CHAPTER V

DEATH VALLEY

Death Valley, or the Arroyo del Muerte, as the Spanish called it, is in the western part of southern California, near the oblique boundary of Nevada, a little way north of Nevada's vanishing point. Nowadays one may ride almost into the valley in a Pullman coach. From Daggett, a forsaken station of the Santa Fe Railroad, a "jerkwater" road, as it is called, extends northward to Goldfield and Tonopah, and this road takes one almost as the crow flies to the edge of the valley of the ominous name.

Even in a Pullman coach the trip is trying to both body and soul. But forty years ago?—well, that is a different story. Then there was no Santa Fe Railway, and no Daggett—just a wide stretch of desert dotted with yucca and Spanish bayonet. Prospectors and pack-trains had left trails here and there. One of these, now a wagon-road, lay southward to San Bernardino; northward it lost itself in the desert toward Candelaria.

The region possesses some names that are a trifle paradoxical. For instances, there are the Black Mountains, the grayish red color of which belies their name. Then there is Funeral Range, which, far from being sombre in aspect, is most brilliantly colored. To the southward is Paradise Valley, a plain desert strewn with greasewood and chamiso; and down in the floor of Death Valley is, or rather was, Greenland. But Greenland is not a waste of icebound coldness; on the contrary, it is averred by the laborers in the borax fields to be several degrees hotter than any other place on earth. The surplus water of the spring is employed to produce verdure there, and it is apparently equal to the task, for the forty or more acres so irrigated produce wonderful crops; hence it is "Greenland."

Even twenty years ago the trip to Death Valley was a trying one to the experienced desert traveller in summer; to the tenderfoot without a guide it was almost certain death. The best equipment for the trip was a pair of mules, or else cayuse ponies, and a light buckboard with broad tires—tires so wide that they would not sink in the loose, wind-blown rock waste. The equipment might possibly be found in Daggett; more likely it must be purchased in San Bernardino.

At all events, Daggett was the real starting point, and the first "trick" in the journey was the crossing of Mohave River. The river was pretty sure to be deep—not with water but with sand. Whoever saw water in the channel, or "wash," of the Mohave? Perhaps the oldest settler may have seen it; at any rate he will so claim, for the oldest settler is always boastful; indeed, fairy-story telling is his inherent, bounden right. To make good his assertion he points to the bridge, and certainly the bridge is there; but as for the river, it may be on hand one day—perhaps an hour or so—in ten, twenty, or thirty years!

Beyond the river a wide expanse of desert is before us, and then a beautiful lake comes into view. Real water, is it?—no; just the desert mirage, but it seems real enough to quench a genuine thirst. But the illusion is lessened by the surroundings, for we are approaching a dry sink—an old lake-bed that was filled with brackish water once when a cloud-burst that occurred in Calico Mountains had its busy day.

Back of us are Calico Mountains, a picturesque clump of buttes, and the glimpse of them we get from the north explains why they were so named. And such colors! Their brilliant hues change like kaleidoscopic patterns with the sun's motion. On our right a trail diverges to Coyote Holes, made grewsome by one of many tragedies that have occurred in the region. This time it was a hold-up. A desert waif out of luck and ready cash waylaid the paymaster of Calico mines and relieved him of the money intended for the miners. The robber was soon trailed and he quickly discovered that his only safety lay in hiding. But where could he hide in that desolate flat?

At Coyote Holes there is a spring and a small marsh. The robber buried himself in the mud till all but his face was covered and lay there while the posse searched. But the keen vision of an Indian scout did not fail. When the robber saw that he was surrounded, he put up a brave fight and went down, riddled with rifle-balls. The money was recovered.

A little farther on is Garlic Springs. It is a common camping-place and like other camps is plentifully strewn with the evidence of the prospector's outfit—hundreds and hundreds of empty tin cans. In time we camp at Cave Springs in a little cove of the Avawatz Buttes. Once there came along a man who all said was half-witted. Perhaps he was, but his intelligence was keen enough to prompt him to claim the springs. By selling the water for quenching thirst at the rate of "four bits" a head for stock and "two bits" apiece for men, his spring proved the best gold mine in the district.

There is no water ahead until we reach Saratoga Springs, a dozen miles beyond, and it is well that we take a small supply along, as the water there is unfit for either man or beast. There is a difference between Saratoga Springs, New York, and the springs bearing this high-sounding name in the Amargosa sink.



Boiling Springs are a night's ride—perhaps twenty miles—beyond. We give our team three hours of rest and start therefor, stopping in the mean time for a midnight feed, where most unexpectedly we find some excellent grazing for our horses. By daylight we are at the Springs and in a locality much like the Bad Lands of South Dakota. But the "boiling" industry apparently is taking a vacation, for the water is not too warm for one's hands and face—and certainly it is refreshing.

We are in a "sink," or the dry bed of a lake, and the cliffs of clay have been sculptured into existence by the Amargosa River. Sometimes, when a dissipated cloud tumbles its contents into the region, the Amargosa is filled bank full with water; but few prospectors have seen more than a trickling stream flowing in its bed.

We turn our way out of the wagon-trail toward Funeral Range to find the canyon of Furnace Creek, and in time we are clambering up a narrow gulch between the multicolored strata of clay buttes. Not a vestige of life, not even the horned-toad or the trail of the kangaroo-rat is to be seen. Half a dozen graves marked each by a wooden cross or a rock monument are in sight. Who are they? Ask the simoom that sweeps like a cruel furnace blast over this forsaken region. To be lost in this desert means horrible suffering, phantom-seeing, and then death. The bodies of these unfortunates were merely found and buried—lost!—dead!

We cross the mesa which forms part of the Funeral Range. Telescope and Sentinel Peaks beyond Death Valley in the Panamint Mountains loom above the horizon; we descend the canyon of Furnace Creek and are in Death Valley.

We are in a strange and weird depression of the earth's crust about fifty miles long and ten wide, the deepest part of which is more than two hundred and fifty feet below sea level. Once upon a time, it is thought, the Gulf of California reached so far inland that it included this gash. Then the never-ceasing winds bridged it with loose rock waste. Thus, Death Valley was born. In time it became a salt lake, a marsh, and then a dry sink.

It is here that the deadly side-winder travels by night instead of day to avoid the excessive heat, and rivers flow with their bottoms up as if to hide from the burning rays of the sun; where Death by name and by nature gives forth no warning note, and even a mountain range on the east side of the valley signifies the service held to commemorate the last resting-place of the unfortunates who have perished here.

The valley is hemmed in on the east by the precipitous side of the gorgeous-colored Funeral Range, and on the west by the Panamint Mountains, which rise to the height of ten thousand feet. The climate is cool and salubrious in winter, but is a fiery furnace in summer, when the mercury in the thermometer sometimes climbs to one hundred and forty degrees in the shade.

