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2. ABUNDANCE OF PRODUCTION.—With the exception of the desert lands and the Arctic regions, cereals of some kind are grown over the entire world. Some varieties thrive in the hot countries, others flourish in the temperate regions, and still others mature and ripen in the short warm season of the colder northern climates. In fact, there is practically no kind of soil that will not produce a crop of some variety of grain. Since grains are so easily grown and are so plentiful, cereals and foods made from them furnish a large part of the world's food supply. Indeed, about one-fourth of all the food eaten by the inhabitants of the world, when it is considered as a whole, is made up of cereals.
3. ECONOMIC VALUE OF CEREALS.—The abundance of the world's grain supply makes the cost so moderate that many of the poorer classes of people in various countries, especially those in the Far East, live almost entirely on cereals. Still there is another factor that controls the low cost of cereals and grains and keeps them within the means of all classes of people, and that is their excellent keeping quality. They require very little care and will keep for an indefinite period of time. Because of their unperishable nature, they may be stored in large quantities and distributed to consumers as they are needed and at a price that is fairly uniform.
Since the cost of cereals is moderate, they should form a large proportion of the diet of the entire family, especially if the family's income will allow only a limited sum to be spent for food. Some cereals, of course, are much cheaper than others, and in purchasing this kind of food the housewife should be governed accordingly. Those which require an elaborate manufacturing process in their preparation for the market are the most expensive, but they have an advantage in that they require practically no preparation before serving. For the varieties that must be cooked, the cost of preparing the dish, especially if the price of fuel is high, must be taken into consideration, for unless some thought is given to the economical use of the fuel, as well as to the method of cooking employed, the cost of the prepared dish may be greatly increased. However, in the preparation of cereals, very little skill or energy is required and a general knowledge of the best methods for one of them can, as a rule, be applied to all.
4. CEREAL PRODUCTS.—Besides the cereals already mentioned, a number of products of cereals are extensively used in cookery, chief among them being flour, corn starch, and other starches. Although every housewife should possess knowledge of the uses of each of these, instruction in them is not given until later. This Section includes particularly the study of grains—whole, cracked, flaked, and those made into grits or meal—and the use and the serving of them, as well as ready-to-eat cereals, which are commonly referred to as breakfast foods. The only additional foods to which attention is given at this time are macaroni, spaghetti, and foods of a similar nature, for as these are made from wheat they are truly cereal products. In their preparation for the table, the rules that govern the other cereal foods apply also in a large measure to them.
COMPOSITION OF CEREALS
5. The composition of all cereals is similar, yet each one has its distinguishing feature. While all the five food substances—water, mineral matter, protein, fat, and carbohydrate—are to be found in cereals, they occur in different quantities in the various kinds. Some contain large quantities of protein and others practically none, and while certain ones have considerable fat others possess comparatively small quantities. A characteristic of all cereals, however, is that they contain a large amount of carbohydrate and a small amount of water. It is well to remember, though, that while the food substances of cereals are found in sufficient quantities to sustain life, they will not permit a person to live for long periods of time exclusively on this form of food. Likewise, it will be well to observe that the foods made from a certain grain will be quite similar in composition to the grain itself; that is, any change in the composition of the foods must be brought about by the addition of other substances.
6. All grains are similar in general structure, too. The largest proportion of carbohydrate lies in the center, this substance growing less toward the outside of the grain. The protein lies near the outside, and grows less toward the center. Fat is found in small amounts scattered through the entire grain, but most of it is found in the germ, which is a tiny portion of the grain from which the new plant sprouts. The mineral matter of cereals is found chiefly just inside the bran, or outer covering, so that when this covering is removed, as in the process of preparation for food, a certain amount of mineral matter is generally lost.
7. PROTEIN IN CEREALS.—The cereals are essentially a carbohydrate food, but some also yield a large proportion of protein. In this respect they differ from the animal foods that produce the principal supply of protein for the diet, for these, with the exception of milk, do not yield carbohydrates. The grain that contains the most protein is wheat, and in the form in which protein occurs in this cereal it is called gluten, a substance that is responsible for the hardness of wheat. The gluten, when the wheat is mixed with water or some other liquid, becomes gummy and elastic, a fact that accounts for the rubbery consistency of bread dough. Cereals that contain no gluten do not make bread successfully. Next to wheat, rye contains protein in the greatest amount, and rice contains the least. Although protein is the most expensive of the food substances, the kind of protein found in cereals is one of the cheaper varieties.
8. FAT IN CEREALS.—The fat of cereals helps to contribute to their heat-and energy-producing qualities, and, besides, it is one of the cheaper sources of this food substance. Of the eight grains, or cereals, used as food, oats and corn contain the most fat, or heat-producing material. The oil of corn, because of its lack of flavor, is frequently used in the manufacture of salad oil, cooking oil, and pastry fat. The fat that occurs in cereals becomes rancid if they are not carefully stored. In the making of white flour, the germ of the wheat is removed, and since most of the fat is taken out with the germ, white flour keeps much better than graham flour, from which the germ is not abstracted in the milling process.
9. CARBOHYDRATE IN CEREALS.—The food substance found in the greatest proportion in cereals is carbohydrate in the form of starch. Cereals contain many times more starch than any of the other food substances, rice, which is fully three-fourths starch, containing the most, and oats, which are less than one-half starch, the least. Starch is distributed throughout the grain in tiny granules visible only under the microscope, each being surrounded by a covering of material that is almost indigestible. In the various grains, these tiny granules differ from one another in appearance, but not to any great extent in general structure, nutritive value, or digestibility, provided they are cooked thoroughly. The large amount of carbohydrate, or starch, in cereals explains why they are not hard to digest, for, as is well known, starch is more easily digested than either protein or fat. This and the fact that some grains contain also a large amount of fat account for the high energy-producing quality of cereals. While it is safe to say that cereals are chiefly valuable for their starch, the tissue-building material in some grains, although in small proportion, is in sufficient quantity to place them with the protein foods.
10. MINERAL MATTER IN CEREALS.—Cereals contain seven or eight of the minerals required in the diet. Such a variety of minerals is sure to be valuable to the human body, as it is about one-half of the whole number required by the body for its maintenance. Since, as has already been explained, much of the mineral matter lies directly under the coarse outside covering, some of it is lost when this covering is removed. For this reason, the grains that remain whole and the cereal products that contain the entire grain are much more valuable from the standpoint of minerals than those in which the bran covering is not retained. If a sufficient percentage of minerals is secured in the diet from vegetables, fruits, and milk, it is perhaps unnecessary to include whole cereals; but if the diet is at all limited, it is advisable to select those cereals which retain the original composition of the grain.
11. WATER IN CEREALS.—Cereals contain very little water in their composition. This absence of water is a distinct advantage, for it makes their nutritive value proportionately high and improves their keeping quality. Just as the strength of a beverage is lowered by the addition of water, so the nutritive value of foods decreases when they contain a large amount of water. On the other hand, the keeping quality of cereals could scarcely be improved, since the germs that cause foods to spoil grow only in the presence of water. This low proportion of water also permits them to be stored compactly, whereas if water occurred in large amounts it would add materially to their bulk.
12. CELLULOSE IN CEREALS.—In addition to the five food substances that are found in all cereals, there is always present another material known as cellulose, which, as is pointed out elsewhere, is an indigestible material that occurs on the outside of all grains, as the bran covering, and covers the starch granules throughout the inside of the grain. In fact, it forms a sort of skeleton upon which the grains are built. As long as the cellulose remains unbroken, it prevents the grain from being digested to any extent. However, it forms a valuable protective covering for the grain and it has a certain value, as bulk, in the diet, a fact that is ignored by some persons and overrated by others. It is well to include at least some cellulose in cereal foods when they are taken in the diet, because its presence tends to make food less concentrated.
13. TABLE SHOWING COMPOSITION OF CEREALS.—Not all grains, or cereals, contain the same amount of food substances and cellulose; that is, while one may be high in protein it may be lacking in some other food substance. The relation that the various grains bear to one another with regard to the food substances and cellulose is clearly set forth in Table I. In this table, under the various food substances and cellulose, the grains, with the exception of millet, are mentioned in the order of their value, ranging from the highest down to the lowest in each of the food substances and cellulose. Thus, as will be seen, wheat is highest in protein and rice is lowest, oats are highest in fat and rye is lowest, and so on. Also, as will be observed, while wheat is highest in protein, it is, as compared with the other cereals, sixth in fat, fourth in carbohydrate, fourth in cellulose, and fifth in mineral matter. In this way may be compared all the other cereals to see in just what way they are of value as a food.
TABLE I
COMPOSITION OF CEREALS
Protein Fat Carbohydrate Cellulose Mineral Matter or Ash
Wheat Oats Rice Oats Oats
Rye Corn Rye Buckwheat Barley
Oats Barley Corn Barley Buckwheat
Barley Buckwheat Wheat Wheat Rye
Corn Rice Barley Rye Wheat
Buckwheat Wheat Buckwheat Corn Corn
Rice Rye Oats Rice Rice
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CEREALS AS A FOOD
USES OF CEREALS
14. Cereals and cereal products play a very important part in the food problem, for the prosperity of a country depends on its grain crops and the people of all classes are dependent on them for food. This is evident when it is known that they form a greater proportion of the food consumed than any other single food material. In their widespread consumption, they have many and varied uses. In truth, a meal is seldom served without some cereal food, for if no other is used, bread of some description is almost always included. Besides bread, a cooked or a dry cereal is usually served for breakfast, and for some persons this constitutes the main breakfast dish, providing a nourishing and easily digested food when served with milk or cream. This food is especially desirable for children, and for this reason is always among the first solid foods fed to them.
