trimmings Sausage

* * * * *

COOKING OF PORK

FRESH PORK AND ITS PREPARATION

55. ROAST PORK.—In the preparation of pork for the table, and a roast in particular, several points must be taken into consideration. Unlike beef, which is often served rare, pork must be well done in order to be satisfactory. Rare pork to most persons is repulsive. Also, as a large part of the surface of a pork roast, especially one cut from the shoulder, loin, or ribs, is covered with a layer of fat, pork does not have to be seared to prevent the loss of juice, nor does it have to be put into such a hot oven as that required for beef. In fact, if the temperature of the oven is very high, the outside will finish cooking before the heat has had a chance to penetrate sufficiently to cook the center. While this makes no difference with meat that does not need to be thoroughly cooked, it is a decided disadvantage in the case of pork.

56. When a shoulder of pork is to be roasted, it makes a very satisfactory dish if it is boned and stuffed before roasting. To bone such a piece, run a long, narrow knife all around the bone and cut it loose; then pick up the bone by one end and shake it until it will pull out. Fill the opening thus formed with bread or cracker stuffing.

If an especially inviting roast of pork is desired, a crown roast should be selected, for this is just as attractive as a crown roast of lamb. It is made by cutting corresponding pieces from each side of the rib piece, trimming the bones clean as far back as the lean part of the chops, and fastening the pieces together. A garnish of fried apple rings is very attractive for such a roast.

57. To cook a roast of any of these varieties, wipe the meat thoroughly, dredge it with flour, salt, and pepper, and place it on a rack in a dripping pan. Bake about 3 hours, depending on the size of the roast, and baste every 15 minutes with fat from the bottom of the dripping pan.

After the roast is removed from the roasting pan, make a gravy as for any other roast. Serve with apple sauce, baked apples, cranberry sauce, chilli sauce, pickles, or some other acid dish. Such an accompaniment aids considerably in the digestion of pork, for it cuts the large amount of fat that this meat contains and that so often retards the digestion, and hastens the fat through the stomach.

58. ROAST PIG.—In some households, roasted pig is the favorite meat for the Thanksgiving or the Christmas dinner. There is sufficient reason for its popularity, for when properly prepared and attractively garnished, roasted pig offers a pleasing change from the meat usually served on such days.

To be suitable for roasting, a pig should be not more than 1 month or 6 weeks old and should not weigh more than 7 or 8 pounds after it is cleaned. The butcher should prepare it for cooking by scalding off the hair, washing the pig thoroughly, inside and out, and withdrawing the entrails of the animal through an incision made in the under part of the body.

59. When the pig is received in the home, wash it thoroughly, within and without, wipe it dry, and fill it with stuffing. To make a stuffing suitable for this purpose, season 2 quarts of fine bread crumbs with 4 tablespoonfuls of chopped onion, 2 teaspoonfuls of salt, 1 teaspoonful of pepper, and cupful of melted butter. Mix thoroughly and add 3 beaten eggs. If the stuffing needs moisture, add water or milk. Stuff the pig firmly with this stuffing, using every effort to restore its original shape. Then sew up the opening and truss the animal; that is, draw the hind legs forwards and bend the front legs backwards under the body, and skewer and tie them into place.

With the animal in this shape, wipe it off with a damp cloth, dredge it with flour, and place it in a dripping pan, adding 1 cupful of boiling water in which 1 teaspoonful of salt has been dissolved. Roast in a moderate oven for at least 1-1/2 hours, or 20 minutes for each pound of pig. Baste frequently, first with butter and water and later with drippings. When the skin begins to brown slightly, rub over it a clean piece of cloth dipped in melted butter. Repeat this operation every 10 minutes until the meat is well done. Then remove the pig to a hot platter and garnish with parsley, lettuce, celery, or fried or baked apples. If a more ornamental garnishing is desired, place a lemon in the mouth and use cranberries for the eyes. In carving, cut the head off, split through the spine lengthwise, remove the legs, and cut the ribs so as to form chops.

60. SAUTED OR BROILED PORK.—Slices cut from the ribs and loin of pork are called chops, and those obtained from the shoulder and hind legs are called steaks. These, together with the tenderloin, the small piece of lean, tender meat lying under the bones of the loin and seldom weighing more than a pound, are especially suitable for sauteing or broiling. When they are to be prepared by these processes, saute or broil them as any other meat, remembering, however, that pork must be well done. Because of this fact, a more moderate temperature must be employed than that used for beefsteak.

61. PORK CHOPS IN TOMATO SAUCE.—A slight change from the usual way of preparing pork chops can be had by cooking them with tomatoes. The combination of these two foods produces a dish having a very agreeable flavor.

First brown the chops in their own fat in a frying pan, turning them frequently so that the surfaces will become evenly browned. When they have cooked for 15 minutes, pour enough strained stewed tomatoes over them to cover them well, and season with salt and pepper. Cover the pan tight, and allow them to simmer until the tomatoes become quite thick. Place the chops on a hot platter, pour the tomato sauce over them, and serve hot.

62. SAUTED TENDERLOIN OF PORK.—Since the tenderloin of pork is a very tender piece of meat, it needs no accompaniment to make it a delicious dish, but sometimes a change of preparation is welcomed in order to give variety to the diet. The accompanying directions should therefore be followed when something different from broiled tenderloin is desired.

Cut the tenderloin into lengthwise slices and brown these slices in melted butter, turning them several times. Then remove to a cooler part of the stove, and let them cook slowly in the butter for 15 minutes, taking care to have them closely covered and turning them once or twice so that they will cook evenly. At the end of this time, pour enough milk or cream in the pan to cover the meat well and cook for 15 minutes longer. With a skimmer, remove the meat, which should be very tender by this time, from the pan, and put it where it will keep hot. Make a gravy of the drippings that remain in the pan by thickening it with 1 tablespoonful of flour, stirring it until it is thick and smooth and seasoning it to taste with salt and pepper. Pour the gravy over the meat and serve hot.

63. PORK SAUSAGE.—The trimmings and some of the internal organs of pork are generally utilized to make sausage by chopping them very fine and then highly seasoning the chopped meat. Pork in this form may be bought fresh or smoked and loose or in casings. It usually contains considerable fat and therefore shrinks upon being cooked, for the fat is melted by the heat and runs out of the sausage.

To cook pork sausages put up in casings, place the required number in a hot frying pan with a small quantity of hot water. Cover the pan with a lid and allow the sausages to cook. When they have swelled up and the skins, or casings, look as if they would burst, remove the cover and thoroughly prick each one with a sharp fork, so as to allow the fat and the water to run out. Then allow the water to evaporate and saute the sausages in their own fat, turning them frequently until they are well browned.

To cook loose pork sausage, shape it into thin, flat cakes. Grease a frying pan slightly, in order to keep the cakes from sticking to the surface, place the cakes in the pan, and allow them to cook in the fat that fries out, turning them occasionally until both sides are well browned.

CURED PORK AND ITS PREPARATION

64. Under the heading of cured pork may be included many of the cuts of pork, for a large part of a pork carcass can be preserved by curing. However, this term is usually restricted to include salt pork, bacon, and ham. As has already been learned, salt pork is obtained from the belly; bacon, from the middle cut; and ham, from the two hind legs of pork.

65. SALT PORK.—As the cut used for salt pork is almost entirely fat, this piece is seldom used alone for the table. Occasionally, it is broiled to be served with some special food, such as fried apples, but for the most part it is used for larding; that is, slices of it are laid across the surface of meat and fish that are lacking in fat and that therefore cook better and have a more agreeable flavor when fat in some form is added. Pork of this kind is usually bought by the pound and then sliced by the housewife as it is needed for cooking purposes.



66. BACON.—The middle cut of pork, upon being cured by smoking, is regarded as bacon. It is sometimes used for larding purposes, but as it contains more lean than salt pork, has a very pleasing flavor, and is the most easily digested fat known, it is much used for food. A piece that contains the usual proportion of fat and lean is shown in Fig. 22. The strip of fat that occurs between the rind, or outer coat, and the first layer of lean is the firmest and the best for larding. The fat that fries out of bacon is excellent for use in the cooking and seasoning of other foods, such as vegetables and meats. When bacon is cooked for the table, its flavor will be improved if it is broiled rather than fried in its own fat. The rind of bacon should, as a rule, be trimmed off, but it should never be wasted, for it may be used to grease a pancake griddle or any pan in which food is to be cooked, provided the bacon flavor will not be objectionable.

In purchasing bacon, it is usually more economical to buy the whole side, or the entire middle cut, but if smaller quantities are desired, any amount, either in one piece or in slices, may be bought. The commercially cut bacon, which is very thin and becomes very crisp in its preparation, may be bought with the rind retained or removed. In both of these forms, it is often put up in jars or packed neatly in flat pasteboard boxes. While such bacon is undoubtedly the most popular kind, it should be remembered that the more preparation that is put on such a food before it enters the home, the more expensive it becomes. Very satisfactory results can be obtained from bacon bought in the piece if care is used in cutting it. To secure very thin, even slices, a knife having a thin blade that is kept sharp and in good condition should always be used.