Death Valley gained its name from a terrible tragedy that occurred during the early days of the gold excitement in California. Emigrants bound for California overland were wont to follow the same general route as far as Salt Lake City. From here there were two routes, one westerly along the route over which the Central Pacific Railway was afterward built, the other southerly into southern California.

Late in the season of 1849 one of the emigrant parties reached Salt Lake City. Rather than winter there, however, they determined to push forward at all hazards by the southern route. After travelling through Utah and some distance in Nevada, they left the regular trail and decided to turn southwesterly and cross a fairly level mesa. The region was unknown to them, but they believed that by thus changing the route they would be able to reach their destination more quickly. They also thought that they would find better grazing for their stock. After they had crossed the mesa, the route became more rugged and more precipitous, so, in order to lighten the wagon-loads, one by one many articles of furniture were left behind.

When the company reached the head of Amargosa Valley they began to separate. At length one party found looming up before it the streaked and many-colored Funeral Range of mountains. Nothing daunted, they laboriously toiled up to the crest with their teams. On looking down their hearts sank within them as they beheld a precipitous descent to a long, deep, and narrow valley almost destitute of vegetation. This depression was to be christened Death Valley.

It was now too late to turn back; so, unyoking the oxen, they proceeded to lower the wagons down into the valley by hand, using chains and ropes. By the time they had finished the task darkness had shut down and, gathering sufficient greasewood brush to make a fire, they cooked their evening meal with a scanty supply of water and vainly searched for more. The food was eaten in gloomy silence, for they were lost and knew not where they were nor how to reach the nearest settlement.

It was apparent to all, however, that they must hasten to leave this kiln-dried desert valley as soon as possible. Abandoning their wagons and nearly all of the surviving oxen to their fate, after incredible hardships from lack of both food and water, about one-half of the company of thirty souls that crossed the Funeral Range reached the settlements alive. Succumbing to their sufferings, the others dropped, one by one, by the wayside unknelled and uncoffined. The skeletons of several of these unfortunate emigrants were found years afterward by exploring parties and prospectors.

Among those who escaped was a man named Bennett, who, on reaching the nearest town, reported that he had found a ledge of pure silver. The reputed discovery occurred in this way. As he was wending his course along one of the canyons he came across a spring, and, being both thirsty and tired, after taking a drink sat down to rest. While sitting there he carelessly broke off a piece of a rock jutting out near him, and perceiving that it was very heavy and thinking it might be of some value, placed a small part of it in his pocket.

After he had reached San Bernardino he happened to purchase a gun lacking a front sight. Bennett therefore sought a gunsmith, whom he requested to make a sight out of the metallic rock which he had found that he might have a souvenir which would not be easily lost.

To the astonishment of all who learned the facts, the metal proved to be pure silver. This circumstance gave rise to the celebrated "Gunsight Lead," a phantom that was chased in every direction from Death Valley; but, like the mirage of the desert, the lead was never found.

In summer the valley is said to be the hottest place on the face of the earth, and persons deprived of water even for an hour become insane. Men who have attempted to cross it at mid-day have been known to fall dead, and birds flying across have been killed by the fierce heat.

Cloud-bursts occur occasionally on the adjoining mountains, when torrents pour down the declivities, filling the canyons with streams of water sometimes many feet deep, which sweep everything before them. A cloud-burst may change the whole face of the mountain. Cloud-bursts come usually in the hottest weather and almost with the suddenness of an explosion. A swiftly moving black cloud tipped with fiery streaks and growing rapidly appears above the crest of the mountains. Then it sinks like a monster balloon turned sidewise until it strikes a ridge or peak; the flood is then let loose and destruction follows.

Many stories are told of persons barely escaping with their lives by hastily climbing up the side of the canyons, beyond the reach of the roaring waters, and of others being overwhelmed and drowned. Such a flood, caused by a cloud-burst, may have buried the alleged Gunsight Lead and have changed the conformation of the canyon beyond recognition.

No one without experience in travelling over deserts in the summer season can realize the hardships attending travel in the region of Death Valley nor the sombre sameness of the arid stretches of sand. When the sun has set and the full moon rising makes the silhouettes of the mountains look darker, a vague, indescribable sensation comes over one—an awe-inspiring feeling of insignificance and helplessness amidst scenes of majestic desolation. If religiously inclined, one is prone to utter the words of the wandering Arab of the Sahara, "Nothing exists here but Allah! Allah hu Akbar!—God is greater than all his created witnesses." In summer, the air being almost entirely destitute of moisture, evaporation is exceedingly rapid, and so hot is the sun at this season that metal objects lying out-of-doors burn the hand if touched.

Many years ago valuable borax deposits were discovered in the Death Valley and thousands of tons of borax have been freighted out by huge wagons drawn by mules; indeed, "twenty-mule-team borax" has become almost a household term. Borax is still mined here, but not so extensively as formerly, more accessible borax deposits having been found in Nevada and elsewhere—and the twenty-mule team is now a motor-truck!

Nearly one-third of all of the borax of the world comes from the deserts of California and Nevada. When borax was first discovered in California the wholesale price in New York was about fifty cents a pound; now it is about six cents.

The various applications of borax to industrial and domestic uses have kept pace with its enormous production during the last twenty-five years, until now it is used for more than fifty different purposes. The meat-packers of the United States alone use several million pounds as a preservative. It is also used with excellent results as an antiseptic in dressing wounds and sores.

Furnace Creek enters the valley on the eastern side of Death Valley, but its waters soon sink out of sight. The creek is used to irrigate a tract of alfalfa, a small garden, and a few trees; and the small ranch, a veritable oasis in a desert, is rightly called Greenland. A few men are kept employed here by the borax company. Now and then, however, the whole crowd, tiring of the extreme heat, desert in a body.

This region is now robbed of some of its terrors by the completion of the Tonopah and Tidewater Railroad, which touches Death Valley at the old Amargosa Borax Works.



CHAPTER VI

THE MINERAL WEALTH OF THE ANDES

At this period of the world's progress, when so many marvellous inventions are taking place, one can scarcely realize the intense interest that was awakened by the first discoveries made in the New World. So great was the excitement that the most improbable stories were readily believed.

There were fountains of perpetual youth, Amazonian warriors, mighty giants, and rivers whose beds sparkled with gems and golden pebbles. The reports of every returning adventurer, whatever had been his luck, were tinged with the marvellous. In fact, a world of romance was now open to all and the opportunities to achieve fame and fortune were numberless. The first in the field stood the best chance to win the choicest prizes. Stories that outrivalled the Arabian Nights clouded the realm of reason.

So extraordinary were the accounts that many of the cities of Spain were depleted of their most energetic men. Every craft that could sail the seas was called into use, and the building of new vessels was hastened to completion in order to provide for the needs of adventurous prospectors and would-be explorers.

The conquest of the Aztec Empire, with its millions of treasure, by Cortez had already proved the valiancy of Spanish cavaliers. To add to this, the conquest of the Incas by Pizarro and his followers was regarded a miracle of divine interposition.