15. While to most persons the word cereal suggests the idea of a breakfast food, because cereals are used most often for that purpose, they find their place in other meals than breakfast. Although they are used less often on the dinner table than elsewhere, they frequently have an important place there, for a number of them are commonly used as dinner dishes and others might be used more frequently, and to advantage, too. In this connection, they are used in soups, and in certain forms, usually the whole or slightly crushed grain, they take the place of a vegetable. Some of them, particularly rice, are often used with meat or cheese in making an entree or in combination with eggs, milk, fruit, or various flavorings as a dessert to be served with a heavy or a light meal. Cold cooked cereal is often sliced and sauted and then served with meat or some other heavy protein dish. Cereals are also used for lunch or supper, perhaps more often than for dinner, and because of their easy digestion they are to be recommended for the evening meal for all members of the family, but especially for children. When used in this way, they may be served with cream, as for breakfast, or prepared in any other suitable way. Whenever cereals are served, whether alone or in combination with other foods, the result is an economical dish and usually an easily digested one, unless, of course, the food with which they are combined is expensive or indigestible. But, to whatever use cereals are put, unless they are thoroughly cooked they are not easily digested and they lose much of their value. In fact, the ready-to-eat cereals, which have been thoroughly cooked, are preferable to those which are poorly cooked in the home.
SELECTION AND CARE OF CEREALS
16. Preparation of Grains for the Market.—So that the housewife may go about the selection of cereals in an intelligent manner, it may be well for her to know how they are prepared for market. After the grains are harvested, the first step in their preparation consists in thrashing, which removes the husks from the outside. In some countries, thrashing is done entirely by hand, but usually it is accomplished by machinery of a simple or a more elaborate kind. Occasionally no further treatment is applied, the whole grains being used as food, but generally they receive further preparation. Sometimes they are crushed coarsely with or without the bran covering, and in this form they are known as grits. At other times they are ground finer and called meal, and still finer and called flour, being used mostly in these two forms for the making of various kinds of breads. Then, again, grains are rolled and crushed, as, for example, cracked wheat and rolled oats.
Various elaborate means have been devised by which cereals are prepared in unusual ways for the purpose of varying the diet. Sometimes they are used alone, but often certain other materials are used in their preparation for the market. For example, the popular flake cereals, such as corn flakes, are cooked with salt and sometimes with sugar and then rolled thin. Some of the cereals are thoroughly cooked, while others are malted and toasted, but the treatment to which they are subjected is generally given to them to improve their flavor and to aid in the work of digestion.
17. FACTORS THAT GOVERN CEREAL SELECTION.—Besides knowing about the ways in which cereals are prepared for market, the housewife should be familiar with the factors that govern their selection for use as food. In the first place, cereals should be chosen to suit the needs and tastes of the members of the family, and then attention should be given to the forms in which they can be purchased. Some cereals are sold in sealed packages, while others can be bought in bulk. Each, however, has its advantages. Those sold loose are often lower in price than those sold in package form, but there is a question as to whether, with the chances for incorrect weight, the bulk foods are really much cheaper. Cleanliness is, of course, of greater importance with cereals that do not require cooking than with those which are subjected to high temperatures in order to prepare them for the table. Therefore, from the standpoint of cleanliness, there is no advantage in purchasing rice and similar raw cereals in packages.
18. The next thing to consider in the purchase of cereals is their cost. They vary considerably in price, but it has been determined that in food value there is little difference, pound for pound, between the cheap and the expensive cereals, the variation in price being due to their abundance or scarcity and the method used in preparing them for market. The entirely uncooked ones are the cheapest, the partly cooked ones are medium in price, and the thoroughly cooked ones are the most expensive. This difference, however, is practically made up by the expense of the fuel required to prepare them for the table, the cheapest cereal requiring the most fuel and the most expensive, the least.
Besides varying in price, the different kinds of cereals offer the housewife an opportunity to select the one that is most convenient for her. Those which are ready to serve are the best for the meal to which the least possible amount of time can be given for preparation. The other kinds require cooking, of course, but this need not be a hindrance, for they can be prepared on one day and reheated for breakfast the following day, or they can be cooked overnight by the fireless-cooker method. In the case of such cereals, long cooking is usually necessary for good flavor and easy digestion; consequently, the cooking method that will accomplish the desired result with the least expenditure of fuel is the most economical one and the one to select.
19. TABLE OF GRAIN PRODUCTS.—As a further aid in coming to an understanding of cereals, or grains, and their value, there are given in Table II the various uses to which grains are put and the forms in which they occur as food. In this table, as will be observed, the form of the grain product is mentioned first and then the grain from which it is made. A careful study of this table will be profitable to the housewife.
20. CARE OF CEREALS.—As carriers of disease, cereals are a less dangerous food than any other. This characteristic of cereals is due to the fact that the cooking all of them require in some part of their preparation destroys any disease germs that might be present. They are not likely to be adulterated with harmful material, either; and, in addition, the sealed packages in which many of the cereals are put up keep them clean and free from contamination. However, care must be given to both the uncooked and the factory-prepared varieties of this food. The packages containing ready-to-eat cereals should not be allowed to remain open for any length of time if it is desired to keep them fresh and crisp, for they absorb moisture from the air very quickly. If they do become moist, however, drying in the oven will in most cases restore their freshness. If it is necessary to open a single package of prepared cereal and all of the contents cannot be utilized at once, as, for instance, when only one or two persons are to be served with that particular cereal, the best plan is to empty the remainder into cans or jars that are provided with covers. Uncooked cereals, which are used less quickly than the prepared kinds, are often attacked by mice and other vermin, but such an occurrence can be prevented if the cereal is poured into jars or cans that can be kept tightly closed. Considerable care must be given to flour and cereal products purchased in large quantities, for if they are allowed to collect enough moisture, they will become moldy and lose their flavor, and thus be unfit for use. To preserve them well, they should be kept in metal-lined bins or in bins made of carefully matched boards and in a cool, but not damp, place.
TABLE II
GRAIN PRODUCTS
/ Pearl barley Hulled wheat / Whole Grains {Hominy: Corn Corn Rice / Farina: Wheat or corn Cream of Wheat: Wheat Crushed Grains {Cracked Wheat: Wheat Hominy Grits: Corn Wheat Grits: Wheat Samp: Corn Cereals { / Corn Meal {Barley Rice Oats / Flaked: Rye, wheat, rice, corn Prepared Cereals {Shredded Grain: Wheat Malted Grain: Rye, barley, wheat, and corn Puffed Grain: Corn, rice, wheat
/ Corn Starch {Rice Wheat
/ Macaroni Wheat {Vermicelli Spaghetti
Glucose} Usually corn Sirup /
/ Wheat Cereal Coffee {Rye Barley
/ Wheat Rye Flour {Corn Buckwheat Rice
Liquors Malted Drinks} All grains Beer Whisky /
Alcohol: All grains
Feed for animals: All grains
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PREPARATION OF CEREALS FOR THE TABLE
METHODS OF COOKING CEREALS
21. PURPOSE OF COOKING.—As the so-called ready-to-eat cereals require practically no further preparation, attention is here given to only those cereals which need additional treatment to prepare them properly for the table. Raw grains cannot be taken into the body, for they are neither appetizing nor digestible. The treatment to which they must be subjected is cooking, for the structure of grains is such that cooking is the only means by which the coverings of the starch granules can be softened and broken to make them digestible. But this is not the only effect produced by cooking; besides making raw cereals digestible, cooking renders them palatable, destroys any bacteria or parasites that might be present, and, by means of its various methods, provides a variety of dishes that would otherwise be very much limited.
22. CHANGES THAT CEREALS UNDERGO IN COOKING.—In the process of cooking, cereals undergo a marked change, which can readily be determined by performing a simple experiment. Place an equal amount of flour or corn starch—both cereal products—in two different glasses; mix that in one glass with cold water and that in the other with boiling water. The mixture in which cold water is used will settle in a short time, but if the substance that goes to the bottom is collected and dried it will be found to be exactly the same as it was originally. The mixture in which boiling water is used, however, will not only become a sticky mass, but will remain such; that is, it will never again resume its original form. This experiment proves, then, that grains that come in contact with water at a high temperature, as in cooking, absorb the water and burst their cellulose covering. This bursting frees the granulose, or the contents of the tiny granules, which are deposited in a network of cellulose, and as soon as this occurs it mixes with water and forms what is called soluble starch. Starch in this state is ready for digestion, but in the original, uncooked state only a very small part of it, if any, is digestible.
23. PREPARATION FOR COOKING CEREALS.—Before the cooking of cereals is attempted, it is advisable for the sake of convenience to get out all utensils as well as all ingredients that are to be used and arrange them so that they will be within easy reach. The way in which this should be done is illustrated in Fig. 1. The utensils and ingredients shown, which are suitable for most methods of cooking cereals and particularly for cooking them by the steaming process, consist of a double boiler a; a measuring cup b, a knife c, and spoons d and e, for measuring; a large spoon f, for stirring; a salt container; and a package of cereal. The housewife will be able to tell quickly from a recipe just what ingredients and utensils she will need, and by following the plan here suggested and illustrated she will find that her work can be done systematically and with the least expenditure of time.