67. BACON AND EGGS.—There are many combinations in which bacon is one of the foods, but no more palatable one can be found than bacon and eggs. This is generally a breakfast dish; still there is no reason why it cannot be used at times for luncheon or supper to give variety.

To prepare this combination of foods, first pan-broil the desired number of slices of bacon in a hot frying pan until they are crisp and then remove them to a warm platter. Into the fat that has fried out of the bacon, put the required number of eggs, which have first been broken into a saucer. Fry them until they reach the desired degree of hardness, and then remove to the platter containing the bacon. Serve by placing a slice or two of bacon on the plate with each egg.

68. BACON COMBINED WITH OTHER FOODS.—Many other foods may be fried in the same way as eggs and served with bacon. For instance, sliced apples or sliced tomatoes fried in bacon fat until they become tender, but not mushy, are delicious when served with crisp pieces of bacon. Also, cold cereals, such as cream of wheat, oatmeal, corn-meal mush, etc., may be sliced and fried until crisp and then served with bacon.

69. HAM.—The hind leg of pork, when cured and smoked, is usually known as ham. Fig. 23 shows a ham from which the rind has not been removed. In such a ham, the proportion of fat and lean is about right, but when ham is bought with the rind removed, much of the fat is also taken off. The best hams weigh from 8 to 15 pounds, and have a thin skin, solid fat, and a small, short tapering leg or shank.

Several ways of cooking ham are in practice. Very often slices resembling slices of round steak are cut from the whole ham and then fried or broiled. If a larger quantity is desired, the entire ham or a thick cut may be purchased. This is boiled or baked and then served hot or cold. It is a good idea to purchase an entire ham and keep it in supply, cutting off slices as they are desired. In such an event, the ham should be kept carefully wrapped and should be hung in a cool, dry place. In cutting a ham, begin at the large end, as in Fig. 23, and cut off slices until the opposite end becomes too small to make good slices. The piece that remains may be cooked with vegetables, may be boiled and served either hot or cold, or, if it is only a small piece, may be used for making soup.



70. BROILED HAM.—The methods of broiling and pan broiling are very satisfactory when applied to ham that is cut in slices. Ham is pan-broiled in the same way as other meats. To broil ham, place slices 1 inch thick on the hot broiler rack and sear quickly on both sides. Then reduce the temperature and broil for 15 to 18 minutes, turning the ham every few minutes until done. Remove to a hot platter. Add a little water to the drippings in the broiler pan, pour this over the meat, and serve at once.

71. HAM BAKED IN MILK.—A change from the usual ways of preparing slices of ham can be had by baking them in milk. A point to remember in carrying out this method is that the meat must bake slowly in order to be tender when it is done.

Secure a 2-inch slice of ham, place it in a dripping pan, and completely cover it with milk. Put in a moderate oven and cook for 2 or more hours. When the ham is done, its surface should be brown and the milk should be almost entirely evaporated. If the liquid added in the beginning is not sufficient, more may be added during the baking.

72. BOILED HAM.—Sometimes it is desired to cook an entire ham, particularly when a large number of persons are to be served. The usual way to prepare a whole ham is to boil it. When it is sufficiently cooked, it may be served hot or kept until it is cold and then served in slices. Nothing is more appetizing for a light meal, as luncheon or supper, or for picnic lunches than cold sliced ham. Then, too, boiled ham is very delicious when it is fried until the edges are crisp.

To prepare boiled ham, first soak the ham in cold water for several hours and then remove it and scrub it. Place it in a large kettle with the fat side down and cover well with cold water. Put over a slow fire and allow to come to the boiling point very slowly. Boil for 15 minutes and skim off the scum that has risen. Simmer slowly for about 5 hours, or at least 25 minutes for each pound of ham. Take from the kettle and remove the skin about two-thirds of the way back. It will be found that the skin will peel off easily when the ham is cooked enough. Garnish in any desirable way and serve hot or cold.

73. BAKED HAM.—Another very appetizing way in which to cook an entire ham is to bake it. This involves both cooking in water on the top of the stove and baking in the oven. While this recipe, as well as those preceding, specifies ham, it should be remembered that shoulder may be cooked in the same ways.

For baked ham, proceed in the way just explained for boiled ham, but boil only 12 minutes for each pound. Take the ham from the kettle and allow it to cool enough to permit it to be handled. Remove the skin. Then place the ham in a roasting pan and pour over it 1 cupful of water. Bake 12 minutes for each pound and baste frequently while baking. Serve hot or cold.

PREPARATION OP LEFT-OVER PORK

74. COLD PORK WITH FRIED APPLES.—A combination that most persons find agreeable and that enables the housewife to use up left-over pork, is cold pork and fried apples. To prepare this dish, remove the cores from sour apples and cut the apples into 1/2-inch slices. Put these in a frying pan containing hot bacon fat and fry until soft and well browned. Slice cold pork thin and place in the center of a platter. Arrange the apples around the pork in a border.

75. SCALLOPED PORK AND CABBAGE.—If not enough pork remains to serve alone, it can be combined with cabbage to make a most appetizing scalloped dish. The accompanying recipe shows just how to prepare such a dish.

SCALLOPED PORK AND CABBAGE (Sufficient to Serve Six)

2 c. small thin slices of pork 1-1/2 c. cooked chopped cabbage 1-1/2 c. thin white sauce 1/4 c. buttered crumbs

Arrange the pork and cabbage in layers in a baking dish, having a layer of cabbage on top. Pour the white sauce over all and sprinkle the crumbs on top. Bake until the sauce boils and the crumbs are brown.

76. MOCK CHICKEN SALAD.—The similarity in appearance of pork to chicken makes it possible to prepare a salad of cold pork that is a very good substitute for chicken salad. A salad of this kind can be used as the main dish in such a meal as luncheon or supper.

MOCK CHICKEN SALAD (Sufficient to Serve Six)

4 Tb. vinegar 2 c. diced pork 1-1/2 c. diced celery Salad dressing

Heat the vinegar and pour it over the diced pork. Set aside to chill. When ready to serve, add the diced celery and mix well. Pour the salad dressing over all and serve on crisp lettuce leaves.

SERVING AND CARVING OF MEAT

77. The manner of carving and serving meat in the home depends to some extent on the kind of meat that is to be served. A way that is favored by some is to carve the meat before it is placed on the table and then serve it according to the style of service used. However, the preferable way is to place the platter containing the meat on the table, together with the plates, in front of the person who is to do the carving and serving.

The carver should use considerable care in cutting and serving the meat so that the platter and the surrounding tablecloth will not become unsightly. To make each portion as attractive as possible, it should be cut off evenly and then placed on the plate with the best side up. Furthermore, the carving should be done in an economical way in order that whatever remains after the first serving may be served later in the same meal, and what is not eaten at the first meal may be utilized to advantage for another. To obtain the best results in carving, a good carving knife should be secured and it should always be kept well sharpened.

78. With the general directions clear in mind, the methods of carving and serving particular kinds of meat may be taken up. Chops, of course, require no carving. By means of a large fork, one should be placed on each person's plate. Steaks and roasts, however, need proper cutting in order that equally good pieces may be served to each person dining. To carve a steak properly, cut it across from side to side so that each piece will contain a portion of the tender part, as well as a share of the tougher part. When cut, the pieces should be strips that are about as wide as the steak is thick. It is often advisable to remove the bone from some steaks before placing them on the table.

79. Roasts require somewhat more attention than steaks. Before they are placed on the table, any cord used for tying should be cut and removed and all skewers inserted to hold the meat in shape should be pulled out. To carve a roast of any kind, run the fork into the meat deeply enough to hold it firmly and then cut the meat into thin slices across the grain. In the case of a roast leg that contains the bone, begin to carve the meat from the large end, cutting each slice down to the bone and then off so that the bone is left clean. Place round of beef and rolled roasts on the platter so that the tissue side, and not the skin side, is up, and then cut the slices off in a horizontal direction. To carve a rib roast properly, cut it parallel with the ribs and separate the pieces from the backbone.

SAUSAGES AND MEAT PREPARATIONS

80. In addition to the fresh, raw meats that the housewife can procure for her family, there are on the market numerous varieties of raw, smoked, cooked, and partly cooked meats, which are generally included under the term SAUSAGES. These meats are usually highly seasoned, so they keep better than do fresh meats. They should not be overlooked by the housewife, for they help to simplify her labor and at the same time serve to give variety to the family diet. Still, it should be remembered that when meats are made ready for use before they are put on the market, the cost of the labor involved in their manufacture is added to the price charged for them. For this reason, the housewife must be prepared to pay more for meats of this kind than she would pay if she could prepare them at home. However, she need not be concerned regarding their safety, for the government's inspection and regulations prevent any adulteration of them.