As a result, Spanish galleons laden with treasure from the conquered countries ploughed the seas, and untold wealth poured into private and royal coffers. Spanish ambition and greed for gold knew no bounds. Cunning and cruelty were employed by the Spaniards to secure their ends. No trials, no hardships were too great for them to endure. No perils daunted them. Western South America, ruled by viceroys for nearly three centuries, brought to Spain its greatest wealth. One-fifth of all the wealth and treasure acquired was reserved for the crown.

When Pizarro first visited the interior of Peru he found an empire well advanced in the arts of civilization. Its temples within and without were richly decorated with gold. There were thousands of miles of excellent roads, of which two were used for military purposes. One of these extended along the lowlands; the other traversed the grand plateau. These roads crossed ravines bridged with solid masonry and were pierced by tunnels cut through solid rock. The construction of these great roads was a more wonderful achievement than the building of the Egyptian pyramids.

The government was systematically organized and to a certain extent it was both paternal and communal. Agriculture was skilfully carried on by means of fertilization and irrigation.

The sun was the chief deity and object of worship of its people. Their most beautifully adorned and renowned sanctuary was the Temple of the Sun at Cuzco. Besides this sacred edifice there were several hundred inferior temples and places of worship scattered through the empire, all plentifully ornamented with gold and silver. Every Inca ruler was regarded as a descendant of the sun and therefore a sacred person.

According to the popular belief, gold consisted of tears wept by the sun and was therefore a sacred metal suitable for beautifying the palaces of the Incas and temples of worship. Not only were the edifices themselves richly adorned with this precious metal, but the sacred vessels and many of the articles of furniture were made of the same material. Silver, also, was much used, but was not considered sacred. So great was the amount of the precious metals used that each royal palace and temple was a veritable mine.

From 1520 to 1525 reports of a rich empire at the south were circulated among the adventurers congregated at Panama. At length they were confirmed in a great measure by travellers who had voyaged southward along the coast. Francisco Pizarro, a restless spirit who had been associated with Balboa and others in discovery and exploration, determining to test the truth of these reports, made several voyages south.

Finally, he landed on the shores of Peru with an army of followers who numbered less than two hundred. He met with but little opposition from the natives while marching toward the interior, and although he plundered some of the places through which he passed, the people received him with marks of friendship.

In some instances towns of several thousand population were deserted on the approach of the Spaniards, so great was the terror inspired by the white men, especially by those on horseback. At first it was the policy of the invaders to treat the natives with kindness in order to accomplish their purpose, namely, to conquer the Peruvian Empire in the same manner that Cortez had conquered the Aztecs. They were accompanied by two of the natives who previously had been taken to Spain and taught the Spanish language. By this means the Spaniards were able to communicate with the people.

Learning that the Inca ruler, Atahuallpa, was encamped with his army among the mountains, Pizarro sent an embassy to request a meeting with him. It was agreed that they meet at Caxamalca, a strongly fortified city among the sierras. On arriving at the city, the Spaniards found it evacuated. Soon after taking up their quarters there, Atahuallpa arrived and established his camp a short distance outside the city.

Pizarro at once sent word to Atahuallpa to come into the city and sup with him, but asked that, in order to show his faith in the white men and his own good intentions, he should leave all weapons behind. After much persuasion Atahuallpa accepted the invitation and entered the city, with several thousand of his followers, unarmed.

When fairly within the enclosure, a priest approaching the Inca ruler made a harangue about Christianity and demanded that he should submit to the authority of the Spanish king.

"By what authority do you demand such submission?" replied the monarch with flashing eye.

"By this holy book which I hold in my hand," answered the priest.

Then snatching the volume from the hand of the priest, Atahuallpa scornfully threw it on the ground, saying, "What right have you in my country? I will call you and your companions to an account for the indignities heaped upon me."

Picking up the book, the priest forthwith went to Pizarro and reported the conduct of the Inca, saying, "It is useless to talk to this dog. At them at once; I absolve you."

Immediately Pizarro raised his handkerchief for the preconcerted signal, the firing of a gun. Thereupon his soldiers, infantry and cavalry, rushed from their places of concealment upon the defenceless Indians, slaughtering them unmercifully right and left.

The discharge of the arquebuses and cannon, with their smoke, and the charge of the cavalry paralyzed the unsuspecting natives, and the attack became a horrible massacre. Not until thousands of the Indians had been killed and the Inca ruler had been captured did darkness cause the Spaniards to desist from their bloody work. So sudden and terrible had been the onslaught that the haughty monarch himself seemed stunned by the effect.

Realizing the irresistible power of the white men with their wonderful weapons and horses, the natives gave up for a time all thoughts of resistance. In fact, they regarded the Spaniards as superior beings endowed with preternatural gifts.

When the ruler had been kept a prisoner several months, he desired to regain his freedom. By this time he realized the Spaniards' thirst for gold, and therefore promised to fill the room in which he was confined with it as high as he could reach, and twice to fill an adjoining room with silver, if they would release him.

Pizarro agreed to this proposal; Atahuallpa thereupon sent out messengers to all parts of his empire requesting that the metals in the shape of utensils and ornaments be collected from the royal palaces, temples, and elsewhere and brought to Caxamalca.

On account of the difficulty of transportation, since all the treasure had to be carried on the backs of the natives, many months elapsed before the collections could be made.

When fifteen and one-half million dollars' worth of gold and a large amount of silver had been delivered at Caxamalca, Pizarro excused the imprisoned ruler from further contributions. At this juncture of affairs Almagro, a co-partner in the Peruvian expedition, arrived on the scene with a strong reinforcement.

On learning of the immense amount of gold and silver collected, the followers of both leaders loudly clamored for its distribution among them, and, taking out the royal fifth part, the remainder was divided according to the rank and service rendered. Then came rumors of an uprising among the natives and of the collection of an army to drive out the invaders, but on investigation these reports were found to be false.

The question then uppermost in the minds of the Spanish leaders was the disposition of the royal prisoner. It was thought that, were he released according to promise, the natives might rally around him and demand the expulsion of the intruders. So it was decided to make charges against him and to have at least the form of a trial in order to give an appearance of justice to the proceedings.

Twelve charges were made against Atahuallpa, nearly all of which were far-fetched and absolutely false. He was found guilty and condemned to death by burning; but at the last moment, when he was chained to a stake and the torch was ready to be applied, the priest in attendance promised that the sentence should be commuted to the easier death by the garrote if he would renounce his idolatry and embrace Christianity. He assented to the proposal, and immediately the modified sentence was carried out. It is not necessary to add that the execution of the Peruvian monarch was the darkest stain on the pages of Spanish colonial history. From this time on the conduct of the Spanish invaders was marked by a most inhuman cruelty toward the natives.