24. FIRST STEPS IN THE PROCESS OF COOKING.—While cereals may be cooked in a variety of ways, the first steps in all the processes are practically the same. In the first place, the required amount of water should be brought to the boiling point, for if the water is boiling the cereal will thicken more rapidly and there will be less danger of lumps forming. Then salt should be added to the water in the proportion of 1 teaspoonful to each cupful of cereal. Next, the cereal should be stirred into the boiling salted water slowly enough to prevent it from forming lumps, and then, being constantly stirred, it should be allowed to cook until it thickens. The process up to this point is called setting a cereal, or grain. After the cereal is set, it may be boiled, steamed, or cooked in the fireless cooker, but the method of cookery selected should be chosen with a view to economy, convenience, and thoroughness. The terms setting and set should be thoroughly fixed in the mind, so that directions and recipes in which they are used will be readily understood.
25. COOKING CEREALS BY BOILING.—Very often the cereal, after it is set, is allowed to cook slowly until it is ready to serve; that is, the method of boiling is practiced. This method, however, is not to be recommended, because it is not economical. Cereals cooked in this way require constant watching and stirring, and even then it is difficult to keep them from sticking to the cooking utensil and scorching or becoming pasty on account of the constant motion. Sometimes, to overcome this condition, a large quantity of water is added, as in the boiling of rice; still, as some of this water must be poured off after the cooking is completed, a certain amount of starch and soluble material is lost.
26. COOKING CEREALS IN THE DOUBLE BOILER.—Probably the most satisfactory way in which to cook cereals, so far as thoroughness is concerned, is in a double boiler, one style of which is shown at a, Fig. 1. This method of cookery is known as steaming, or dry steaming, and by it the food itself, after it is set, never comes within 6 or 8 degrees of the boiling point. In this method, the cereal is first set in the small, or upper, pan of the double boiler. This pan, which is covered, is placed into the large, or lower, pan, which should contain boiling water, and the cereal is allowed to cook until it is ready to serve. The water in the large pan should be replenished from time to time, for if it is completely evaporated by boiling, the pan will be spoiled and the cereal in the upper pan will burn.
This method of cooking has several advantages that should not be disregarded. Cereals to which it is applied may be partly cooked on one day and the cooking completed the next morning before breakfast, or they may be completely cooked on one day and merely heated before they are served. Then, when cooked at a temperature slightly below the boiling point, the grains remain whole, but become thoroughly softened, because they gradually absorb the water that surrounds them. In addition, the long cooking that is necessary to prepare them at a low temperature develops a delicious flavor, which cannot be obtained by rapid cooking at the boiling point.
27. COOKING CEREALS IN THE FIRELESS COOKER.—In a kitchen that is equipped with a fireless cooker, it is advisable to use this utensil for cereals, for cooking them by this method secures the greatest economy of fuel and effort. As in the preceding methods, the cereal is first set in the pan that fits into the cooker compartment. While the cereal is at the boiling point, this pan is covered tightly and placed in the fireless cooker, where it is allowed to remain until the cereal is ready to be served. The heat that the cereal holds when it is placed in the cooker is retained, and this is what cooks it. Therefore, while this method of cooking requires considerable time, it needs neither additional heat nor labor after the cereal is placed in the cooker. In reality, it is an advantageous way in which to cook cereals, since, if they can be set and placed in the cooker in the evening, they will be ready to serve at breakfast time on the following day.
28. COOKING CEREALS BY DRY HEAT.—An old method of cooking cereals or starchy foods is called browning, or toasting, and it involves cooking them by dry heat. A thin layer of grain is spread in a shallow pan and this is placed in a slow oven. After the grains have browned slightly, they are stirred, and then they are permitted to brown until an even color is obtained. By this method the flavor of the cereals is developed and their digestibility increased. Since grains keep much better after they have been subjected to the process of toasting, this means is used extensively for preserving grains and cereal foods.
29. POINTS TO OBSERVE IN COOKING CEREALS.—In cooking cereals by any method, except browning, or toasting, it is always necessary to use liquid of some kind. The quantity to use, however, varies with the kind of cereal that is to be cooked, whole cereals and those coarsely ground requiring more liquid than those which are crushed or finely ground. If the liquid is to be absorbed completely when the grain is cooked, it should be in the correct proportion to the grain. To be right, cooked cereals should be of the consistency of mush, but not thin enough to pour. Much attention should be given to this matter, for mistakes are difficult to remedy. Cereals that are too thick after they are cooked cannot be readily thinned without becoming lumpy, and those which are too thin cannot be brought to the proper consistency unless the excess of liquid is evaporated by boiling.
Gruels are, of course, much thinner than the usual form of cereal. They are made by cooking cereals rapidly in a large quantity of water, and this causes the starch grains to disintegrate, or break into pieces, and mix with the water. The whole mixture is then poured through a sieve, which removes the coarse particles and produces a smooth mass that is thin enough to pour.
The length of time to cook cereals also varies with their kind and form, the coarse ones requiring more time than the fine ones. Because of this fact, it is difficult to say just how much time is required to cook the numerous varieties thoroughly. However, little difficulty will be experienced if it is remembered that cereals should always be allowed to cook until they can be readily crushed between the fingers, but not until they are mushy in consistency.
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INDIAN CORN, OR MAIZE
ORIGIN, CLASSIFICATION, AND USE
30. The word corn has been applied to various grains and is now used in a variety of ways in different countries. In ancient times, barley was called corn, and at the present time, in some countries, the entire year's food crop is referred to by this name. The English apply the name corn to wheat, and the Scotch, to oats. In the United States, corn is the name applied to the seed of the maize plant, which is a highly developed grass plant that forms the largest single crop of the country. The seeds of this plant grow on a woody cob, and are eaten as a vegetable when they are soft and milky, but as a grain, or cereal, when they are mature. Corn is native to America and was not known in Europe until Columbus took it back with him. However, it did not meet with much favor there, for it was not grown to any great extent until within the last 50 years. Those who took it to Europe gave it the name Indian corn, because they had found the Indians of America raising it.
31. Of the corn grown in the United States, there are three general kinds: field corn, sweet corn, and pop corn. Field corn, as a rule, is grown in large quantities and allowed to mature; then it is fed to animals or ground and cooked for the use of man. This corn consists of three varieties, which are distinguished by the color of the grain, one being white, one yellow, and one red. All of them are made into a variety of preparations, but the white and the yellow are used as food for both man and animals, whereas red field corn is used exclusively for animal food. White corn has a mild flavor, but yellow corn is sometimes preferred to it, because foods made from the yellow variety have a more decided flavor. The two principal varieties of field corn, when prepared as cereal food for man, are hominy and corn meal. Sweet corn is not grown in such large quantities as field corn. It is generally used for food before it is mature and is considered as a vegetable. Pop corn, when sufficiently dry, swells and bursts upon being heated. It is used more as a confection than as a staple article of food. Therefore, at this time, consideration need be given to only the principal varieties of field-corn products, which, as has just been stated, are hominy and corn meal.
RECIPES FOR HOMINY AND CORN MEAL
32. HOMINY is whole corn from which the outside covering has been removed, and for this reason it is high in food value. Corn in this form may be procured as a commercial product, but it may be prepared in the home at less expense. As a commercial product, it is sold dry by the pound or cooked as a canned food. Dry hominy requires long cooking to make it palatable, and this, of course, increases its cost; but even with this additional cost it is cheaper than canned hominy.
Sometimes corn from which the covering has been removed is ground or crushed to form what is called samp, or grits, and when it is ground still more finely CORN MEAL is produced. Corn meal is made from both white and yellow corn, and is ground more finely in some localities than in others. It is sold loose by the pound, but it can also be bought in bags or packages of various sizes from 1 pound up. Corn meal should be included in the diet of every economical family, for it yields a large quantity of food at a moderately low cost. If it is prepared well, it is very palatable, and when eaten with milk or cream it is a food that is particularly desirable for children, especially for the evening meal, because of its food value and the fact that it is easily digested.
33. So that the importance of these corn products may be understood and the products then used to the best advantage in the diet, recipes are here given for preparing hominy in the home, for dishes in which hominy forms the principal part, and for dishes in which corn meal is used. To get the best results from these recipes and thereby become thoroughly familiar with the cooking processes involved, it is recommended that each one be worked out in detail. This thought applies as well to all recipes given throughout the various Sections. Of course, to prepare each recipe is not compulsory; nevertheless, to learn to cook right means actually to do the work called for by the recipes, not merely once, but from time to time as the food can be utilized to give variety to the daily menus in the home.
34. HOMINY.—Although, as has been mentioned, prepared hominy may be purchased, some housewives prefer to prepare it themselves. Hominy serves as a foundation from which many satisfactory dishes can be made, as it is high in food value and reasonable in cost. This cereal can be used in so many ways that it is advisable to prepare enough at one time to meet the demands of several meals. The following recipe for making hominy should provide 3 quarts of this cereal; however, as is true of other recipes—a point that should be remembered throughout the various lessons—the quantities given may be increased or decreased to meet with the requirements of the household.
HOMINY (Sufficient for 3 Quarts)
2 qt. water 1 Tb. lye 1 qt. shelled corn 3 tsp. salt
Put the water into a large kettle or saucepan, and into the water put the lye. Allow the water to come to the boiling point, and then add the corn and let it boil until the skins will slip off the grains when they are pressed between the thumb and the finger. Take from the stove, stir sufficiently to loosen the skins, and then remove them by washing the grains of corn in a coarse colander. Cover the grains with cold water and return to the fire. When the water boils, pour it off. Repeat this process at least three times, so as to make sure that there is no trace of the lye, and then allow the grains to cook in more water until they burst. Season them with the salt, and while the hominy thus prepared is still hot put it into a jar or a crock and cover it tight until it is to be used. The water in which the hominy is cooked should remain on it.