81. Among the numerous varieties of these meats, many of them are typical of certain localities, while others have a national or an international reputation. They also vary in the kind of meat used to make them. Some of them are made from beef, as frankfurters and certain kinds of bologna, while others are made from pork and include the smoked and unsmoked sausages, Liverwurst is made from the livers of certain animals, and may be purchased loose or in skins.

Some of these sausages are used so often in certain combinations of foods that they are usually thought of in connection with the foods that it is customary for them to accompany. Frankfurters and sauerkraut, pork sausage and mashed potatoes, liverwurst and fried corn-meal mush are well-known combinations of this kind.

82. Closely allied to these sausages, although not one of them, is a meat preparation much used in some localities and known as scrapple, or ponhasse. This is prepared by cooking the head of pork, removing the meat from the bones, and chopping it very fine. The pieces of meat are then returned to the broth in which the head was cooked and enough corn meal to thicken the liquid is stirred in. After the whole has boiled sufficiently, it is turned into molds and allowed to harden. When it is cold and hard, it can be cut into slices, which are sauted in hot fat.

83. Besides scrapple, numerous other meat preparations, such as meat loaves of various kinds and pickled pig's feet, can usually be obtained in the market. While the thrifty housewife does not make a habit of purchasing meats of this kind regularly, there are times when they are a great convenience and also afford an opportunity to vary the diet.

* * * * *

PREPARATION OF FOODS BY DEEP-FAT FRYING

PRINCIPLES OF DEEP-FAT FRYING

84. Up to this point, all frying of foods has been done by sauteing them; that is, frying them quickly in a small amount of fat. The other method of frying, which involves cooking food quickly in deep fat at a temperature of 350 to 400 degrees Fahrenheit, is used so frequently in the preparation of many excellent meat dishes, particularly in the use of left-overs, that specific directions for it are here given, together with several recipes that afford practice in its use. No difficulty will be experienced in applying this method to these recipes or to other recipes if the underlying principles of deep-fat frying are thoroughly understood and the proper utensils for this work are secured.

85. In the first place, it should be remembered that if foods prepared in this way are properly done, they are not so indigestible as they are oftentimes supposed to be, but that incorrect preparation makes for indigestibility in the finished product. For instance, allowing the food to soak up quantities of fat during the frying is neither economical nor conducive to a digestible dish. To avoid such a condition, it is necessary that the mixture to be fried be made of the proper materials and be prepared in the right way. One of the chief requirements is that the surface of the mixture be properly coated with a protein material, such as egg or egg and milk, before it is put into the fat or that the mixture contain the correct proportion of egg so that its outside surface will accomplish the same purpose. The reason for this requirement is that the protein material is quickly coagulated by the hot fat and thus prevents the entrance of fat into the inside material of the fried food.

Care must be taken also in the selection of the fat that is used for deep-fat frying. This may be in the form of an oil or a solid fat and may be either a vegetable or an animal fat. However, a vegetable fat is usually preferred, as less smoke results from it and less flavor of the fat remains in the food after it is cooked.



86. The utensils required for deep-fat frying are shown in Fig. 24. They consist of a wire basket and a pan into which the basket will fit. As will be observed, the pan in which the fat is put has an upright metal piece on the side opposite the handle. Over this fits a piece of wire with which the basket is equipped and which is attached to the side opposite the handle of the basket. This arrangement makes it possible to drain the fat from whatever food has been fried without having to hold the basket over the pan.

APPLICATION OF DEEP-FAT FRYING

87. With the principles of deep-fat frying well in mind, the actual work of frying foods by this method may be taken up. Numerous foods and preparations may be subjected to this form of cookery, but attention is given at this time to only croquettes and timbale cases. Croquettes are small balls or patties usually made of some finely minced food and fried until brown. Timbale cases are shells in which various creamed foods are served. As these two preparations are representative of the various dishes that can be cooked by frying in deep fat, the directions given for these, if carefully mastered, may be applied to many other foods.

88. FRYING OF CROQUETTES.—After the mixture that is to be fried has been prepared, and while the croquettes are being shaped, have the fat heating in the deep pan, as in Fig. 24. Before the food is immersed, test the temperature of the fat in the manner shown in Fig. 25, to make sure that it is hot enough. To do this, put a 1/2-inch cube of bread in the hot fat and keep it there for 40 seconds. If at the end of this time it is a golden brown, it may be known that the fat is sufficiently hot for any mixture. Be careful to regulate the heat so as to keep the fat as near this temperature as possible, for it should be remembered that each time a cold food is immersed in hot fat, the temperature is lowered. Usually, a few minutes' frying is necessary to assure this regulation of the temperature.



As soon as the correct temperature is reached, put several of the croquettes in the basket and set the basket in the pan of hot fat so that the croquettes are entirely covered. Fry until a good brown color is secured. Then lift the basket out of the fat and allow it to drain until all the fat possible has dripped from it. Finally remove the croquettes from the basket and place them on any kind of paper that will absorb the excessive fat. Serve at once or keep hot until ready to serve.

89. VEAL CROQUETTES.—Veal that remains from a roast after it has been served once can be utilized in no better way than in the making of croquettes; or, if desired, veal may be cooked especially for this purpose. When such croquettes are served with a sauce of any desirable kind, such as white sauce or tomato sauce, or with left-over gravy, no more appetizing dish can be found.

VEAL CROQUETTES (Sufficient to Serve Six)

2 c. cold ground veal 1 c. thick white sauce 2 Tb. chopped onion 1 Tb. chopped parsley Salt and pepper 1 egg Fine crumbs

Mix the ground veal with the white sauce, add the onion and parsley, and salt and pepper to taste. Shape into oblong croquettes. Roll first in the beaten egg, which, if necessary, may be increased by the addition of a little milk, and then in the crumbs. Fry in deep fat until a golden brown. Serve with or without sauce.

90. SWEETBREAD CROQUETTES.—An extremely palatable dish can be made by frying in deep fat sweetbreads cut any desirable shape and size. These are usually served with a vegetable, and often a sauce of some kind is served over both.

To prepare the sweetbreads, parboil them according to the directions given in Art. 17. Cut them into the kind of pieces desired, sprinkle the pieces with salt and pepper, and dip them into beaten egg and then into crumbs. Fry in deep fat and serve with a vegetable or a sauce or both.

91. RICE-AND-MEAT PATTIES.—Sometimes not enough meat remains after a meal to make a tasty dish by itself. In such a case, it should be combined with some other food, especially a starchy one, so as to extend its flavor and produce a dish that approaches nearer a balanced ration than meat alone does. A small amount of any kind of meat combined with rice and the mixture then formed into patties, or croquettes, provides both an appetizing and a nutritious dish.

RICE-AND-MEAT PATTIES (Sufficient to Serve Six)

1 c. finely chopped left-over meat 1 c. cold steamed rice 1/2 c. thick white sauce 1 Tb. chopped onion 1 tsp. celery salt Salt and pepper 1 egg Fine crumbs

Mix the meat and rice, stir into them the white sauce, onion, and celery salt, and salt and pepper to taste. Shape into croquettes, or patties; roll first in the egg and then in the crumbs. Fry in deep fat until golden brown and serve with any desirable sauce.



92. TIMBALE CASES.—Such foods as creamed sweetbreads, creamed sweetbreads and mushrooms, and other delicate foods that are served in small quantities can be made very attractive by serving them in timbale cases. These are made out of a batter by means of a timbale iron and fried in deep fat until brown. In serving them, place them either on a small plate or on the dinner plate with the rest of the dinner. To make them especially attractive, dip the edge into egg white and then into very finely chopped parsley. Fig. 26 shows creamed sweetbreads served in a timbale case.



93. To prepare timbale cases, a timbale iron, such as is shown in Fig. 27, is required. Such an iron consists of a fluted piece of metal that is either solid or hollow and that has attached to it a handle long enough to keep the hand sufficiently far away from the hot fat.

The batter required for timbale cases and the directions for combining them are as follows:

TIMBALE-CASE BATTER (Sufficient to Make Twenty)

1 egg 1/2 c. milk 1/2 tsp. salt 1 tsp. sugar 3/4 c. flour

Beat the egg with a fork just enough to break it up thoroughly. Add the milk, salt, and sugar. Stir in the flour with as little beating as possible. After preparing this mixture, allow it to stand for 1/2 hour, so that any air it contains in the form of bubbles may escape and thus prevent the formation of holes and bubbles in the finished timbale cases.