Thinking that he could more easily govern the empire through a native ruler subservient to himself, Pizarro placed Manco, the true heir, on the Peruvian throne. In the meantime, however, parts of the empire rebelled against the new ruler and the Spanish usurpers. Then, when the rebellious tribes had been brought back to their former allegiance, the Spanish leaders quarrelled and fought among themselves.

It was not long before the arrogant and cruel conduct of the Spaniards alienated all friendship on the part of both ruler and his subjects. Manco broke from his masters and, aided by his people, raised the standard of rebellion, determining to make a last supreme effort to rid his subjects of the incubus that was sapping the life of the country.

After many bloody encounters in which both sides sustained severe losses, Manco was killed and the Spanish yoke was firmly fixed on the neck of the people, who for the greater part were consigned to a most inhuman slavery. Thousands perished by the brutal treatment inflicted upon them in the silver mines.

In the course of time Indian slavery was abolished in a great measure by royal proclamation; nevertheless, Spain continued to rule this land for three hundred years before the oppressive yoke was cast off by a successful uprising. It is a pleasure to know that many of the Spanish leaders who were guilty of this heartless cruelty suffered violent deaths in quarrels among themselves or in rebellion against the crown of Spain.

During the period of Spanish rule an immense revenue accrued from working the rich silver mines. Those that filled the Spanish treasure ships so eagerly sought by buccaneers were the mines of Potosi. These silver lodes, extensively worked through Indian slave labor by Hernando and Gonzalo Pizarro, brothers of Francisco Pizarro, were discovered in 1546.

So rich did the lodes prove to be that the city of Potosi sprang up near them and was supported by them, although the site was far from being desirable. Its altitude is about thirteen thousand feet, and it is, therefore, the highest city in the world. It is situated on the bleak side of the Andes, from whose snow-clad peaks cold, piercing winds sweep down over the city. Towering above it is a mountain, honeycombed with shafts, tunnels, and drifts, from which has been taken silver to the value of two billion dollars.

At first it was thought that a location so high above sea level would be unhabitable, but the immense wealth of the silver lodes required many workmen for their development, and these laborers had to be housed and fed.

At the zenith of its prosperity Potosi possessed one hundred seventy thousand inhabitants, and had the distinction of being the largest city in the New World during the first two centuries of its existence. A mint built in 1562, at the expense of over a million dollars, is long since unused. A splendid granite cathedral ornamented with beautiful statuary still attests to the former grandeur of the city.

Some of the richest veins of silver ore in the Potosi mines have been worked out and many mines have been allowed to become filled with water. These conditions, coupled with the low price of silver for many years, have caused the population of the city to dwindle until now there are scarcely more than ten thousand inhabitants and very many of the buildings are in ruins. These mines have produced twenty-seven thousand tons of silver since their discovery, and at the present day many of them are yielding large returns.

The Bolivian plateau is one vast mineral bed abounding in rich mines of copper, tin, silver, and gold. In Bolivia alone there are upward of two thousand silver mines; while some of the richest tin mines in the world are found here. Lodes of pure tin several feet in width have been followed down six hundred feet. Tin mines were recently discovered among the mountains thirteen thousand five hundred feet above the level of the sea, near the shores of Lake Titicaca.

Two railroads now reach this high plateau, one from the seaport town of Antofagasta, Chile, to Oruro, Bolivia; the other from Molendo, Peru, to Puno, on Lake Titicaca. The most wonderful railroad in the world and the most costly in its construction, the Oroya Railroad is about one hundred fifty miles long. It begins at Callao, Peru, and ends at Oroya. The highest point reached by it in crossing the Andes is fifteen thousand six hundred and sixty-five feet. It is said that seven thousand lives were lost in its construction. Much of the road-bed was blasted through solid rock on the sides of the mountains. The cost of construction was about three hundred thousand dollars per mile. It has seventy-eight tunnels, the longest being the Gallera tunnel, which pierces Mount Meiggs at the altitude of fifteen thousand six hundred and sixty-five feet. This is the highest place in the world where steam is used as a motive power. Ultimately the road is to be extended to the celebrated mines of Cerro de Pasco, fifty-one miles beyond its present terminus, Oroya.

The chief business of these railroads extending into the Andes is carrying ore, bullion, and wool. Their construction marks the acme of engineering skill; the scenery along them surpasses that of all other regions in its wild ruggedness, grandeur, and sublimity.

In ascending to such great heights quickly one not accustomed to high elevations is apt to experience dizziness, headache, and nausea. At first even the effort to talk on reaching these lofty places by train is laborious. Dogs taken from the lowlands to these elevations are unable to run with speed for a long time, but those which are born and reared in this region easily pursue wild animals.

When the New World was discovered the llama was the only animal used there as a beast of burden. Thousands of these diminutive creatures are still used for transporting ore and bullion in the Andes. Each animal can carry a load of seventy-five pounds or more. This sure-footed animal can travel with its load about fourteen miles a day.



Lake Titicaca is one of the famous lakes of the world. Its name means tin-stone and was doubtless derived from the tin ore found in the vicinity. The lake has an elevation of twelve thousand five hundred and fifty feet, and although nine streams run into it, only one, the Desaguadero, flows out, carrying its waters to Lake Poopo, a small body of salt water nearly three hundred miles south. Lake Titicaca has the same surface level both summer and winter. The outflow never reaches the sea; it is lost by evaporation mainly in Lake Poopo, but the latter frequently overflows into the salt marshes lying to the southward.

Though thin ice may be found in the quiet bays and inlets nearly every morning during the year, the expanse of the lake is never frozen even in the severest weather. A peculiarity about the lake is that not only will iron not rust when left in its waters, but that which was before rusted soon loses its scales of rust after being immersed a few days.

Several steamers ply on the lake carrying chiefly ore and wool. Some of the islands in the lake are inhabited by Indians who eke out a precarious living.

A civilization antedating that of the Incas formerly occupied the region about the lake, as is proved by the remarkable ruins along the shores concerning which the natives told the early Spaniards that they had no record. Three square miles are covered by these ruins, whose walls were made of immense blocks of stone most accurately fitted together, thus giving evidence of the great skill in stone-cutting possessed by the pre-Inca people.

The Inca rulers had beautiful palaces and other edifices on some of the islands. Titicaca Island was regarded as sacred, and at the time of the Spanish conquest was the site of a large temple richly ornamented with gold and silver.

Prospecting in the Andes is attended with great hardships. Few wild animals can be found to furnish food. Food and utensils must be carried on the backs of men, and the greatest difficulty is experienced in traversing the almost inaccessible steeps and deep ravines.

Coal of inferior quality has been found near the shores of Lake Titicaca and is used by the steamers sailing on its waters. Many rich mineral lodes yet remain undiscovered, and a vast number of valuable mines languish for lack of capital to develop them. Frequent revolutions and the insecurity of private property prevent the investment of foreign capital.

The Andes will continue to be a great storehouse of minerals for many years to come.