35. BUTTERED HOMINY.—Perhaps the simplest method of preparing cooked hominy is to butter it. In this form it may be served with cream as a breakfast or a luncheon dish, or it may be used in the place of a vegetable.
BUTTERED HOMINY (Sufficient to Serve Six)
1 pt. cooked hominy 3 Tb. butter 1 tsp. salt
Allow a few spoonfuls of water to remain on the cooked hominy. Add the butter and the salt, and then heat all thoroughly, stirring the hominy gently so as to incorporate, or mix in, the butter and the salt. Serve while hot.
36. CREAMED HOMINY.—The addition of a cream sauce to cooked hominy not only adds to the palatableness of this cereal, but increases its food value. When hominy is served with a sauce, it may be used as a dinner vegetable or as the main dish in a light meal.
CREAMED HOMINY (Sufficient to Serve Six)
1 c. milk 2 Tb. butter 1 tsp. salt 1 Tb. flour 1 pt. cooked hominy
Heat the milk, and to it add the butter and the salt. Then thicken it with the flour. To this sauce add the hominy and allow all to cook slowly for 10 or 15 minutes. Serve the creamed hominy hot.
37. HOMINY GRITS.—The cereal sold under the name of hominy grits is prepared commercially by crushing dried hominy grains. It has practically the same food value as hominy, and in appearance resembles cream of wheat. The following recipe shows the simplest way in which to prepare this food, it being usually served as a breakfast cereal in this form:
HOMINY GRITS (Sufficient to Serve Six)
1 tsp. salt 4 c. water 1 c. hominy grits
Add the salt to the water and bring it to the boiling point. Stir the hominy grits into the water and continue to boil for 10 minutes. Then place in a double boiler and cook for 3 to 4 hours. Serve hot with cream or milk and sugar.
38. LEFT-OVER HOMINY.—No waste need result from hominy that is not used at the meal for which it is prepared, for it may be utilized in many ways. For example, it may be served cold with fruit and cream, made into croquettes with chopped meat or cheese and either sauted or baked, or used in soups to increase materially their food value. A dish prepared by combining cooked or left-over hominy with other ingredients to form hominy and cheese souffle, which is illustrated in Fig. 2, will prove to be very appetizing.
HOMINY AND CHEESE SOUFFLE (Sufficient to Serve Six)
1-1/2 c. cooked hominy 1/2 c. hot milk 1/2 tsp. salt 1/2 tsp. paprika 1 c. grated cheese 2 eggs
Work the hominy smooth by mashing it with a fork, and then add the hot milk, salt, paprika, and grated cheese. Separate the eggs, beat the yolks thoroughly, and stir them well into the mixture. Next, fold in the whites, which should be stiffly beaten, pour the mass into a buttered baking dish, and bake until it is firm in the center. Serve hot.
39. CORN-MEAL MUSH.—Since corn meal is comparatively inexpensive and high in food value, the housewife can make frequent use of it to advantage. In the form of mush, corn meal is easily digested; besides, such mush is a very good breakfast cereal when served hot with milk or cream. Although the recipe here given makes a sufficient amount for six persons, a good plan is to increase the quantities mentioned so that there will be enough mush left to mold and use in other ways.
CORN-MEAL MUSH (Sufficient to Serve Six)
1 tsp. salt 3-1/2 c. water 1 c. corn meal
Add the salt to the water and bring the salted water to the boiling point. When it is boiling rapidly, sift the corn meal slowly through the fingers into it, and at the same time stir it rapidly so as to prevent the formation of lumps. Any mush that contains lumps has not been properly made and should not be served in this condition, as it is unpalatable. Keep stirring constantly until the corn meal thickens; then place it in a double boiler and allow it to cook from 2 to 4 hours, when it should be ready to serve. This method of cooking mush is the most convenient, because not much stirring is required after the corn meal is thickened.
A heavy aluminum kettle or an iron pot is a good utensil in which to cook mush, as it does not burn easily in either, although almost constant stirring is required. When the mush becomes very thick, the heated air, in forcing its way through the mush in the process of boiling, makes the mush pop and very often splash on the hands and burn them. To avoid such an accident, therefore, it is advisable to wrap the hand used for stirring in a towel or a cloth.
40. SAUTED CORN-MEAL-MUSH.—Mush cooked in the manner just explained may be poured into pans, such as bread pans, where it will harden and form a mold that can be sliced as thick or as thin as desired and then sauted. Corn-meal mush prepared in this way pleases the taste of many persons, and while some persons find it harder to digest than just plain mush, it serves to give variety to meals. For sauteing mush, a heavy iron or steel frying pan or griddle should be used, because utensils made of thin material will allow the mush to burn before it browns properly. Put enough fat, such as lard, cooking oil, or drippings, into the cooking utensil so that when heated it will be about 1/4 inch deep all over the surface. When the utensil is very hot, put in the slices of mush and allow them to brown on one side. Then turn the slices over carefully, so as not to break them, and brown them on the other side. As will be observed, corn-meal mush does not brown quickly in sauteing. This characteristic is due to the large amount of moisture it contains. Serve the mush hot, and to add to its flavor serve with it sirup or honey.
41. CORN-MEAL CROQUETTES.—Croquettes of any kind add variety to a meal, and because they are attractive they appeal to the appetite. To make croquettes of corn meal, mold mush as for sauteing. Then cut this into slices 1 inch thick, and cut each slice into strips 1 inch wide. Roll these in slightly beaten egg and then in crumbs, and saute them in hot fat until they are crisp and brown. Serve these croquettes hot with either butter or sirup or both.
42. LEFT-OVER CORN-MEAL MUSH.—Sauted corn-meal mush and corn-meal croquettes can, of course, be made from mush that is left over after it has been cooked to serve as a cereal; however, if there is only a small quantity left, it may be utilized in still another way, namely, as a garnish for the platter on which meat is served. To prepare corn-meal mush in this way, spread it about 1/3 inch thick in a pan and allow it to cool. Then turn it out of the pan in a sheet on a board that has been floured; that is, covered thinly with flour. Cut this sheet of corn meal into small circles with the aid of a round cutter or into diamond shapes with a knife, and then brown both sides of each of these in butter.
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WHEAT
ORIGIN AND USE
43. WHEAT, owing to the fact that it is grown in all parts of the world and forms the basis for a large amount of the food of most people, is a very important grain. It was probably a native grass of Asia Minor and Egypt, for in these countries it first received cultivation. From the land of its origin, the use of wheat spread over all the world, but it was not introduced into America until after the discovery of this country by Columbus. Now, however, the United States raises more wheat than any other one country, and nearly one-fourth of all that is raised in the world.
Wheat is universally used for bread, because it contains a large amount of the kind of protein that lends a rubbery consistency to dough and thus makes possible the incorporation of the gas or air required to make bread light. The use of wheat, however, is by no means restricted to bread, for, as is well known, many cereal foods are prepared from this grain.
44. In its simplest food form, wheat is prepared by merely removing the coarse bran from the outside of the wheat grain and leaving the grain whole. This is called hulled, or whole, wheat, and requires soaking or long, slow cooking in order that all its starch granules may be reached and softened sufficiently to make it palatable. The other preparations are made by crushing or grinding the grains from which some of the bran and germ has been removed. Besides flour, which, as has been implied, is not considered as a cereal in the sense used in this Section, these preparations include wheat grits, such foods as cream of wheat and farina, and many ready-to-eat cereals. In the preparation of wheat grits, much of the bran is allowed to remain, but neither cream of wheat nor farina contains cellulose in any appreciable quantity. As the addition of bran, however, serves to give these foods bulk, a much more ideal breakfast cereal will result if, before cooking, equal portions of the cereal and the bran are mixed. In preparing ready-to-eat wheat cereals for the market, the manufacturers subject the grains to such elaborate methods of cooking, rolling, and toasting that these foods require but very little additional attention before serving. The only wheat products that demand further attention at this time, therefore, are those which must be cooked before they can be served and eaten.
RECIPES FOR WHEAT AND WHEAT PRODUCTS
45. HULLED WHEAT.—Inasmuch as hulled, or whole, wheat requires very little preparation for the market, it is a comparatively cheap food. It is used almost exclusively as a breakfast cereal, but serves as a good substitute for hominy or rice. Although, as has been mentioned, it requires long cooking, its preparation for the table is so simple that the cooking need not necessarily increase its cost materially. One of the advantages of this food is that it never becomes so soft that it does not require thorough mastication.
HULLED WHEAT (Sufficient to Serve Four)
1 c. hulled wheat 3 c. water 1 tsp. salt
Look the wheat over carefully and remove any foreign matter. Then add the water and soak 8 to 10 hours, or overnight. Add the salt, cook directly over the flame for 1/2 hour, and then finish cooking in a double boiler for 3 to 4 hours. Serve with cream or milk and sugar.
46. WHEAT GRITS.—The cereal known as wheat grits is made commercially by crushing the wheat grains and allowing a considerable proportion of the wheat bran to remain. Grits may be used as a breakfast cereal, when they should be served hot with cream or milk and sugar; they also make an excellent luncheon dish if they are served with either butter or gravy. The fact that this cereal contains bran makes it an excellent one to use in cases where a food with bulk is desired. The accompanying recipe is for a plain cereal; however, an excellent variation may be had by adding 1/2 cupful of well-cleaned raisins 1/2 hour before serving.