When about to use the batter, pour it into a cup or some other small utensil that is just large enough to admit the iron easily. The iron must be nearly covered with batter, but a large amount of it will not be needed if a small utensil is used. Place the iron in the hot fat, as shown in Fig. 27, until it is hot, or for about 4 minutes. Then let it drip and place it in the batter, as in Fig. 28, being careful not to permit the batter to come quite to the top of the iron, and remove it at once. Place it immediately into the hot fat, as in Fig. 29, allowing the fat to come higher on the iron than the batter does. This precaution will prevent the formation of a ridge of bubbles around the top of the timbale case. Fry in the deep fat until the case is nicely browned, as shown in Fig. 26. Remove the iron from the fat, and allow it to drip. Then carefully remove the timbale case from the iron with a fork and place it on paper that will absorb the fat.



If your timbales are soft instead of crisp, you will know that the mixture is too thick and should be diluted. Too hot or too cold an iron will prevent the mixture from sticking to it.

MEAT (PART 2)

EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

(1) (a) What is veal? (b) From animals of what age is the best veal obtained?

(2) Compare veal and beef as to characteristics.

(3) What cuts of veal are most suitable for: (a) roasts? (b) cutlets? (c) soup and stews? (d) chops?

(4) (a) What organs of veal are used for foods? (b) What are sweetbreads?

(5) (a) Why is veal more indigestible than beef? (b) What important point must be remembered concerning the cooking of veal?

(6) (a) What substance in veal is utilized in the preparation of jellied veal? (b) Explain how this dish is prepared.

(7) (a) At what age is sheep sold as lamb? (b) How do lamb and mutton differ as to food substances?

(8) Compare the flesh of lamb and mutton as to appearance.

(9) As they apply to lamb and mutton, explain the terms: (a) rack; (b) saddle.

(10) Explain why some cuts of lamb and mutton are tough and others tender.

(11) What is: (a) a crown roast of lamb? (b) a French chop?

(12) (a) Describe pork of the best kind. (b) Why is the food value of pork higher than that of other meats?

(13) (a) Name the cuts of pork. (b) What is meant by leaf lard?

(14) What important points must be taken into consideration in the cooking of pork?

(15) (a) Name some of the accompaniments that are usually served with pork. (b) What is the purpose of these accompaniments?

(16) (a) For what purpose is salt pork generally used? (b) What is bacon? (c) To what uses is bacon put?

(17) (a) Give the general directions for the carving and serving of meat. (b) Explain how to carve and serve a steak.

(18) (a) What is meant by deep-fat frying? (b) Why must a food that is to be fried in deep fat contain or be coated with a protein material?

(19) (a) What utensils are necessary for deep-fat frying? (b) Explain the procedure in frying croquettes in deep fat.

(20) (a) For what purpose are timbale cases used? (b) Explain how to make a batter for timbale cases.

ADDITIONAL WORK

Select a cut of beef that you consider most desirable from an economical standpoint. Buy a quantity that may be used to the greatest advantage for your family. Prepare it in any way you desire.

State the number of pounds purchased, the price of the meat, the number of meals in which it was served, and the number of persons (tell how many adults and how many children) served at each meal. Estimate the cost of each portion by dividing the cost of the whole by the number of persons served.

Make up an original dish in which left-over meat is used and submit the recipe to us.

* * * * *



POULTRY

* * * * *

POULTRY AS A FOOD

1. POULTRY is the term used to designate birds that have been domesticated, or brought under the control of man, for two purposes, namely, the eggs they produce and the flesh food they supply. All the common species of domestic fowls—chickens, ducks, geese, turkeys, guinea fowls, and pigeons—are known as poultry. However, none of these species is included under this term unless it is raised for at least one of the two purposes mentioned. As the term is to be understood in this Section, poultry includes all domestic fowls that are killed in order that their flesh may be cooked and used as food for human beings. Of course, many wild birds are killed for the flesh food they furnish, but they are classed under the term game.

2. Poultry is probably never a necessity in the ordinary dietary, and when prices are high it is a decided luxury. Still it does aid materially in relieving the monotony of the usual protein foods, and it supplies that "something out of the ordinary" for special occasions. Then, too, it is often valuable in the diet of an invalid or some person with a poor appetite. Poultry is, of course, used more in some homes than in others; yet there is scarcely a home in which it is not served some time or another. A knowledge of this food and its preparation and serving will therefore prove to be a valuable asset to any housewife.

3. To arrive at a knowledge of the use of poultry as a food, the housewife must necessarily become familiar with its selection and purchase. Then she must give attention to both its preparation for cooking and its actual cooking, and, finally, to its serving. In all these matters she will do well to adhere to the practice of economy, for, at best, poultry is usually an expensive food. Before entering into these matters in detail, however, it will be well to look into them in a general way.

4. In the selection of poultry, the housewife should realize that poultry breeders have so developed certain breeds, even of the same species, that they are better for table use than others. The flesh of any breed of poultry may be improved by feeding the birds good food and giving them proper care; and it is by applying these principles that the breeders are enabled to better the quality of this food. Other things also influence the quality of poultry flesh as food, as, for example, the way in which the poultry is prepared for market and the care it receives in transportation and storage. Unless these are as they should be, they have a detrimental effect on poultry, because such food is decidedly perishable.

It is possible to exercise economy in the purchase of poultry, but before the housewife can do this she must be able to judge the age of each kind she may desire. On the age depends to a great extent the method of cookery to be followed in preparing the poultry for the table. Likewise, she must know the marks of cold-storage poultry, as well as those of poultry that is freshly killed; and she must be familiar with the first marks of deterioration, or decay, that result from storing the food too long or improperly.

Economy may also be practiced in preparing poultry for cooking. To bring this about, however, the housewife should realize that the best method of preparing any kind of poultry for cooking is always the most economical. It means, too, that she should understand thoroughly the methods of drawing and cutting, so that she may either do this work herself or direct it.

The way in which poultry is cooked has a bearing on the cost of this food, too. For example, a young, tender bird prepared by a wrong method not only is a good dish spoiled, but is a waste of expensive material. Likewise, an older bird, which has more flavor but tougher tissues, is almost impossible as food if it is not properly prepared. Both kinds make appetizing dishes and do not result in waste if correct methods of cooking are followed in their preparation.

Even the way in which poultry is served has a bearing on the cost of this food. For this reason, it is necessary to know how to carve, as well as how to utilize any of this food that may be left over, if the housewife is to get the most out of her investment.

* * * * *

SELECTION OF POULTRY

GENERAL INFORMATION

5. The selection of any kind of poultry to be used as food is a matter that should not be left to the butcher. Rather, it should be done by some one who understands the purpose for which the poultry is to be used, and, in the home, this is a duty that usually falls to the housewife. There are a number of general facts about poultry, and a knowledge of them will assist the housewife greatly in performing her tasks.

6. CLASSIFICATION OF POULTRY.—Poultry breeders and dealers divide the domestic fowls into three classes. In the first class are included those which have combs, such as chickens, turkeys, and guinea fowls. Quails and pheasants belong to this class also, but they are very seldom domesticated. The birds in this class are distinguished by two kinds of tissue—light meat on the breast and dark meat on the other parts of the body. In the second class are included those fowls which swim, such as ducks and geese. These are characterized by web feet and long thick bills, and their meat is more nearly the same color over the entire body. The third class is comprised of birds that belong to the family of doves. Pigeons, which are called squabs when used as food, are the only domesticated birds of this class. They stand between the other two classes with respect to their flesh, which has some difference in color between the breast and other muscles, but not so much as chicken and other fowls of the first class.

7. INFLUENCE OF FEEDING AND CARE ON QUALITY.—To some extent, the breed affects the quality of poultry as food; still this is a far less important matter than a number of things that the purchaser is better able to judge. Among the factors that greatly influence the quality are the feeding and care that the birds receive up to the time of slaughter. These affect not only the flavor and the tenderness of the tissue, as well as the quantity of tissue in proportion to bone, but also the healthfulness of the birds themselves. To keep the birds in good health and to build up sufficient flesh to make them plump, with as much meat as possible on the bones and a fair amount of fat as well, the food they get must be clean and of the right kind. Likewise, the housing conditions must be such that the birds are kept dry and sufficiently warm. The living space, also, must be adequate for the number that are raised. Domestic fowls are not discriminating as to their food, and when they are forced to live in dirt and filth they will eat more or less of it and thus injure the quality of their flesh. Poultry that comes into the market looking drawn and thin, with blue-looking flesh and no fat, shows evidence of having had poor living conditions and inadequate feeding. Such poultry will be found to have a less satisfactory flavor than that which has received proper care.

8. EFFECT OF SEX ON QUALITY.—When birds of any kind are young, sex has very little to do with the quality of the flesh. But as they grow older the flesh of males develops a stronger flavor than that of females of the same age and also becomes tougher. However, when birds, with the exception of mature ones, are dressed, it would take an expert to determine the sex. The mature male is less plump than the female, and it is more likely to be scrawny. Likewise, its spurs are larger and its bones are large in proportion to the amount of flesh on them.