Muffling the feet of the Peruvian Andes is a long narrow strip—drifting dunes of rock waste—known as the Atacama Desert. In comparison with this awful desert, the Sahara is said to be a botanical garden. Here during a part of the year a fierce, relentless sun pours down its burning rays on the shifting sands, keeping the air at a scorching heat both day and night. Formerly the region belonged to Bolivia, but it was annexed to Chile as a result of the war of 1881.

For miles and miles not a blade of grass, not a tree, not a shrub is to be seen. All around is a bleak, barren waste destitute of water. Yet underneath these sands lie concealed immense deposits of "nitrates" of untold wealth.

Although small quantities of the nitrates had been sent to Europe for chemical purposes—chiefly the manufacture of gunpowder—no considerable amount was exported until a fortuitous discovery was made by a Scotchman named George Smith. After wandering over the world for some time Smith settled down in a little village near Iquique, where he had a small garden containing fruit-trees and flowers. In one part of his garden he noticed that the plants grew best where the soil contained a white substance.

He then proceeded to gather a quantity of the material and to experiment with it. To his surprise he found that a mere handful of it greatly stimulated the growth of plants. He told a member of his family in Scotland who was engaged in fruit-growing about the wonderful effects of the material as a fertilizer. As a result several bags of nitrates were distributed among Scottish farmers and fruit-growers. So satisfactory did the fertilizer prove that an immediate call was made for more of it. Thus began a business which now yields the owners of the beds one hundred million dollars yearly.

It was soon found out that the nitrate in its raw state contained properties that were injurious to plants and that these should be first eliminated. Forthwith reduction works were established to extract the deleterious substances. These substances were mainly iodine and bromine, two chemical elements that are of greater value than the nitrates themselves. Within a few years railroads were built to transport the nitrates from the beds to the various ports where the reduction factories were erected.

Many men who had large interests in the nitrate beds became immensely wealthy in a short time. The great value of the deposits caused towns and cities to spring up along the coast in the most inhospitable places, to some of which water was piped a distance of more than two hundred miles and at the cost of many millions of dollars.

The principal nitrate beds are in a shallow valley, four or five thousand feet above sea level, lying between a long range of hills and the base of the Andes. Just how these mineral deposits were formed it is difficult to explain, the most plausible theory being that this desert was once the bottom of an inland sea having vast quantities of seaweed covered with sand. In the gradual decay of this substance the nitrate of soda, or "Chile saltpetre," was formed.

To obtain the nitrates it is necessary first to remove the top layer of sand and then a layer of clay. Underneath this is found a layer of soft, whitish material called "nitrate." The crude nitrate is sent to the nitrate ports to be crushed and boiled in sea-water. After boiling, the solution is drawn off into shallow vessels and exposed to the heat of the sun to evaporate.

When nearly all has been evaporated and the remaining liquid drawn off, the bottom and sides of the vessels are found to be covered with sparkling white crystals. This is the saltpetre of commerce, the highest grade of which is used in the manufacture of gunpowder, the second grade for chemical purposes, and the third grade, the great bulk, for fertilizing the exhausted soils of Europe.

The liquid drawn off is crystallized by chemical treatment and further evaporation, and from it is obtained iodine, an ounce of which is worth as much as one hundred pounds of saltpetre. From eighty to one hundred million dollars' worth of these nitrates are dug out and sold each year. Great Britain takes about one-third of the entire product and Germany one-fifth.

Iquique has the largest shipping trade. From this port about fifty million dollars' worth of nitrates and three million dollars' worth of iodine are exported yearly.



CHAPTER VII

THE CZAR'S GREATER DOMAIN

No other parts of the globe have been subject to so many kaleidoscopic changes by migrations during the past eight centuries as northern Asia and eastern Europe. In comparison both India and China have remained stable for many centuries.

Before the Christian era, Mongol tribes of northeastern Asia began their westward march, tarrying a few centuries along the way in the most fertile places and gathering force by multiplication until the thirteenth century. Then like a mighty flood they poured into eastern Europe, carrying everywhere in their pathway subjugation, devastation, and slaughter. During the early part of these migrations, the great Roman Empire trembled as she beheld the irresistible moving hosts, and her downfall was hastened by the ponderous blows dealt her by these barbarians.

In the early part of the thirteenth century, after the Mongol ruler Genghis Khan had overrun southern Russia, he turned northward and captured the cities of Moscow, Vladimir, and Ryazan, putting to death many of the inhabitants by the most fiendish methods of torture. Thousands were slaughtered merely to wreak vengeance for the strong resistance offered by the besieged before surrendering. Hundreds of thousands of the Russians both high and low were made slaves. Wives of the nobles who had been richly clad and adorned with jewels became servants of their conquerors.



In 1272 most of the Tartars became Muhammadans and henceforth became more intolerant of the Christians, thousands of whom they burned alive or tortured. This oppressive yoke was borne for nearly three hundred years. Then Ivan III succeeded in breaking the Tartar rule forever. Mongol tribes, however, remained a disturbing element on the border for two hundred years thereafter.

In the early part of the fourteenth century Othman, a Mongol, founded the Ottoman empire, which then consisted of only the western part of Asia Minor. His son and successor conquered Gallipoli in 1354, thereby gaining a foothold in Europe, and during the next two centuries successive Turkish rulers made large additions to the empire until it embraced vast areas in Europe, Asia, and Africa. For a time, indeed, it threatened to absorb all Christendom. Adrianople was conquered in 1361 and made the capital of the Turkish Empire. Then, in 1453, after a memorable siege, Constantinople was captured by the Muhammadans, and made the capital of the empire.

Orkhan was the first to exact as tribute the strongest and healthiest male children of all Christian peoples whom he conquered. These youths, reared as Muhammadans and trained under strict military discipline, became that efficient body of troops called the Janizaries. For a long time they were the bulwark of the empire, but at length they became so dictatorial and powerful that the sultan began to fear them more than he feared his foreign enemies. In 1825, when the army was reorganized on the European plan, the Janizaries broke out in open revolt. Then the reigning sultan unfurled the flag of the Prophet and called upon the faithful to suppress the rebellious corps. In the contest that ensued it is estimated that twenty-five thousand of the rebels were put to death, twenty thousand were banished, and the others disbanded. This was the end of an epoch of blood-shedding and the beginning of an era of commerce.

The Russians have always been noted for their love of furs; as a result a small, fur-bearing animal, the sable, led to the conquest of that vast realm now known as Siberia.

About the middle of the sixteenth century a rich Russian merchant named Strogonoff, residing at Kazan, established salt works on the banks of the Kama, a tributary of the Volga River, and began trading with the natives. One day, having noticed some strangely dressed travellers and learning that they came from a country beyond the Ural Mountains, called Sibir, he despatched some of his agents into that land. On returning, the employees brought with them the finest sable skins that the merchant had ever seen. They had been secured for a trifling sum.