WHEAT GRITS (Sufficient to Serve Four)
1/2 tsp. salt 3 c. boiling water 3/4 c. wheat grits
Add the salt to the boiling water, sift the wheat grits through the fingers into the rapidly boiling water, and stir rapidly to prevent the formation of lumps. Cook for a few minutes until the grits thicken, and then place in a double boiler and cook 2 to 4 hours.
47. CREAM OF WHEAT.—In the manufacture of cream of wheat, not only is all the bran removed, as has been stated, but the wheat is made fine and granular. This wheat preparation, therefore, does not require so much cooking to make it palatable as do some of the other cereals; still, cooking it a comparatively long time tends to improve its flavor. When made according to the following recipe it is a very good breakfast dish:
CREAM OF WHEAT (Sufficient to Serve Six)
1 tsp. salt 4-1/2 c. boiling water 3/4 c. cream of wheat
Add the salt to the boiling water, and when it bubbles sift in the cream of wheat through the fingers, stirring rapidly to prevent the formation of lumps. Cook over the flame for a few minutes until it thickens; then place it in a double boiler and cook for 1 to 2 hours. Serve hot with cream or milk and sugar.
48. CREAM OF WHEAT WITH DATES.—Dates added to cream of wheat supply to a great extent the cellulose and mineral salts that are taken out when the bran is removed in the manufacture of this cereal. They likewise give to it a flavor that is very satisfactory, especially when added in the manner here explained.
CREAM OF WHEAT WITH DATES (Sufficient to Serve Six)
3/4 c. cream of wheat 1 tsp. salt 4-1/2 c. boiling water 3/4 c. dates
Cook the cream of wheat in the manner directed in Art. 47. Wash the dates in hot water, cut them lengthwise with a sharp knife, and remove the seeds. Cut each date into four pieces and add them to the cream of wheat 10 minutes before serving, stirring them into the cereal just enough to distribute them evenly. Serve hot with cream or milk and sugar.
49. FARINA.—The wheat preparation called farina is very much the same as cream of wheat, being manufactured in practically the same manner. It is a good breakfast cereal when properly cooked, but it does not contain sufficient cellulose to put it in the class of bulky foods. However, as has been pointed out, this bulk may be supplied by mixing with it, before cooking, an equal amount of bran. In such a case, of course, more water will be needed and the cooking process will have to be prolonged. Plain farina should be prepared according to the recipe here given, but, as in preparing cream of wheat, dates may be added to impart flavor if desired.
FARINA (Sufficient to Serve Six)
1 tsp. salt 4 c. boiling water 3/4 c. farina
Add the salt to the boiling water, and as the water bubbles rapidly sift the farina into it slowly through the fingers, stirring rapidly to prevent the formation of lumps. Then place it in a double boiler and allow it cook for 2 to 4 hours. Serve hot with cream or milk and sugar.
50. GRAHAM MUSH WITH DATES.—Graham flour is a wheat product that is high in food value, because in its manufacture no part of the wheat grain is removed. While the use of this flour as a breakfast cereal is not generally known, it can be made into a very appetizing and nutritious dish, especially if such fruit as dates is mixed with it.
GRAHAM MUSH WITH DATES (Sufficient to Serve Six)
1-1/4 c. graham flour 3 c. water 1 tsp. salt 1 c. dates
Moisten the graham flour carefully with 1 cupful of the cold water. When perfectly smooth, add it to the remainder of the water, to which the salt has been added, and boil rapidly, allowing the mixture to cook until it thickens. Then place it in a double boiler and cook 1 to 2 hours. Wash the dates, remove the stones, and cut each into four pieces. Add these to the mush 10 minutes before serving. Serve hot with cream or milk and sugar.
51. LEFT-OVER WHEAT CEREALS.—Numerous ways have been devised for utilizing wheat cereals that are left over, so that no waste need result from what is not eaten at the meal for which a cereal is cooked. For instance, left-over hulled wheat can be used in soup in the same way as barley and rice, and plain cream of wheat and farina can be molded, sliced, and sauted like corn-meal mush and served with sirup. The molded cereal can also be cut into 2-inch cubes and served with any fruit juice that is thickened slightly with corn starch. Besides utilizing left-over wheat cereals in the ways mentioned, it is possible to make them into custards and souffles, as is shown in the two accompanying recipes, in which cream of wheat may be used in the same manner as farina.
FARINA CUSTARD (Sufficient to Serve Six)
1 c. cold farina 2 c. milk 2 eggs 1/2 c. sugar 1/4 tsp. nutmeg
Stir the farina and milk together until they are perfectly smooth; then add the eggs, beaten slightly, the sugar, and the nutmeg. Bake in a moderately hot oven until firm and serve hot or cold with any sauce desired.
FARINA SOUFFLE (Sufficient to Serve Six)
1 c. cold farina 1-1/2 c. milk 1/2 tsp. salt 1/4 tsp. paprika 1 c. grated cheese 2 eggs
Stir the farina smooth with the milk, add the salt, paprika, grated cheese, and egg yolks, which should first be beaten. Then beat the egg whites stiff and fold them into the mixture. Pour all into a buttered baking dish, place this in a large pan filled with enough hot water to reach almost to the top of the baking dish, and bake in a moderately hot oven until the mixture in the dish is firm in the center. Serve at once upon taking from the oven.
RICE
VARIETIES AND STRUCTURE
52. RICE, next to wheat, is used more extensively as a food than any other cereal. It is a plant much like wheat in appearance, but it grows only in warm climates and requires very moist soil. In fact, the best land for rice is that which may be flooded with about 6 inches of water. This cereal is of two kinds, namely, Carolina rice and Japanese rice. Carolina rice, which is raised chiefly in the southeastern part of the United States, has a long, narrow grain, whereas Japanese rice, which originated in Japan and is raised extensively in that country and China and India, has a short, flat, oval grain. Efforts made to raise the Japanese variety in the United States show a peculiarity of this cereal, for when it is planted in the same locality as Carolina rice, it soon loses its identity and takes on the shape of the other. Although vast crops of rice are raised in the United States, a large quantity of it must be imported, because these crops are not sufficient to supply the demands of this country.
53. Before rice grains are prepared for use as food, they have two coverings. One is a coarse husk that is thrashed off and leaves the grain in the form of unpolished rice and the other, a thin, brown coating resembling bran. This thin coating, which is very difficult to remove, is called, after its removal, rice polishings. At one time, so much was said about the harmful effect of polished rice that a demand for unpolished rice was begun. This feeling of harm, however, was unnecessary, for while polished rice lacks mineral matter to a great extent, it is hot harmful to a person and need cause no uneasiness, unless the other articles of the diet do not supply a sufficient amount of this food substance. After the inner coating has been removed, some of the rice is treated with paraffin or glucose and talc to give it a glazed appearance. This is called polish, and is sometimes confounded with the term rice polishings. However, no confusion regarding these terms will result if it is remembered that rice polishings are the thin inner coating that is removed and polish is what is added to the rice. In composition, rice differs from the other cereals in that it is practically all starch and contains almost no fat nor protein.
54. To be perfect, rice should be unbroken and uniform in size, and in order that it may be put on the market in this form the broken grains are sifted out. These broken grains are sold at a lower price than the whole grains, but the only difference between them is their appearance, the broken grains being quite as nutritious as the whole grains. In either form, rice is a comparatively cheap food, because it is plentiful, easily transported, and keeps perfectly for an indefinite period of time with very little care in storage. Before rice is used, it should be carefully examined and freed from the husks that are apt to remain in it; then it should be washed in hot water. The water in which rice is washed will have a milky appearance, which is due to the coating that is put on in polishing rice.
RECIPES FOR RICE
55. Rice may be cooked by three methods, each of which requires a different proportion of water. These methods are boiling, which requires twelve times as much water as rice; the Japanese method, which requires five times as much; and steaming, which requires two and one-half times as much. Whichever of these methods is employed, however, it should be remembered that the rice grains, when properly cooked, must be whole and distinct. To give them this form and prevent the rice from having a pasty appearance, this cereal should not be stirred too much in cooking nor should it be cooked too long.
56. BOILED RICE.—Boiling is about the simplest way in which to prepare rice for the table. Properly boiled rice not only forms a valuable dish itself, but is an excellent foundation for other dishes that may be served at any meal. The water in which rice is boiled should not be wasted, as it contains much nutritive material. This water may be utilized in the preparation of soups or sauces, or it may even be used to supply the liquid required in the making of yeast bread. The following recipe sets forth clearly how rice should be boiled:
BOILED RICE (Sufficient to Serve Eight)
1 c. rice 3 tsp. salt 3 qt. boiling water
Wash the rice carefully and add it to the boiling salted water. Boil rapidly until the water begins to appear milky because of the starch coming out of the rice into the water or until a grain can be easily crushed between the fingers. Drain the cooked rice through a colander, and then pour cold water over the rice in the colander, so as to wash out the loose starch and leave each grain distinct. Reheat the rice by shaking it over the fire, and serve hot with butter, gravy, or cream or milk and sugar.
57. JAPANESE METHOD OF COOKING RICE.—Rice prepared by the Japanese method may be used in the same ways as boiled rice. However, unless some use is to be made of the liquid from boiled rice, the Japanese method has the advantage of being a more economical way of cooking this cereal.
JAPANESE METHOD (Sufficient to Serve Eight)
1 c. rice 1-1/2 tsp. salt 5 c. boiling water
Wash the rice, add it to the boiling salted water, and boil slowly for 15 minutes. Then cover the utensil in which the rice is cooking and place it in the oven for 15 minutes more, in order to evaporate the water more completely and make the grains soft without being mushy. Serve in the same way as boiled rice.