Very often the reproductive organs of young males are removed, and the birds are then called capons. As the capon grows to maturity, it develops more of the qualities of the hen. Its body becomes plump instead of angular, the quality of its flesh is much better than that of the cock, and the quantity of flesh in proportion to bone is much greater. In fact, the weight of a capon's edible flesh is much greater than that of either a hen or a cock. In the market, a dressed capon can usually be told by the long tail and wing feathers that are left on, as well as by a ring of feathers around the neck. Female birds that are spayed are called poulards. Spaying, or removing the reproductive organs, of female birds, however, makes so little improvement that it is seldom done.

9. PREPARATION OF POULTRY FOR MARKET.—The manner in which poultry is prepared for market has a great bearing on its quality as food. In some cases, the preparation falls to the producer, and often, when birds are raised in quantities, they are sold alive and dressed by the butcher. However, poultry that is to be shipped long distances and in large quantities or stored for long periods of time is usually prepared at a slaughtering place. This process of slaughtering and shipping requires great care, for if attention is not given to details, the poultry will be in a state of deterioration when it reaches the consumer and therefore unfit for food.

In order to avoid the deterioration of poultry that is slaughtered some distance from the place of its consumption, each bird is well fed up to within 24 hours before it is killed. Then it is starved so that its alimentary tract will be as empty as possible at the time of killing. Such birds are killed by cutting the large blood vessel running up to the head. When properly done, this method of killing allows almost all the blood to be drained from the body and the keeping qualities are much improved. At practically the same time, the brain is pierced by the knife thrust, and as soon as the bleeding commences the fowl becomes paralyzed. As the tissues relax, the feathers may be pulled easily from the skin without immersing the bird in hot water. This method of plucking, known as dry plucking, is preferable when the skin must be kept intact and the poultry kept for any length of time. The head and feet are left on and the entrails are not removed. The poultry is then chilled to the freezing point, but not below it, after which the birds are packed ten in a box and shipped to the market in refrigerator cars or placed in cold storage. Unless the poultry is to be cooked immediately after slaughter, such measures are absolutely necessary, as its flesh is perishable and will not remain in good condition for a long period of time.

10. COLD-STORAGE POULTRY.—Poultry that has been properly raised, killed, transported, and stored is very likely to come into the market in such condition that it cannot be readily distinguished from freshly killed birds. When exposed to warmer temperatures, however, storage poultry spoils much more quickly than does fresh poultry. For this reason, if there is any evidence that poultry has been in storage, it should be cooked as soon as possible after purchase.

There are really two kinds of cold-storage poultry: that which is kept at a temperature just above freezing and delivered within a few weeks after slaughtering, and that which is frozen and kept in storage a much longer time. When properly cared for, either one is preferable to freshly killed poultry that is of poor quality or has had a chance to spoil. Poultry that has been frozen must be thawed carefully. It should be first placed in a refrigerator and allowed to thaw to that temperature before it is placed in a warmer one. It should never be thawed by putting it into warm water. Thawing it in this way really helps it to decompose.

A sure indication of cold-storage poultry is the pinched look it possesses, a condition brought about by packing the birds tightly against one another. Storage poultry usually has the head and feet left on and its entrails are not removed. Indeed, it has been determined by experiment that poultry will keep better if these precautions are observed. The removal of the entrails seems to affect the internal cavity of the bird so that it does not keep well, and as a matter of safety it should be cooked quickly after this has been done in the home.

SELECTION OF CHICKEN

11. To be able to select chicken properly, the housewife must be familiar with the terms that are applied to chickens to designate their age or the cookery process for which they are most suitable. Chicken is a general name for all varieties of this kind of poultry, but in its specific use it means a common domestic fowl that is less than 1 year old. Fowl is also a general term; but in its restricted use in cookery it refers to the full-grown domestic hen or cock over 1 year of age, as distinguished from the chicken or pullet. A broiler is chicken from 2 to 4 months old which, because of its tenderness, is suitable for broiling. A frying chicken is at least 6 months old, and a roasting chicken is between 6 months and 1 year old. With these terms understood, it can readily be seen that if fried chicken is desired a 2-year-old fowl would not be a wise purchase.

The quality of the bird is the next consideration in the selection of chicken. A number of things have a bearing on the quality. Among these, as has already been pointed out, are the feeding and care that the bird has received during its growth, the way in which it has been prepared for market, and so on. All of these things may be determined by careful observation before making a purchase. However, if the bird is drawn, and especially if the head and feet are removed, there is less chance to determine these things accurately.



12. GENERAL MARKS OF GOOD QUALITY.—A chicken older than a broiler that has been plucked should not be scrawny nor drawn looking like that shown in Fig. 1, nor should the flesh have a blue tinge that shows through the skin. Rather, it should be plump and well rounded like the one shown in Fig. 2. There should be a sufficient amount of fat to give a rich, yellow color. It should be plucked clean, and the skin should be clear and of an even color over the entire bird. Tender, easily broken skin indicates a young bird; tougher skin indicates an older one. The skin should be whole and unbroken; likewise, when pressed with the fingers, it should be neither flabby nor stiff, but pliable.



13. The increase of age in a chicken is to some extent an advantage, because with age there is an increase in flavor. Thus, a year-old chicken will have more flavor than a broiler. However, after more than a year, the flavor increases to such an extent that it becomes strong and disagreeable. With the advance of age there is also a loss of tenderness in the flesh, and this after 1-1/2 or 2 years becomes so extreme as to render the bird almost unfit for use. As the age of a chicken increases, the proportion of flesh to bone also increases up to the complete maturity of the bird. Hence, one large bird is a more economical purchase than two small ones that equal its weight, because the proportion of bone to flesh is less in the large bird than in the small ones.

14. DETERMINING THE AGE OF CHICKEN.—An excellent way in which to determine the age of a chicken that has been dressed consists in feeling of the breast bone at the point where it protrudes below the neck. In a very young chicken, a broiler, for instance, the point of this bone will feel like cartilage, which is firm, elastic tissue, and may be very easily bent. If the bird is about a year old, the bone will be brittle, and in a very old one it will be hard and will not bend.

15. If the head has been left on, the condition of the beak is a means of determining age. In a young chicken, it will be smooth and unmarred; in an old one, it will be rough and probably darker in color. If the feet have been left on, they too will serve to indicate the age. The feet of a young chicken are smooth and soft; whereas, those of an old bird are rough, hard, and scaly. The claws of a young one are short and sharp; but as the bird grows older they grow stronger and become blunt and marred with use. The spur, which is a projection just above the foot on the back of each leg, is small in the young chicken, and increases in size as the age increases. However, the spurs are more pronounced in males than in females.

16. Another way of telling the age of dressed chicken is to observe the skin. After plucking, young birds usually have some pin feathers left in the skin. Pin feathers are small unformed feathers that do not pull out with the larger ones. Older birds are usually free from pin feathers, but have occasional long hairs remaining in the skin after the feathers have been plucked. These do not pull out readily and must be singed off when the chicken is being prepared for cooking.

17. DETERMINING THE FRESHNESS OF CHICKEN.—There are a number of points that indicate whether or not a chicken is fresh. In a freshly killed chicken, the feet will be soft and pliable and moist to the touch; also, the head will be unshrunken and the eyes full and bright. The flesh of such a chicken will give a little when pressed, but no part of the flesh should be softer than another. As actual decomposition sets in, the skin begins to discolor. The first marks of discoloration occur underneath the legs and wings, at the points where they are attached to the body. Any dark or greenish color indicates decomposition, as does also any slimy feeling of the skin. The odor given off by the chicken is also an indication of freshness. Any offensive odor, of course, means that the flesh has become unfit for food.

18. LIVE CHICKENS.—Occasionally chickens are brought to the market and sold alive. This means, of course, that the birds are subjected to a certain amount of fright and needless cruelty and that the work of slaughtering falls to the purchaser. The cost, however, is decreased a few cents on the pound. Such birds must be chosen first of all by weight and then by the marks that indicate age, which have already been given.

SELECTION OF POULTRY OTHER THAN CHICKEN

19. The determination of quality, especially freshness, is much the same for other kinds of poultry as it is for chicken. In fact, the same points apply in most cases, but each kind seems to have a few distinguishing features, which are here pointed out.

20. SELECTION OF TURKEYS.—Turkeys rank next to chickens in popularity as food. They are native to America and are perhaps better known here than in foreign countries. Turkey is a much more seasonal food than chicken, it being best in the fall. Cold-storage turkey that has been killed at that time, provided it is properly stored and cared for, is better than fresh turkey marketed out of season.