Strogonoff began at once to extend the area of his trafficking, and informed the government of the lucrative commerce that he had opened up. Valuable concessions were then granted him. A few years afterward a Cossack officer named Yermak, who had been declared an outlaw by Ivan the Terrible, gathered together a force of less than one thousand men. The band was composed of adventurers, freebooters, and criminals, and the expedition was armed and provisioned by Strogonoff, who expected to profit by opening up the new region. Permission having been obtained from the government, in 1579 Yermak set forth with his followers for the unknown country.

So great were the impediments which the pathless swamps and forest offered, together with the severity of the climate and hostility of the natives, that his force was reduced by death, sickness, and desertion to the number of five hundred when he lined up his men before the large army of the powerful Kutchum Khan. Like Cortez and Pizarro, Yermak had unbounded confidence in his ability to cope with his enemies, who were rudely armed with bows and arrows, regardless of their numbers; for his own men were supplied with matchlocks, and with these—in the language of the natives—they could manufacture thunder and lightning.

A terrible battle ensued, and for some time success seemed evenly balanced. At length the fierce attacks of the Cossacks forced the barbarous hordes to give way and the retreat became a stampede. Kutchum Khan's camp and all its treasures fell into the hands of the conquerors. Yermak at once sent part of his force to occupy the Tartar capital, which was found to be evacuated, so great was the terror inspired by the Russians.

The success achieved by the handful of Cossacks led several neighboring tribes to offer voluntarily an annual tribute of sable skins. When Yermak had collected several thousand of these skins, he sent a special envoy to Moscow to present them along with the conquered country to the czar. So greatly pleased was Ivan with the offerings that he forgave Yermak for his past ill deeds and made him governor and commander-in-chief of all the countries which he might conquer. Then, knowing that it would be difficult for the Cossacks to hold the conquered territory very long with their diminished numbers, the czar forthwith sent reinforcements.

Soon after the arrival of the additional troops, Yermak audaciously started out to make further conquests. One dark and rainy night he encamped with his force on a small island in the Irtish River. Relying on the terror which his name had inspired, and the stormy weather, he deemed it unnecessary to post sentinels. Wearied with their long march, soon all of the Russians were buried in slumber.

But Kutchum, smarting under his humiliating defeat, had spies constantly watching his foes, intending, if possible, to take them by surprise. When the spies reported to him the lack of vigilance on the part of the enemy, he stealthily crossed to the island with his force and fell upon the sleeping camp. All the Russians but two were killed, and these, escaping, reported the disaster at Sibir. When Yermak saw the annihilation of his troops, he cut his way through the Tartars and attempted to swim the stream, but was dragged to the bottom by his heavy armor and drowned.

When news of the crushing disaster reached Sibir the Russians, losing heart at the death of their leader, evacuated the place and returned home. The czar, nevertheless, had no idea of permitting a land so promising to slip from his grasp. It was not long before he sent a larger army across the Ural Mountains, which not only reconquered the lost territory but also the rest of western Siberia.



Gradually the Cossacks moved eastward, conquering tribe after tribe. As they advanced they built strong wooden forts by which to hold their vantage ground. Tomsk was founded in 1604; by 1630 the tide of conquest had reached the banks of the Lena; and within eighty years from their first conquest the Russians had reached the Pacific.

Years afterward a suitable monument was erected to Yermak in the city of Tobolsk, which was built on the battle-field where he gained his first decisive victory over the Tartar ruler. His real monument is all Siberia, whose conquest he inaugurated.

In 1847 the Amur River section was annexed by Russia regardless of the protests of the Chinese Government. Quarrels ensued over the boundaries and, finding resistance hopeless, the Chinese ceded to Russia all the land on the left bank of the Amur as far as the mouth of the Ussuri and on both its banks below that river.

The sable gradually led the Russian hunters to Kamtchatka, while the more valuable sea-otter beckoned them across the sea to the Aleutian Islands and that part of the American continent now Alaska Territory. The chief incentive in all of these conquests was the securing of valuable furs. The sable is even yet found along the streams in both open and forested sections from the Ural Mountains to the Pacific; but so relentless has been the pursuit of this valuable fur-bearing animal that it is now nearly exterminated. Besides the sable and the sea-otter, there are found in Siberia the ermine, bear, arctic fox, common fox, deer, wolf, antelope, elk, hare, and squirrel.

To avoid entering into conflict with the more powerful people at the south, the Russians chose to advance eastward along higher latitudes toward the Pacific. But within a few years after the Muscovite empire had acquired central and northern Siberia, there were loud complaints that the tribes on the south were making raids on them, robbing them of their property and carrying their people into slavery. So, from time to time, Cossack forces were sent to chastise the offenders; and in many instances they were punished and their territories were annexed to Siberia.

In these raids the Turkomans were the most active. During the forty years previous to 1878 it is estimated that eighty thousand Russian subjects and two hundred thousand Persians were made captives and sold into slavery. In 1873 the Russians captured Khiva and liberated thirty thousand Persian slaves.

Notwithstanding these lessons, some of the Turkoman tribes still went on marauding expeditions, robbing, killing, and enslaving their neighbors. So, in 1878, another strong force of the Cossacks was sent against the pillaging tribes, who were made to release all slaves and abolish slavery. Little by little all Turkistan became Russian territory. Bokhara and Khiva alone keep their old forms of government, but they are practically Russian states and pay Russia annually a stipulated tribute.

It is thought that once upon a time Siberia had a much larger population than it has now and the peoples who lived there dwelt farther north. The first colonists lived in the stone age and were contemporaneous with the mammoth, whose remains are found scattered all over the northern part of Siberia and the adjacent islands.

In the interior these remains are found imbedded in thick strata of pure blue ice, which is covered by the river gravels of streams that do not now exist. So thick are these layers of ice that they may be likened to the rocks found in lower latitudes. Several of these animals have been found imbedded in the ice in an almost perfect state of preservation, and quantities of their tusks are obtained annually along the northern rivers where the spring freshets have worn away the banks of the streams.

Whenever the ivory-tusk hunter sees the end of a tusk sticking out of the river bank, he is soon able to remove it from its resting place with pick and shovel. Great quantities of this fossil ivory are also obtained from the islands to the north of the mainland.

As in arctic America, the ground of northern Siberia is frozen solid to the depth of many feet, and even during the hottest summer it thaws down only a few inches. The climate is continental in character, being marked by fierce winds and great extremes both in temperature and moisture. In midsummer the temperature may reach one hundred and ten degrees, while in midwinter it has been known to reach ninety degrees below zero.

Roughly speaking, Siberia may be divided into three longitudinal belts: first, the tundra, which borders the Arctic Ocean and extends several hundred miles south of it; second, the forest belt, several hundred miles wide, which extends across the continent; third, the southern part, consisting of desert steppes, swamps, grassy plains, and a few broken forests.

The tundra is a vast lowland plain which in winter is a desolate, frozen waste, and in summer a vast swamp of lichens and arctic moss. Here nature is embalmed in eternal frost, and life is a terror-inspiring struggle with cold and hunger.