58. STEAMED RICE.—To steam rice requires more time than either of the preceding cooking methods, but it causes no loss of food material. Then, too, unless the rice is stirred too much while it is steaming, it will have a better appearance than rice cooked by the other methods. As in the case of boiled rice, steamed rice may be used as the foundation for a variety of dishes and may be served in any meal.
STEAMED RICE (Sufficient to Serve Six)
1 c. rice 1-1/2 tsp. salt 2-1/2 c. water
Wash the rice carefully and add it to the boiling salted water. Cook it for 5 minutes and then place it in a double boiler and allow it to cook until it is soft. Keep the cooking utensil covered and do not stir the rice. About 1 hour will be required to cook rice in this way. Serve in the same way as boiled rice.
59. CREAMED RICE.—To increase the nutritive value of rice, it is sometimes cooked with milk and cream to form what is known as creamed rice. These dairy products added to rice supply protein and fat, food substances in which this cereal is lacking, and also add to its palatability.
CREAMED RICE (Sufficient to Serve Six)
2-1/2 c. milk 1 c. rice 1-1/2 tsp. salt 1/2 c. cream
Heat the milk in the small pan of a double boiler and add to it the rice and salt. Place this pan into the larger one and cook for about 1 hour, or until the rice is soft. Then pour the cream over the rice and cook a few minutes longer. Serve hot.
60. ORIENTAL RICE.—As rice is a bland food, practically lacking in flavor, any flavoring material that may be added in its preparation or serving aids in making it more appetizing. Oriental rice, which is prepared according to the following recipe, therefore makes a very tasty dish and one that may be used in place of a vegetable for lunch or dinner.
ORIENTAL RICE (Sufficient to Serve Six)
1 c. rice 2-1/2 c. stock, or meat broth 2 Tb. butter 1 slice onion 1/2 c. canned tomatoes
Steam the rice in the stock until it is soft by the method given for steaming rice. Then brown the butter and onion in a frying pan, add the tomatoes, and heat thoroughly. Pour this mixture into the rice, mix well, and serve.
61. BROWNED RICE.—Another way in which to add variety in serving rice is to brown it. Sufficient browned rice for six persons may be prepared by putting 1 cupful of clean rice in an iron frying pan that contains no fat, placing the pan directly over the flame, and stirring the rice until the grains become an even, light brown. Rice that has been treated in this way has additional flavor added to it and can be used in the same way as boiled or steamed rice.
62. SAVORY RICE.—Rice browned in the manner just explained is used in the preparation of savory rice, a dish that serves as a very good substitute for a vegetable. Savory rice may be prepared according to the following recipe:
SAVORY RICE (Sufficient to Serve Eight)
1 c. browned rice 2-1/2 c. water 1 tsp. salt 1/2 c. chopped celery 2 Tb. butter 1 small onion, chopped 1/2 c. canned tomatoes 1/4 c. chopped pimiento
Steam the browned rice in the salted water as in steaming rice, and cook the celery, which should be chopped fine, with the rice for the last half hour of the steaming. Brown the butter and add to it the onion finely chopped, the tomatoes, and the pimiento. A few minutes before serving time, add this to the rice, mix well, and serve hot.
63. LEFT-OVER RICE.—There are a variety of ways in which left-over rice may be used. For instance, rice that has been cooked and is not used may be utilized in soups, combined with pancake, muffin, or omelet mixtures, or made into puddings by mixing it with a custard and then baking. It may be served with fruit, made into patties, or combined with tomatoes, cheese, or meat to form an appetizing dish.
64. As has been shown, rice is one of the cereals that contain very little cellulose. Fruit added to it in the preparation of any dish makes up for this lack of cellulose and at the same time produces a delicious combination. Rice combined with pineapple to form a dish like that shown in Fig. 3 not only is very attractive but meets with the favor of many; besides, it provides a good way in which to utilize left-over rice.
RICE WITH PINEAPPLE (Sufficient to Serve Six)
1 c. steamed or creamed rice 1/4 c. sugar 6 rings pineapple 3/4 c. whipped cream
Stir the sugar into the rice and if necessary moisten with a little cream. Shape the rice into six balls of equal size, making them so that they will be about the same in diameter as the rings of the pineapple, and place one in the center of each pineapple ring. Whip the cream with an egg whip or beater until it stands up well, and garnish each dish with the whipped cream before serving.
65. Another satisfactory dish may be made by combining eggs with left-over rice to form RICE PATTIES. Owing to the protein supplied by the eggs, such a combination as this may be made to take the place of a light meat dish for luncheon or supper, and, to impart additional flavor, it may be served with any sauce desired.
RICE PATTIES (Sufficient to Serve Six)
1 c. stale crumbs 1/2 tsp. salt 1/2 tsp. celery salt 2 eggs 2 c. steamed rice
Add 1/2 cupful of the crumbs, the salt, the celery salt, and the eggs, slightly beaten, to the cold steamed rice. If more moisture seems to be necessary, add a very little milk. Shape the rice with the other ingredients into round patties, and then roll these in the remainder of the crumbs and saute them in hot butter. Serve the patties hot and with sauce, if desired.
66. Besides left-over rice, small quantities of one or more kinds of left-over meat and stock or gravy can be used to make a very appetizing dish known as SPANISH RICE, which may be used as the main, or heavy, dish in a luncheon.
SPANISH RICE (Sufficient to Serve Six)
1 small onion 2 Tb. butter 1-1/2 c. steamed or boiled rice 1 c. chopped meat 1/2 c. meat stock or gravy 1/2 c. canned tomatoes 2 Tb. grated cheese 1/4 c. stale crumbs
Chop the onion and brown it in butter. Mix well the browned onion, rice, chopped meat, stock or gravy, and tomatoes, and pour all into a buttered baking dish. Then sprinkle the cheese and crumbs on top of the mixture and bake for 1 hour in a slow oven. Serve hot.
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OATS
COMPOSITION AND VARIETIES
67. As an article of food, OATS are used very extensively. In Scotland, this cereal formed the principal article of diet for many years, and as the hardiness of the Scotch people is usually attributed to their diet the value of oats as a food cannot be overestimated. This grain, or cereal, grows very much like wheat and yields an abundant crop in fairly good soil; but it is unlike wheat in composition, for it contains very little protein and considerable fat. In fact, it contains more fat than any other cereal. Because of its lack of protein, it will not make raised bread, and when it must serve the purpose of bread it is made into flat cakes and baked. Although it is used to some extent in this way, its greatest use for food, particularly in the United States, is in the form of oatmeal and rolled oats. In the preparation of oatmeal for the market, the oat grains are crushed or cut into very small pieces, while in the preparation of rolled oats they are crushed flat between large rollers.
RECIPES FOR OATS
68. The same methods of cooking can be applied to both oatmeal and rolled oats. Therefore, while the recipes here given are for rolled oats, it will be well to note that they can be used for oatmeal by merely substituting this cereal wherever rolled oats are mentioned.
69. ROLLED OATS.—Because of the high food value of rolled oats, this cereal is excellent for cold weather, especially when it is served with hot cream or milk and sugar. It can be prepared very easily, as the accompanying recipe shows.
ROLLED OATS (Sufficient to Serve Six)
1 c. rolled oats 3 c. boiling water 1 tsp. salt
Stir the oats into the boiling water to which the salt has been added. Boil 2 minutes, stirring them occasionally to keep them from sticking. Then cook them in a double boiler for 2 to 4 hours. During this time, stir the oats as little as possible, so as to prevent them from becoming mushy. Serve hot.
70. ROLLED OATS WITH APPLES.—The combination of rolled oats and apples is rather unusual, still it makes a dish that lends variety to a breakfast or a luncheon. Such a dish is easily digested, because the apples supply to it a considerable quantity of cellulose and mineral salts.
ROLLED OATS WITH APPLES (Sufficient to Serve Six)
2/3 c. rolled oats 2 c. boiling water 1/2 tsp. salt 6 medium-sized apples 1 c. water 1/2 c. sugar
Stir the rolled oats into the boiling salted water and cook them until they set; then place them in a double boiler and cook for 2 to 4 hours. Pare and core the apples, and then cook them whole in a sirup made of 1 cupful of water and 1/2 cupful of sugar until they are soft, but not soft enough to fall apart. To serve the food, place it in six cereal dishes. Put a large spoonful of the cooked oats in each dish, arrange an apple on top of the oats, and then fill the hole left by the core with rolled oats. Over each portion, pour some of the sirup left from cooking the apples, and serve hot with cream.
71. ROLLED-OATS JELLY WITH PRUNES.—If an appetizing dish for warm weather is desired, rolled oats may be cooked to form a jelly and then have stewed prunes added to it. Such a dish is illustrated in Fig. 4. When served with cream, this combination of rolled oats and prunes is high in food value and consequently may be made the important dish in the meal for which it is used.
ROLLED-OATS JELLY WITH PRUNES (Sufficient to Serve Six)
1 c. rolled oats 3 c. water 1 tsp. salt 12 stewed prunes
Cook the rolled oats according to the directions already given, and then force them through a fine sieve. Remove the seeds from the prunes that have been stewed by cooking them very slowly until they are soft in a sufficient quantity of water to cover them well, drain off all the juice, and place two prunes in the bottom of each of six cups, or molds, that have been moistened with cold water. Fill each with the rolled-oats jelly and set them aside to chill. When ready to serve, turn the food out of each mold into a cereal dish and serve with cream and sugar.