21. The age of a turkey can be fairly accurately told by the appearance of its feet. Very young turkeys have black feet, and as they mature the feet gradually grow pink, so that at more than 1 year old the feet will be found to be pink. However, as the bird grows still older, the color again changes, and a 3-year-old turkey will have dull-gray or blackish looking feet. The legs, too, serve to indicate the age of turkeys. Those of a young turkey are smooth, but as the birds grow older they gradually become rough and scaly. A young turkey will have spurs that are only slightly developed, whereas an old turkey will have long, sharp ones.

22. Turkeys are seldom marketed when they are very young. But in spite of the fact that this is occasionally done, the mature birds are more generally marketed. Turkeys often reach a large size, weighing as much as 20 to 25 pounds. A mature turkey has proportionately a larger amount of flesh and a smaller amount of bone than chicken; hence, even at a higher price per pound, turkey is fully as economical as chicken.

23. SELECTION OF DUCKS.—Ducks probably come next to turkeys in popularity for table use. Young ducks are sold in the market during the summer and are called spring duck. The mature ducks may be purchased at any time during the year, but they are best in the winter months.

The flexibility of the windpipe is an excellent test for the age of ducks. In the young bird, the windpipe may be easily moved; whereas, in the old one, it is stationary and quite hard. The meat of ducks is dark over the entire bird, and the greatest amount is found on the breast. Its flavor is quite typical, and differs very much from turkey and chicken. However, there is a comparatively small amount of meat even on a good-sized duck, and it does not carve to very good advantage; in fact, more persons can be served from a chicken or a turkey of the same weight. Young ducks are rather difficult to clean, as a layer of fine down, which is not easily removed, covers the skin.

24. SELECTION OF GEESE.—Geese are much more commonly used for food in foreign countries than in America. Their age may be told in the same way as that of ducks, namely, by feeling of the windpipe. The flesh is dark throughout and rather strongly flavored. The fat is used quite extensively for cooking purposes, and even as a butter substitute in some countries. Because of this fact, geese are generally fattened before they are slaughtered, and often half the weight of the bird is fat. The livers of fattened geese reach enormous proportions and are considered a delicacy. They are used for pate de fois gras. Usually, this is put up in jars and brings a very high price.

25. SELECTION OF PIGEONS.—Pigeons are raised primarily for their use as squabs. These are young birds about 4 weeks old, and their meat is tender and agreeable to the taste. The meat of the mature pigeon becomes quite tough and unpalatable. The breast is the only part of the bird that has meat on it in any quantity, and this meat is slightly lighter in color than that which comes from the remainder of the body. Midsummer is the best season for squabs, but they can be purchased at other times of the year. The cost of squabs is too high to allow them to be used extensively as a food in the ordinary household.

TABLE I

GUIDE TO THE SELECTION OF POULTRY

Market Name Weight Age Season Pounds

Squab broiler 3/4 to 1-1/4 6 to 8 wk. April to July Broiler 1-1/2 to 2 2 to 4 mo. May to Sept. Frying chicken 2-1/2 to 3 6 mo. June to Oct. Roasting chicken 3 to 6 6 mo. to 1 yr. All Year Fowl 4 to 5 over 1 yr. All Year Capon 6 to 10 6 to 8 wk. May to Sept. Turkey broiler 1-1/2 to 4 2 to 4 mo. June to Sept. Roasting turkey 8 to 25 6 mo. to 3 yr. Oct. to Jan. Spring Duck 1-1/2 to 2-1/2 2 to 6 mo. May to Dec. Roasting Duck 4 to 8 6 mo. to 1 yr. Best in winter Green goose 1-1/2 to 2-1/2 2 to 6 mo. May to Dec. Roasting goose 4 to 8 6 mo. to 1 yr. Oct. to Mar. Squab 1/2 to 3/4 4 wk. June to Sept. Guinea hen broiler 1 to 2 2 to 4 mo. Aug. to Nov. Guinea fowl 3 to 5 6 mo. to 1 yr. Oct. to Mar.

26. SELECTION OF GUINEA FOWLS.—Guinea fowls are coming into common use as food. The young birds are preferable to the older ones. They are ready for the market in early autumn, while the old birds may be procured at any time. The breast meat of guinea fowls is almost as light as that of chicken, but all the meat of this bird has a gamy taste, which is absent in the chicken. If this particular flavor is much desired, it may be developed to even a greater degree by allowing the bird to hang after killing until the meat begins to "turn," that is, become "high." Such meat, however, is not usually desirable in the ordinary menu.

27. SELECTION OF PHEASANT, PARTRIDGE, AND QUAIL.—Pheasant, partridge, and quail are usually considered game birds, but certain varieties are being extensively domesticated and bred for market. Such birds are small and are used more in the nature of a delicacy than as a common article of food.

28. TABLE OF POULTRY AND GAME.—In Table I are given the market names of the various kinds of poultry and game birds, as well as the corresponding age, the weight, and the season of the year when they are most desirable. This table will serve as a guide in selecting poultry that is to be used as food.

COMPOSITION OF POULTRY

29. The composition of poultry is very similar to that of meats. In fact, poultry is composed of protein, fat, water, mineral salts, and extractives that do not differ materially from those found in meats. The protein, which usually varies from 15 to 20 per cent., is a much more constant factor than the fat, which varies from 8 to 40 per cent. This variation, of course, makes the total food value high in some kinds of poultry and low in others. For instance, in a young broiler that has not been fattened, the food value is extremely low; whereas, in a mature well-fattened bird, such as a goose, which increases very markedly in fatty tissue after reaching maturity, it is extremely high. A factor that detracts considerably from the edible portion of poultry is the waste material, or refuse. This consists of the bones, cartilage, head, feet, and entrails, or inedible internal organs. The greater the proportion of such waste material, the more the total nutritive value of the flesh is reduced. It is claimed that birds that have light-colored flesh do not become so fat as those which have dark flesh. This, of course, makes their nutritive value less, because the fat of poultry is what serves to supply a large part of the nutrition. There is no particular difference, as is commonly supposed, between the red and white meat of poultry. The difference in color is due to a difference in the blood supply, but this does not affect the composition to any extent.

* * * * *

PREPARATION OF POULTRY FOR COOKING

PREPARATION OF CHICKEN

30. As has been implied, poultry must be properly prepared before it is ready for cooking; likewise, the method of cookery determines how it must be prepared. For example, if it is to be roasted, it must be drawn; if it is to be stewed, it must be drawn and cut into suitable pieces; and so on. The various steps that must be taken to make poultry suitable for cooking are therefore considered here in detail.

31. DRESSING A CHICKEN.—Although, as has been shown, the housewife does not have to dress the chicken that she is to cook—that is, kill and pluck it—there may be times when she will be called on to perform this task or at least direct it. A common way of killing chicken in the home is simply to grasp it firmly by the legs, lay it on a block, and then chop the head off with a sharp hatchet or a cleaver. If this plan is followed, the beheaded chicken must be held firmly until the blood has drained away and the reflex action that sets in has ceased. Otherwise, there is danger of becoming splashed with blood.

32. After a chicken has been killed, the first step in its preparation, no matter how it is to be cooked, consists in removing the feathers, or plucking it, as this operation is called. Plucking can be done dry by simply pulling out the feathers. However, a bird can be plucked more readily if it is first immersed in water at the boiling point for a few minutes. Such water has a tendency to loosen the feathers so that they can be pulled from the skin easily. Unless the chicken is to be used at once, though, dry plucking is preferable to the other method. Care should be taken not to tear or mar the skin in plucking, and the operation is best performed by pulling out the feathers a few at a time, with a quick jerk. In a young chicken, small feathers, commonly called pin feathers, are apt to remain in the skin after plucking. These may be pulled out by pinching each with the point of a knife pressed against the thumb and then giving a quick jerk.



33. Whether live poultry is dressed by a local butcher or in the home, the length of time it should be kept after killing demands attention. Such poultry should either be cooked before rigor mortis, or the stiffening of the muscles, has had time to begin, or be allowed to remain in a cool place long enough for this to pass off and the muscles to become tender again. Naturally, if this softening, or ripening, process, as it is sometimes called, goes on too long, decomposition will set in, with the usual harmful effects if the meat is used as food.



34. SINGEING A CHICKEN.—On all chickens except very young ones, whether they are home dressed or not, hairs will be found on the skin; and, as has been mentioned, the older the bird the more hair will it have. The next step in preparing a chicken for cooking, therefore, is to singe it, or burn off these hairs. However, before singeing, provided the head has not been removed, cut it off just where the neck begins, using a kitchen cleaver or a butcher knife, as in Fig. 3. To singe a dressed chicken, grasp it by the head or the neck and the feet and then revolve it over a gas flame, as shown in Fig. 4, or a burning piece of paper for a few seconds or just long enough to burn off the hairs without scorching the skin. After singeing, wash the skin thoroughly with a cloth and warm water, as shown in Fig. 5. Then it will be ready for drawing and cutting up.