In spring, when the snow is gone and the ground begins to thaw, thousands of geese, ducks, swans, and other feathered creatures appear, enlivening the monotonous scene for a few months; then, when the sharp September frosts announce the approach of winter, with their tundra-reared progeny they wing their way southward, leaving the icy plains to the wandering fox and the arctic owl.

One writer speaks of the tundra as the very grave of nature, the sepulchre of the primeval world, because it is the tomb of so many animals whose remains have been protected from putrefaction for thousands of years. How interesting would it be could these animals be brought to life and be endowed with sufficient intelligence to relate the history of their age and generation!

The reindeer in the valley of the Lena spend the winter near the forests, but as the spring advances they migrate to the thousands of islands in the delta to escape the heat and mosquitoes farther south. To reach their destination they are obliged to swim across broad channels of water. The animals have special places for crossing, and on their return south the natives station themselves at these places and slaughter them in large numbers.

All the swamps and marshes throughout Siberia are the breeding places of innumerable mosquitoes, which in summer fly over the country in such dense clouds as to render life in certain sections almost unbearable.

Just north of Mongolia where the Yenisei River enters Russian territory is the wonderfully interesting fertile prairie region of Minusinsk. Being well watered and sheltered on all sides by mountains, it is one of the most fertile spots in all Siberia. Here the disintegration of gold-bearing rocks has formed large mining fields which are profitably worked. In the vicinity are also valuable iron mines, which were opened early in the prehistoric period, and which are still worked.



Because of its delightful climate and special attractions for the archaeologist, this charming section is called the "Italy of Siberia." There have been obtained from the mounds found in this section many thousand relics relating to prehistoric man which exemplify his progress from the stone age through the bronze to the iron age. This fine collection of upward of sixty thousand different articles is housed in an imposing and substantial museum erected in the town of Minusinsk. This building contains the richest collection of implements representing the bronze age in the world.

The forest belt is so immense that the wooded plains of the Amazon shrink into comparative insignificance. For the most part these great forests are composed of evergreen trees, the fir, pine, larch, and pitch-pine predominating. In many localities there are hundreds of square miles of perfectly straight pine trees of great height, where neither man nor beast could find the way out. Even experienced trappers dare not enter these forests without blazing trees along their pathway, so that they may be able to extricate themselves by retracing their steps. In these huge evergreen solitudes there is an inexhaustible supply of the finest timber in the world. In every sense of the word they are solitudes; for one may travel scores of miles without meeting or hearing either bird or beast.

At the conclusion of the war between Japan and Russia it was stipulated that Russia should cede to Japan the southern part of Sakhalin Island. The cession was made in 1905. During the following two years a large number of Russians and Japanese were employed in marking the boundary, by cutting through the forest from east to west a strip one hundred miles long and twelve miles wide. The fir forests of the Japanese portion, covering more than three million acres, are alone estimated to be worth forty-five million dollars, to say nothing about the extensive coal deposits and the large areas of land available for tillage.

Of the native peoples of northern Siberia the Yakuts are the most numerous. They resemble both the Eskimos and the Lapps. They occupy several valleys, including that of the Lena River and a strip along the Arctic Ocean to the west. So inured to cold are these people, that where the temperature ranges from ninety degrees below zero to ninety-three degrees above, the adults wear light clothing in the depth of winter and the children sport naked in the snow.

The desert zone includes a vast region east of the Caspian Sea and extends to the Tian Shan Mountains, which separate it from the desert of Gobi. Here, as in the Mohave Desert, are found the leafless, thickly spined forms of the cactus family.

A product peculiar to Siberia and highly appreciated by the inhabitants on account of its edible qualities is the cedar nut found in all of the northern forest region. So great is the demand for these nuts that in Tomsk alone thousands of tons are sold each year. They resemble pine nuts. A gum called larch-tree sulphur, chewed by both natives and settlers, is also obtained from these forests. Bee-keeping, especially in eastern Siberia, is an important industry which has been followed from remotest ages. The annual yield of honey is estimated to be upward of three million pounds.

The camel is usually associated with the hot desert regions of the Sahara and Arabia, yet in Siberia immense numbers of camels are used. It is not an uncommon sight to see them in midwinter hauling sledges along frozen roads and ice-covered rivers.

The richest gold fields are in the swamp and forest sections of central Siberia and in the Ural and Altai Mountains, although the metal is widely scattered all the way from the Ural Mountains to the Pacific. The word Altai means gold. The world's supply of platinum virtually comes from the gold-mines of Siberia as a by-product. In many parts of the mining region, as in Alaska, the frozen ground must be thawed by fires before it can be worked.

The building of the Trans-Siberian Railroad has wrought a wonderful transformation in Siberia by giving a great impetus to agriculture and other kinds of business. This great achievement, begun in 1891, was practically completed in eleven years, at a cost of one hundred and seventy-five million dollars. Subsequent work, together with equipment, double tracking, and the building of additional lines, has doubled the first cost.

The eastern terminus of the main line is Vladivostock; a branch line across Manchuria reaches Port Arthur and Dalny, or Tairen, as it is now called. The continuous railway route from St. Petersburg to Port Arthur is five thousand six hundred and twenty miles, four thousand five hundred miles of which is in Siberia. The first rails used, proving too light for the tremendous traffic, were replaced with heavier ones, and the road-bed itself has been widened and strengthened.

The fare on the road is very reasonable. For long distances it ranges from about a cent per mile to less than half that rate, accordingly as one travels first, second, third, or fourth class. Riding first class one can secure sleeping accommodations equal to the best that one finds on the roads of the United States, and in addition one may have the luxury of a bath.

Since the completion of the road the government has done everything possible to attract Russian emigration from Europe in order to settle and develop the country. The consumer in Russia becomes a producer in Siberia. The number of Russian emigrants who have settled along the line during the past five years will average one hundred and fifty thousand annually.

To start the Russian farmers in these new regions the government gives each man of family a certain amount of money or an equivalent in stock and tools; and in addition loans him small amounts at a low rate of interest, to be repaid in five years, with a proviso that if there be bad crops the time will be extended. For the year 1908, nine million five hundred thousand dollars was set aside to assist the peasant farmers.

Following in the wake of the completion of the Trans-Siberian Railroad, additional steamers have been placed on all the large rivers to meet the growing demands of commerce. Hundreds of steamers ply upon the rivers during the open season, but no vessels attempt the route by way of the Arctic Ocean on account of the long distance and frequent ice obstructions.



Dairying, now a most important industry of Siberia, was unknown before the advent of the great railway. To promote this industry, the government has already expended more than a million dollars. At all the principal places schools have been established in which the best methods of dairy-farming are taught. Fortunately, cattle diseases are practically unknown.