72. LEFT-OVER ROLLED OATS.—Every housewife should refrain from throwing away any left-over rolled oats, because all of this cereal remaining from a previous meal can be used to good advantage. For example, it can be made especially tasty if, before it is cold, it is added to fruit, poured into molds and allowed to stand in them until it is cold, and then served with sugar and cream. Fruits of any kind, such as cooked peaches, prunes, and apricots or fresh bananas, may be used for this purpose by cutting them into small pieces. Another way of utilizing this cereal when it is warm is to pour it into a pan or a dish, press it down until it is about 1 inch thick, and then, after it is cold, cut it into pieces of any desirable size or shape, brown these pieces in butter, and then serve them with sirup. If the left-over cereal is cold, a good plan would be to serve it with baked apple; that is, for each person to be served, place a spoonful of the cereal in a dish with a baked apple, sprinkle a little cinnamon or nutmeg over it, and then serve it with cream. Still another very good way in which to utilize left-over rolled oats is to make it into croquettes according to the following recipe:
ROLLED-OATS CROQUETTES (Sufficient to Serve Four)
1/2 c. grated cheese 3/4 c. crumbs 1/2 tsp. salt 1/4 tsp. paprika 1 c. cooked rolled oats 1 egg
Work the cheese with 1/2 cupful of the crumbs, the salt, and the paprika into the cold rolled oats; then add the egg, which should be slightly beaten. If more moisture seems to be necessary, add a little milk. Form the ingredients into small croquettes, and then roll them in the remaining 1/4 cupful of crumbs and saute then in butter. Garnish with parsley and serve.
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BARLEY
ORIGIN AND USE
73. BARLEY is a grain, or cereal, that grows very much like wheat. However, it is hardier than wheat or any other cereals and may be grown through a greater range of climates. Barley has been cultivated from the most ancient times; in fact, its cultivation can be traced as far back as man's occupations have been recorded. The grain of this cereal has also played an important part in the advancement of man, for, according to history, some of the present weights and measures originated from it. Thus, the Troy weight grain is said to have been first fixed by finding the average weight of a barley grain, and the inch of linear measure, by placing three grains of barley end to end.
74. Although several varieties of barley have been cultivated as food from the earliest times, the grain is now used principally in the manufacture of malt. In this form, it is used for the malting of foods and in the making of alcoholic liquors. To produce malt, the barley grains are moistened and allowed to sprout, and during this process of sprouting the starch of the barley is changed to sugar. The grains are then dried, and the sprouts, which are called malt sprouts, are broken off and sold as cattle food. The grain that remains, which is really malt, is then crushed and combined with other grains for use as malted cereal food. When barley is used to make malt, or fermented, liquors, it is soaked in water, which absorbs the sugar in it; then yeast is added, and this produces alcohol by causing the fermentation of the sugar.
75. In the United States, pearl barley is the name applied to the most common form of barley used as food. In this form, the layer of bran is removed from the outside of the barley grain, but no change is made in the grain itself. Pearl barley is used for soups and as a breakfast cereal, but for whatever purpose it is employed it requires very long cooking to make it palatable. Very often the water in which a small amount of pearl barley has been cooked for a long time is used to dilute the milk given to a child who has indigestion or who is not able to take whole milk.
RECIPES FOR BARLEY
76. PEARL BARLEY.—As a breakfast cereal, possibly the only satisfactory way in which to prepare pearl barley is to cook it in a double boiler, although after it is cooked in this way it may, of course, be used to prepare other breakfast dishes. Barley is not liked by everybody; nevertheless, it is an excellent food and its nature is such that even after long cooking it remains so firm as to require thorough mastication, which is the first great step in the digestion of starchy foods.
PEARL BARLEY (Sufficient to Serve Six)
1 c. pearl barley 1 tsp. salt 4-1/2 c. boiling water
Look the barley over carefully and remove any foreign particles it may contain. Add it to the boiling salted water, and cook it directly over the flame for 10 minutes. Then place it in a double boiler and cook for 3 to 4 hours. For the barley to be cooked properly, the water should be completely absorbed. Serve hot with cream or milk and sugar.
77. PEARL BARLEY WITH FRUIT.—Cooked barley does not contain very much flavor. Therefore, if a more tasty dish is desired, it is usually necessary to add something, such as fruit, that will improve the flavor. Various fruits may be used with barley, as is shown in the accompanying recipe.
PEARL BARLEY WITH FRUIT (Sufficient to Serve Eight)
1 c. pearl barley 1 tsp. salt 5 c. boiling water 1 c. dates, figs, or prunes
Examine the barley to see that it contains no foreign matter, and then put it to cook in the boiling water to which the salt has been added. After cooking directly over the flame for 10 minutes, place it in a double boiler and cook it for 3 to 4 hours. If dates are to be used, wash them in warm water, remove the seeds, and cut each into four pieces. In the case of figs, soak them in hot water for 1/2 hour and then cut them into small pieces. If prunes are desired, stew them as explained in Art. 71, and when the seeds are removed cut them into small pieces. Add the fruit to the barley 10 or 15 minutes before removing it from the stove. Serve hot with cream or milk and sugar.
78. LEFT-OVER BARLEY.—Cooked barley that is left over from a meal should not be wasted. That which has been cooked without fruit may be added to meat stock or used with vegetables for soup. Also, cooked barley that has had time to set and become stiff may be sauted in butter until it is slightly brown. When served with meat gravy, barley prepared in this manner makes a very appetizing and satisfying luncheon dish.
RYE, BUCKWHEAT, AND MILLET
79. RYE is a grain that grows very much like wheat, but it can be cultivated in poorer soil and colder climates than this cereal. It is not used alone to any great extent for anything except the making of bread, but it is particularly well adapted for this purpose, since it contains a large amount of gluten, the food substance necessary for successful bread making, and, like wheat, will make yeast bread when used alone. Bread made of rye flour has a dark color and a peculiar flavor, and while these characteristics make it unpopular with some persons it is used extensively by certain classes, especially persons from foreign countries. Besides its use for bread, rye is frequently combined with other cereals in the manufacture of ready-to-eat cereal foods.
80. BUCKWHEAT is used less extensively than any of the other cereals already mentioned, but it has an advantage over them in that it thrives in soil that is too poor for any other crop. The buckwheat plant grows to a height of about 2 feet and blossoms with a white flower. Its seeds, which are three-cornered in shape, bear a close resemblance to beechnuts, and because of this peculiar similarity, this cereal was originally called beech wheat. Practically the only use to which buckwheat is put is to grind it into very fine flour for griddle cakes, recipes for which are given in another Section.
81. MILLET as a cereal food finds practically no use in the United States; in fact, in this country it is grown almost exclusively for cattle food, the stalk of the plant being large and juicy and containing a considerable amount of food. The seed of this plant furnishes the smallest grain known for use as food, and because of its size it is very hard to gather. Millet, however, is used extensively by some of the people of Southern Asia and India, who depend on it very largely, since, in some localities, it forms their only cereal food. In these countries, it is ground into flour and used for making bread.
PREPARED, OR READY-TO-EAT, CEREALS
82. All the cereals that have been discussed up to this point require cooking; but there are many varieties of cereal food on the market that are ready to eat and therefore need no further preparation. Chief among these are the cereal foods known as flakes. These are first made by cooking the grain, then rolling it between rollers, and finally toasting it. The grains that are treated in this way for the preparation of flake foods are wheat, corn, rye, and rice. It is well to remember this fact, because the trade name does not always indicate the kind of grain that has been used to make the food. In another form in which cereals, principally wheat, appear on the market, they are cooked, shredded, pressed into biscuits, and then toasted. Again, cereals are made into loaves with the use of yeast, like bread, and after being thoroughly baked, are ground into small pieces. Wheat generally forms the basis of these preparations, and to it are added such other grains as rye and barley.
83. The toasting of cereals improves their flavor very materially and at the same time increases their digestibility. In fact, cereals that have been subjected to this process are said to be predigested, because the starch granules that have been browned in the toasting are changed into dextrine, and this is one of the stages through which they must pass in their process of digestion in the body. However, the housewife should not allow herself to be influenced unduly by what is said about all prepared cereals, because the manufacturer, who has depended largely on advertising for the sale of his product, sometimes becomes slightly overzealous and makes statements that will bear questioning. For instance, some of these foods are claimed to be muscle builders, but every one should remember that, with the exception of rye and wheat, which build up the tissues to a certain extent, the cereals strengthen the muscles in only a slight degree. Others of these foods are said to be nerve and brain foods, but it should be borne in mind that no food acts directly on the nerves or the brain. In reality, only those foods which keep the body mentally and physically in good condition have an effect on the nerves and the brain, and this at best is an indirect effect.
SERVING CEREALS
84. Although, as is shown by the recipes that have been given, cereals may have a place in practically all meals that the housewife is called on to prepare, they are used more frequently for breakfast than for any other meal. When a cereal forms a part of this meal, it should, as a rule, be served immediately after the fruit, provided the breakfast is served in courses. Many persons, of course, like fresh fruit served with cooked or dry cereal, and, in such an event, the fruit and cereal courses should be combined. A banana sliced over flakes or a few spoonfuls of berries or sliced peaches placed on top afford a pleasing change from the usual method of serving cereals. Another way in which to lend variety to the cereal and at the same time add nourishment to the diet is to serve a poached egg on top of the shredded-wheat biscuit or in a nest of corn flakes, especially if they have been previously heated. In fact, any of the dry cereals become more appetizing if they are heated thoroughly in a slow oven and then allowed to cool, as this process freshens them by driving off the moisture that they absorb and that makes them tough.