35. DRAWING A CHICKEN.—By drawing a chicken is meant the taking out of the entrails and removing all parts that are not edible. Although this work will be done by some butchers, the better plan is to do it at home, for, as has been stated, chicken or any other poultry must be cooked very soon after the entrails are removed. Chicken that is to be roasted is always prepared in this way, as the cavity that remains may be filled with stuffing. Drawing is also necessary when chicken is to be cooked in any other way, as by stewing or frying, but in addition it must be cut up. The procedure in drawing a chicken is simple, but some practice is required before deftness will result.



36. In order to draw a chicken, carefully cut a lengthwise slit through the skin on the neck, and slip the fingers down around the crop, which is a small sack that holds the food eaten by the chicken. Then pull the crop out, and with it the windpipe, as in Fig. 6, taking pains not to tear the skin nor to break the crop.

Next, remove the tendons, or thick white cords, from the legs, so as to improve the meat. These may be easily removed, especially from a chicken that is freshly killed; that is, one in which the flesh is still moist. Simply cut through the skin, just above the foot, as in Fig. 7, being careful not to cut the tendons that lie just beneath the skin; then slip a skewer or some other small, dull implement, as a fork, under the tendons, pull down toward the foot until they loosen at the second joint, and pull them out. This operation is clearly shown in Fig. 8. With the tendons removed, the feet may be cut off. To do this, cut through the skin where the two bones join, as shown in Fig. 9. As the joint separates, cut through the remaining tendons and skin on the back of the legs.



37. Proceed, next, to cut a crosswise slit through the skin between the legs at a point above the vent, as in Fig. 10, so that the entrails may be removed. This slit should be just large enough to admit the hand and no larger. Insert the fingers of one hand in this slit and gently move them around the mass of the internal organs, keeping them close to the framework of the bird. This will loosen the entrails at the points where they are attached to the body. Then, inserting the hand, slip the fingers around the mass at the top, near the neck, and with one pull remove the entire internal contents, as Fig. 11 shows. The lungs, or lights, as they are sometimes called, do not come out with this mass. They will be found covered with a membrane and tightly fastened inside the breast bone, and must be removed by pulling them out with the tips of the fingers. After the entrails are removed, pour clean cold water into the cavity, rinse it well several times, and pour the water out.



38. Among the contents drawn from the chicken will be found the heart, the liver, and the gizzard. These are called the giblets. They are the only edible internal organs, and must be separated from the rest. To do this, squeeze the blood from the heart, and then cut the large vessels off close to the top of it. Then cut the liver away. In handling this part of the giblets extreme care must be taken, for tightly attached to it, as Fig. 12 shows, is the gall bladder, which is a tiny sack filled with green fluid, called bile. If this sack breaks, anything that its contents touches will become very bitter and therefore unfit to eat. The gall bag should be cut out of the liver above the place where it is attached, so as to be certain that it does not break nor lose any of the bile. Next, remove the gizzard, which consists of a fleshy part surrounding a sack containing partly digested food eaten by the chicken. First trim off any surplus fat, and carefully cut through the fleshy part just to the surface of the inside sack. Then pull the outside fleshy part away from the sack without breaking it, as in Fig. 13, an operation that can be done if the work is performed carefully. After removing the giblets and preparing them as explained, wash them well, so that they may be used with the rest of the chicken. As a final step, cut out the oil sack, which lies just above the tail, proceeding in the manner illustrated in Fig. 14.



39. CUTTING UP A CHICKEN.—When chicken that has been drawn is to be fried, stewed, fricasseed, or cooked in some similar way, it must be cut into suitable pieces. In order to do this properly, it is necessary to learn to locate the joints and to be able to cut squarely between the two bones where they are attached to each other. To sever the legs from the body of the chicken, first cut through the skin underneath each leg where it is attached to the body, as in Fig. 15, bend the leg back far enough to break the joint, and then cut through it, severing the entire leg in one piece. When the legs are cut off, cut each one apart at the joint between the thigh and the lower part, as in Fig. 16, making two pieces. To sever the wings from the body, cut through the skin where the wing is attached, as in Fig. 17, and bend it back until the joint breaks. Then cut it off where the ends of the bones are attached to the joint. When both legs and both wings are removed, proceed to cut the body apart. As shown in Fig. 18, place the chicken, neck down, on a table, and cut down through the ribs parallel with the breast and the back, until the knife strikes a hard bone that it cannot cut. Then firmly grasp the breast with one hand and the back with the other and break the joints that attach these parts by pulling the back and the breast away from each other, as in Fig. 19. Cut through the joints, as in Fig. 20, so that the back, ribs, and neck will be in one piece and the breast in another. If desired, the breast may be divided into two pieces by cutting it in the manner shown in Fig. 21; also, as the back will break at the end of the ribs, it may be cut into two pieces there. Finally, cut the neck from the top piece of the back, as in Fig. 22.

The pieces of chicken thus procured may be rinsed clean with cold water, but they should never be allowed to stand in water, because this will draw out some of the extractives, or flavoring material, soluble albumin, and mineral salts.

40. PREPARING CHICKEN FEET.—Many persons consider that chicken feet are not worth while for food. This, however, is a mistaken idea, for they will add to the flavor of soup stock or they may be cooked with the giblets to make stock for gravy. Chicken feet do not contain much meat, but what little there is has an excellent flavor and should be removed for use when creamed chicken or any dish made with left-over chicken is to be cooked.

To prepare chicken feet for use as food, scrub the feet well and pour boiling water over them. After a minute or two, remove them from the water and rub them with a clean cloth to peel off the scaly skin, as shown in Fig. 23. Finally remove the nails by bending them back.

41. UTILIZING THE WING TIPS.—The last joint, or tip, of chicken wings has no value as food, but, like the feet, it will help to add flavor to any stock that is made. This small piece of wing may be removed and then cooked with the feet and giblets.

PREPARATION OF POULTRY OTHER THAN CHICKEN

42. PREPARATION OF TURKEY.—The preparation of a plucked turkey for cooking is almost identically the same as that of a plucked chicken. Begin the preparation by singeing it; that is, hold it over a flame and turn it so that all the hairs on the skin will be burned off. Then look the skin over carefully, remove any pin feathers that may not have been removed in plucking, and wash it thoroughly. Next, cut off the head, leaving as much of the neck as possible. Draw the tendons from the legs as in preparing chicken; the ease with which this can be done will depend greatly on the length of time the turkey has been killed. Then cut off the legs at the first joint above the foot.

Having prepared the external part of the turkey, proceed to draw it. First, remove the crop by cutting a slit lengthwise in the neck over the crop, catching it with the fingers, and pulling it out. Next, cut a slit between the legs, below the breast bone, and draw out the internal organs. Clean and retain the giblets. Remove the lungs, wash out the cavity in the turkey, and cut off the oil bag on the back, just above the tail.

Turkey prepared in this way is ready to stuff and roast. It is never cut into pieces in the ordinary household until it has been cooked and is ready to serve. Directions for carving are therefore given later.

43. PREPARATION OF DUCK AND GOOSE.—The preparation of duck and goose for cooking does not differ materially from that of turkey or chicken. Like turkey, duck or goose is generally roasted and not cut up until it is ready to serve. It will be well to note that young ducks are covered with small feathers, or down, which is very difficult to remove. However, the down may be removed by pulling it out with a small knife pressed against the thumb. When the down is removed, proceed with the preparation. Singe, wash, remove the head and feet, draw, wash the inside of the bird, and remove the oil sack. Goose may be prepared for cooking in the same way.

44. PREPARATION OF SMALL BIRDS.—Squabs, partridge, pheasant, and other small birds are usually cooked by broiling. To prepare such a bird for cooking, singe, remove any small feathers that may remain, wash, remove the head and feet, and draw, following the directions given for drawing chicken. When it is thus cleaned, lay the bird open. To do this, begin at the neck and cut down the back along the spine. If desired, however, the bird may be cut down the back before drawing and the entrails removed through the cut down the back. Finally, wash the inside and wipe it dry, when the bird will be ready for broiling.

* * * * *

COOKING OF POULTRY

COOKERY METHODS

45. With poultry, as in the case of meats of any kind, it is the composition that determines the method of cookery; and, as the structure and composition of the tissue of poultry do not differ materially from those of meats, the application of the various cooking methods is practically the same. Young and tender birds that have comparatively little flesh, such as young chickens, squabs, and guinea fowl, are usually prepared by such rapid methods as frying and broiling. Medium-sized poultry, including chickens, turkeys, guinea fowl, ducks, and geese, require more cooking, and this, of course, must be done at a lower temperature; therefore, such poultry is generally roasted. Old poultry, particularly old chicken, or fowl, which is apt to be tough, requires still more cooking, and for this reason is stewed, braized, or fricasseed. The recipes for the cooking of various kinds of poultry here given will serve to make clear the cookery method to employ, as well as how to carry it out to advantage.