To add to both dry and cooked cereals protein and fat, or the food elements in which they are not so high, milk or cream is usually served with them. Of these dairy products, which may be served hot or cold, milk adds more protein than cream, and cream more fat than milk. Some persons, however, who do not care for milk and cream or cannot take them, substitute a little butter for them or find fruit juice a very good accompaniment, especially to a dry cereal. Sugar is generally served with both kinds of cereals, as the majority of persons prefer them slightly sweet; but there is no logical reason for its use except to add flavor.
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ITALIAN PASTES
PREPARATION, VARIETIES, AND COMPOSITION
85. In addition to the cereals that have already been discussed, macaroni and foods of a similar nature are entitled to a place in this Section, because they are made from wheat flour and are therefore truly cereal products. These foods, which are commonly referred to as ITALIAN PASTES, originated in Italy. In that country they were made from a flour called semolina, which is derived from a native wheat that is very hard and contains more protein than is required for the making of ordinary dough mixtures. Later, when the manufacture of these foods was taken up in the United States, the flour for them had to be imported from Italy; but it has since been discovered that flour made from the variety of wheat called durum, which is grown in the spring-wheat territory of this country, can be used for producing these pastes. In fact, this kind of flour has proved to be so successful that it now takes the place of what was formerly imported.
86. To produce the Italian pastes, the wheat, from which the bran has been removed, is ground into flour. This flour is made into a stiff dough, which is rolled into sheets and forced over rods, usually of metal, or made into a mass and forced over rods, and allowed to dry in the air. When sufficiently dry, the rods are removed, leaving slender tubes, or sticks, that have holes through the center. Because of the manufacturing processes involved in the production of these foods for market, they are higher in price than some cereals, but their value lies in the fact that they are practically imperishable and are easily prepared and digested.
87. Italian pastes are of several varieties, chief among which are macaroni, spaghetti, and vermicelli. Macaroni is the largest in circumference; spaghetti, a trifle smaller; and vermicelli, very small and without a hole through the center. These pastes and variations of them are made from the same dough; therefore, the tests for determining the quality of one applies to all of them. These tests pertain to their color, the way in which they break, and the manner in which they cook. To be right, they should be of an even, creamy color; if they look gray or are white or streaked with white, they are of inferior quality. When they are broken into pieces, they should break off perfectly straight; if they split up lengthwise, they contain weak places due to streaks. All the varieties should, upon boiling, hold their shape and double in size; in case they break into pieces and flatten, they are of poor quality.
88. Since the Italian pastes are made from wheat, their food substances are similar to those of wheat. As in other wheat products, protein is found in them in the form of gluten, but, owing to the variety of wheat used for them, it occurs in greater proportion in these foods than in most wheat products. In fact, the Italian pastes are so high in protein, or tissue-building material, that they very readily take the place of meat. Unlike meat, however, they contain carbohydrates in the form of wheat starch. They do not contain much fat or mineral salts, though, being lower in these food substances than many of the other foods made from wheat.
RECIPES FOR ITALIAN PASTES
89. In nearly all recipes for macaroni, spaghetti, and vermicelli, as well as the numerous varieties of these foods, the first steps in their preparation for the table are practically the same, for all of these foods must be cooked to a certain point and in a certain way before they can be used in the numerous ways possible to prepare them. Therefore, in order that success may be met in the preparation of the dishes that are made from these foods, these underlying principles should be thoroughly understood.
In the first place, it should be borne in mind that while the time required to cook the Italian pastes depends on their composition and dryness, the average length of time is about 30 minutes. Another important thing to remember is that they should always be put to cook in boiling water that contains 2 teaspoonfuls of salt to each cupful of macaroni, spaghetti, or vermicelli, and that they should be kept boiling until the cooking is done, for if the pieces are not in constant motion they will settle and burn. Tests may be applied to determine whether these foods have been cooked sufficiently. Thus, if a fork passes through them easily or they crush readily on being pressed between the fingers and the thumb, they are done, but as long as they feel hard and elastic they have not cooked enough.
In the majority of recipes here given, macaroni is specified, but spaghetti, vermicelli, or any of the fancy Italian pastes may be substituted for the macaroni if one of them is preferred. It should also be remembered that any of these, when cut into small pieces, may be used in soups or served with sauce or gravy.
90. MACARONI WITH CREAM SAUCE.—Possibly the simplest way in which to prepare macaroni is with cream sauce, as is explained in the accompanying recipe. Such a sauce not only increases the food value of any Italian paste, but improves its flavor. Macaroni prepared in this way may be used as the principal dish of a light meal, as it serves to take the place of meat.
MACARONI WITH CREAM SAUCE (Sufficient to Serve Six)
1-1/2 c. macaroni 3 qt. boiling water 3 tsp. salt 1/4 c. crumbs
CREAM SAUCE
2 Tb. butter 2 Tb. flour 1 tsp. salt 1/8 tsp. pepper 1 1/2 c. milk
Break the macaroni into inch lengths, add it to the salted boiling water, and cook it until it is tender. To prepare the sauce, melt the butter in a saucepan, add the flour, salt, and pepper, stir until smooth, and gradually add the milk, which must be hot, stirring rapidly so that no lumps form. Cook the cream sauce until it thickens and then add it to the macaroni. Pour all into a baking dish, sprinkle the bread or cracker crumbs over the top, dot with butter, and bake until the crumbs are brown. Serve hot.
91. MACARONI WITH EGGS.—Since macaroni is high in protein, it takes the place of meat in whatever form it is served, but when it is prepared with eggs it becomes an unusually good meat substitute. Therefore, when eggs are added as in the following recipe, no meat should be served in the same meal.
MACARONI WITH EGGS (Sufficient to Serve Six)
1 c. macaroni 2 qt. boiling water 2 tsp. salt 1-1/2 c. milk 2 Tb. butter 2 Tb. flour 1 tsp. salt 1/8 tsp. pepper 4 hard-boiled eggs 1/4 c. crumbs
Break the macaroni into inch lengths, add it to the boiling salted water, and cook it until tender. Make a cream, or white, sauce of the milk, butter, flour, salt, and pepper as explained in the recipe given in Art. 90. When the macaroni is tender, drain it and arrange a layer on the bottom of a baking dish, with a layer of sliced, hard-boiled eggs on top. Fill the dish with alternate layers of macaroni and eggs, pour the sauce over all, and sprinkle the crumbs over the top. Then place the dish in the oven and bake the food until the crumbs are brown. Serve hot.
92. Macaroni With Tomato and Bacon.—Macaroni alone is somewhat tasteless, so that, as has been pointed out, something is usually added to give this food a more appetizing flavor. In the recipe here given, tomatoes and bacon are used for this purpose. Besides improving the flavor, the bacon supplies the macaroni with fat, a food substance in which it is low.
MACARONI WITH TOMATO AND BACON (Sufficient to Serve Six)
1 c. macaroni 2 qt. boiling water 2 tsp. salt 2 c. canned tomatoes 8 thin slices bacon
Break the macaroni into inch lengths and cook it in the boiling salted water until it is tender. Place a layer of the cooked macaroni on the bottom of a baking dish; over this layer put 1 cupful of the tomatoes, and on top of them spread four slices of bacon. Then add another layer of the macaroni, the other cupful of tomatoes, and a third layer of macaroni. On top of this layer, place the remaining four slices of bacon, and then bake the food for one half hour in a slow oven. Serve hot.
93. Macaroni With Cheese.—Cheese is combined with macaroni probably more often than any other food. It supplies considerable flavor to the macaroni and at the same time provides fat and additional protein. The cooking operation is practically the same as that just given for macaroni with tomatoes and bacon.
MACARONI WITH CHEESE (Sufficient to Serve Six)
1-1/2 c. macaroni 3 qt. boiling water 3 tsp. salt 1-1/2 Tb. butter 1-1/2 Tb. flour 1 tsp. salt 1/8 tsp. pepper 1/8 tsp. paprika 1-1/2 c. milk 1 c. grated or finely cut cheese 1/4 c. crumbs
Break the macaroni into inch lengths and cook it until it is tender in the 3 quarts of boiling water to which 3 teaspoonfuls of salt has been added. Melt the butter in a saucepan, add the flour, the 1 teaspoonful of salt, the pepper, and the paprika, stir until smooth, and then gradually add the milk, which should be hot. Allow to cook until it thickens. Arrange the cooked macaroni in layers, pouring the sauce and sprinkling salt and cheese over each layer. Then cover the top layer with the crumbs and bake the food in a moderate oven for one half hour. Serve hot.
94. Macaroni With Cheese and Tomato.—Although the food combinations given are very satisfactory, a dish that is extremely appetizing to many persons may be made by combining both cheese and tomato with macaroni. Such a nutritious combination, which is illustrated in Fig. 5, can be used as the principal dish of a heavy meal.
MACARONI WITH CHEESE AND TOMATO (Sufficient to Serve Six)
1 c. macaroni 1 c. grated cheese 2 qt. boiling water 2 Tb. butter 2 tsp. salt 1/8 tsp. pepper 1 1/2 c. canned tomatoes 1 tsp. salt
Break the macaroni into inch lengths and cook it until it is tender in the boiling water to which 2 teaspoonfuls of salt has been added. Put a layer of the cooked macaroni on the bottom of a baking dish, pour one-half of the tomatoes and one-third of the cheese over it, dot with butter, and sprinkle with salt and pepper. Then add another layer of macaroni, the remainder of the tomatoes, one-third more of the cheese, butter, salt, and pepper. Finally, arrange another layer of macaroni, put the remaining cheese and some butter on top of it, and bake the food for 1/2 hour in a moderate oven. Serve hot. |
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