PREPARATION BY BROILING

46. The method of broiling in the case of poultry of all kinds does not differ in any way from the same method applied to cuts of meat. Since broiling is a rapid method of cookery and heat is applied at a high temperature, it is necessary that the poultry chosen for broiling be young and tender and have a comparatively small amount of meat on the bones.



Broiled poultry is not an economical dish, neither is it one in which the greatest possible amount of flavor is obtained, since, as in the case of the meat of animals used for food, the flavor develops with the age of the birds. However, broiled poultry has value in the diet of invalids and persons with poor appetite and digestion, for if it is properly done it is appetizing and easily digested.



47. BROILED POULTRY.—Poultry that is to be broiled must first be dressed, drawn, and cleaned. Then, as has been mentioned for the preparation of small birds, lay the bird open by cutting down along the spine, beginning at the neck, as shown in Fig. 24. This will permit the bird to be spread apart, as in Fig. 25. When it is thus made ready, washed, and wiped dry, heat the broiler and grease it. Then place the bird on the broiler in the manner shown in Fig. 26 and expose it to severe heat. Sear quickly on one side, and turn and sear on the other side. Then reduce the heat to a lower temperature and broil more slowly, turning often. To prevent burning, the parts that stand up close to the flame may be covered with strips of bacon fastened on with skewers; also, to get the best results, the side of the bird on which the flesh is thick should be exposed to the heat for a greater length of time than the other side. If there is any danger of the high places burning in the broiler, the bird may be removed and the cooking continued in a hot oven. Broiled poultry should be well done when served. This means, then, particularly in the case of chickens, that the broiling process should be carried on for about 20 minutes. When the bird is properly cooked, remove it from the broiler, place it on a hot platter, dot it with butter, sprinkle with salt and pepper, garnish, and serve.



PREPARATION BY FRYING

48. As has been mentioned, birds slightly older and larger than those used for broiling should be fried, because frying is a slower method and gives the flesh a more thorough cooking. However, most of the dishes commonly known as fried poultry are not fried, but sauted in shallow fat. The same principles employed in sauteing any food are applied in the cooking of poultry by this method; that is, the surface is seared as quickly as possible and the cooking is finished at a lower temperature. Often in this cooking process, the pieces to be sauted are dipped into batter or rolled in flour to assist in keeping the juices in the meat.

49. FRIED CHICKEN.—To many persons, fried chicken—or, rather, sauted chicken, as it should be called—is very appetizing. Chicken may be fried whole, but usually it is cut up, and when this is done it serves to better advantage. Likewise, the method of preparation is one that adds flavor to young chicken, which would be somewhat flavorless if prepared in almost any other way.

Frying is not a difficult cookery process. To prepare chickens, which should be young ones, for this method of preparation, draw, clean, and cut them up in the manner previously explained. When they are ready, wash the pieces and roll them in a pan of flour, covering the entire surface of each piece. Then, in a frying pan, melt fat, which may be chicken fat, bacon fat, part butter, lard, or any other frying fat that will give an agreeable flavor. When the fat is thoroughly hot, place in it the pieces of floured chicken and sprinkle them with salt and pepper. As soon as the pieces have browned on one side, turn them over and brown on the other side. Then reduce the heat, cover the frying pan with a tight-fitting lid, and continue to fry more slowly. If, after 25 or 30 minutes, the meat can be easily pierced with a fork, it is ready to serve; if this cannot be done, add a small quantity of hot water, replace the cover, and simmer until the meat can be pierced readily. To serve fried chicken, place the pieces on a platter and garnish the dish with parsley so as to add to its appearance.

50. GRAVY FOR FRIED CHICKEN.—If desired, brown gravy may be made and served with fried chicken. After the chicken has been removed from the frying pan, provided an excessive amount of fat remains, pour off some of it. Sprinkle the fat that remains with dry flour, 1 tablespoonful to each cupful of liquid that is to be used, which may be milk, cream, water, or any mixture of the three. Stir the flour into the hot fat. Heat the liquid and add this hot liquid to the fat and flour in the frying pan. Stir rapidly so that no lumps will form, and, if necessary, season with more salt and pepper to suit the taste.

Gravy may also be made in this manner: Stir cold liquid slowly into the flour in the proportion of 1 tablespoonful of flour to 1 cupful of liquid, which may be milk, cream, water, or any mixture of the three. Add the cold liquid and flour to the frying pan containing a small amount of fat in which the chicken was fried. Stir rapidly until the gravy has thickened and there are no lumps.

Very often the giblets, that is, the liver, heart, and gizzard of chicken, are used in making gravy. For example, the giblets may be cooked in water until they are tender and then sauted in butter to serve, and when this is done the water in which they were cooked may be used for making gravy. Again, if it is not desired to eat them in this way, they may be chopped fine and added to gravy made from the fat that remains from frying.

51. MARYLAND FRIED CHICKEN.—Maryland fried chicken is a popular dish with many persons. As a rule, corn fritters are used as a garnish and Served with the chicken, and strips of crisp bacon are placed over the top of it. Often, too, potato croquettes are served on the same platter, a combination that makes almost an entire meal.

To prepare Maryland fried chicken, draw, clean, and cut up young chickens. Then wash the pieces and dry them with a soft cloth. Sprinkle the pieces with salt and pepper, and dip each into fine cracker crumbs or corn meal, then into beaten egg, and again into the crumbs or the corn meal. Next, melt in a frying pan chicken or bacon fat, part butter, lard, or any other fat for frying. When it is hot, place the pieces of chicken in it. Fry them until they are brown on one side; then turn and brown them on the other side. Lower the temperature and continue to fry slowly until the meat may be easily pierced with a fork. When the chicken is done, pour 2 cupfuls of white sauce on a hot platter and place the chicken in it. Then garnish and serve.

52. FRIED CHICKEN WITH PAPRIKA SAUCE.—Chickens that are a trifle older than those used for plain fried chicken may be prepared to make what is known as fried chicken with paprika sauce. If in preparing this dish the chicken does not appear to be tender after frying, it may be made so by simmering it in the sauce.

To prepare this chicken dish, which is tempting to many, draw, clean, and cut up a chicken as for frying. Then melt fat in a frying pan, place the pieces in the hot fat, sprinkle them with salt and pepper, and brown on both sides quickly. When both sides are brown, continue to fry the pieces until they are tender. Then sprinkle all with 2 level tablespoonfuls of flour, add 2 cupfuls of milk or thin cream, and allow this to thicken. Then sprinkle with paprika until the sauce is pink. Let the chicken simmer slowly until the sauce penetrates the meat a little. Serve on a platter with a garnish.

PREPARATION BY ROASTING

53. Roasting is the cookery process that is commonly employed for preparing chickens that are of good size, as well as turkeys, ducks, and geese. It is also followed at times for cooking guinea fowl, partridges, pheasants, and similar small birds. As a rule, birds prepared in this way are filled with stuffing, which may be made in so many ways that roasted stuffed poultry makes a delightful change in the regular routine of meals.



54. ROAST CHICKEN.—Roasting is the best method to employ for the preparation of old chicken unless, of course, it is extremely old and tough. Then stewing is about the only method that is satisfactory. Chicken for roasting should weigh no less than 3 pounds. Chicken prepared according to the following directions makes a dish that is very appetizing.



To prepare chicken for roasting, clean and draw it in the manner previously given. When it is made clean, rub salt and pepper on the inside of the cavity, and stuff the cavity of the chicken, as shown in Fig. 27, with any desirable stuffing. Directions for preparing stuffing are given later. Also, fill with stuffing the space from which the crop was removed, inserting it through the slit in the neck. Thread a large darning needle with white cord and sew up the slit in the neck, as well as the one between the legs, as in Fig. 28, so that the stuffing will not fall out. Also, force the neck inside of the skin, and tie the skin with a piece of string, as in Fig. 29. Then, as Fig. 29 also shows, truss the chicken by forcing the tip of each wing back of the first wing joint, making a triangle; also, tie the ends of the legs together and pull them down, tying them fast to the tail, as in Fig. 30. Trussing in this manner will give the chicken a much better appearance for serving than if it were not so fastened; but, of course, before it is placed on the table, the strings must be cut and removed. After stuffing and trussing, put the chicken on its back in a roasting pan, sprinkle it with flour, and place it in a very hot oven. Sear the skin quickly. Then reduce the temperature slightly and pour a cupful of water into the roasting pan. Baste the chicken every 10 or 15 minutes with this water, until it is well browned and the breast and legs may be easily pierced with a fork. Remove to a platter and serve. If gravy is desired, it may be made in the roasting pan in the same way as for fried chicken. The giblets may be cut into pieces and added or they may be left out and served after first cooking and then browning them.