The fine quality of the grasses, together with the improved methods of manufacturing brought about by the creameries, causes Siberian butter to rank with the best products found in the European markets. The dairy products are shipped by rail to various parts of Europe, large quantities going to England and to Denmark, the home of dairying. Sometimes three hundred tons of butter per week are shipped to Copenhagen and one thousand tons to London. Upward of eighty million pounds are annually exported, and it is said that by a little exertion fifteen times the amount could be easily produced. The industry is still only in its infancy.

In the Tobol and Ishim plains of western Siberia are the fertile black-earth regions covering twenty-five million acres. As yet, they are sparsely settled, but they are capable of supporting half the population of Russia. Two-thirds of the inhabitants of Siberia are Russians, and in timbered regions probably one-half live in log houses, for these are capable of being made the most comfortable dwellings in the world.

Many exaggerated statements have appeared, both in England and America, concerning the exile system. This, happily, is now abolished, as also have been the cruelties practised by those in charge. That there have been great abuses no one denies, but the conditions of the prisons can be paralleled both in England and the United States. No more common criminals are sent to Siberia.

Transportation is now limited chiefly to escaped convicts and to political and religious criminals, most of whom are sent to the island of Sakhalin. Capital punishment, except in cases of attacks on the royal family and condemnation by courts-martial, was abolished many years ago.

Lake Baikal is one of the most remarkable lakes in the world. It is four hundred miles long and from twenty to sixty miles wide. The lake is very deep, and, although situated in the temperate zone, is the home of a species of arctic seal and tropical coral. This species of seal is found nowhere in Asian waters outside of the Arctic Ocean, except in this lake and the Caspian Sea. Immense quantities of salmon of different species abound in the lake, and give rise to important fishing industries.

In winter the lake is covered with ice seven feet thick. Crossing is made by huge ice-breaking ferryboats capable of carrying thirty cars and one thousand men, yet only during a part of the winter is the boat able to navigate, so persistent is the extreme cold. The railway now extends around the southern part of the lake, and crossing by ferryboats is not attempted when the ice is thick.

Asiatic Russia includes Transcaucasia, which was permanently annexed to the Russian Empire in 1801. This great Asiatic domain contains more than six million square miles, or about twice the size of the United States, including Alaska.

Notwithstanding the millions of square miles of arid deserts, irredeemable swamps, frozen tundra, and impenetrable forests, the agricultural and mineral resources of Siberia are almost beyond computation.



CHAPTER VIII

THE MYSTIC HIGHLANDS OF ASIA

The statement that "one half the world does not know how the other half lives, nor how it is influenced," applies with double force to the peoples living on the high plateau of Tibet beyond the titanic Himalayas. Here is a vast region only one-twentieth of which is covered with vegetation. Chains of mountains with snow-capped peaks encircle it, and spurs from the main ranges, together with lesser ridges and isolated elevations, diversify its surface.

Amidst these desolate wastes are fertile valleys which are capable of producing excellent crops; in many other sections good crops are produced by very primitive methods of irrigation. As a whole the plateau may be classed among the infertile regions of the earth.

On account of its great elevation, Tibet is often called the roof of the world. Starting from its borders several large rivers break through its rocky ramparts, among them the Indus, Brahmaputra, Irawadi, and Hoang. Some of the plains of the great plateau range from fifteen to eighteen thousand feet above sea level. Scattered over these are single lakes and chains of lakes, many of which are salt. These vast areas, storm-swept in winter and baked by heat in summer, are frequented by bandits and nomads. They live in tents made of the almost black hair of the yak, and move from place to place with their flocks and herds to seek food for their animals. The stable population resides chiefly in the few cities and villages.

For nearly a thousand years a veil of religious mystery has shrouded this section of the world; and the sacred city of Lasa with its holy places has been doubly guarded against the visits of foreigners.

This mysterious land has been able to maintain its position of isolated seclusion because of the high mountain barriers that are massed in a series of gigantic walls on all sides. It is approachable only through narrow passes that are constantly guarded.

Our knowledge of the "forbidden land," as it is called, has been obtained chiefly from adventurers who have travelled through it in disguise, and from a few others who took more desperate chances by forcing their way in. Among these may be mentioned Bower, Thorald, the Littledales, Rockhill, Captain Deasy, Sven Hedin, and Walter Savage Landor. Landor was taken prisoner by the Tibetans and suffered at their hands horrible tortures, from the effects of which he will never recover.



Because the Tibetans for many years had insulted the government of India and had seized territory claimed by it, English troops under Colonel Younghusband were sent against the invaders in 1903, and after several severe battles reached the forbidden city of Lasa, where a forced treaty was negotiated and signed. But on the withdrawal of the English troops the policy of exclusion was immediately resumed. Russia to-day has much greater influence in Tibet than has England.

The present condition of Tibet resembles in many respects that of Europe during the Middle Ages. The country is under the suzerainty of China, which has a representative called an amaban and several thousand troops at Lasa to maintain its claim.

Though an extremely trying climate prevails on these highlands, the hermit-like, priest-ridden people know no better home and are contented with their lot. Of its three and one-half million inhabitants, one in seven belongs to the priestly class called lamas.

At the head of this priesthood, as well as at the head of the state, are two leaders, the chief one, the Dalai Lama, or "ocean of learning," and the other the Bogodo Lama, or "precious teacher." With their subordinates, these two are supposed to have power not only over life and death, but over the reincarnation of the soul and entrance to the regions beyond rebirth.

This isolated table-land is the seat of a former Buddhism better known by the name of Lamaism. A deep but crude religious feeling tainted with the grossest superstitions pervades the whole people, whose ignorance of other learning is appalling.

When a person dies a lama must be present to see that the soul is properly separated from the body and to direct the spirit on its journey to paradise; the lama must also influence its rebirth in a happy existence and provide for its entrance upon Nirvana, or eternal rest.

Many a mountain contains hollowed-out cells in which hermit monks spend their lives in silent meditation. On an island in one of the lakes, where they can be reached only when the lake freezes, reside twenty monks. In the midst of this wild and majestic scenery each rock and stream has its deity and saint, together with its appropriate legend.

Although the Buddhist monks do not believe in God as a creator, their religion demands audible and written prayers; indeed, prayer-wheels are frequently used to facilitate the repetition of prayers. Prayers numbering hundreds and even thousands are carefully written and placed, rolled up, in drum-wheels, which are revolved by wind, water, or hand power. Each revolution of a wheel is supposed to say all the prayers enclosed in it.

Many prayer-wheels, each with appropriate prayers, are mounted on axles and placed convenient to frequented paths so that they may be whirled around by those who pass by. Others provided with suitable fans are placed where they may be revolved by the wind. Sometimes water power is made to turn the wheels, but most of them are made of a size convenient to be carried about and operated by hand.

The capital of Tibet and seat of the Dalai Lama is Lasa, situated in a plain nearly twelve thousand feet above sea level. The city is surrounded by a marsh and is reached by a causeway raised above the morass. It has wide and regular streets, the principal buildings being made of stone, but the majority of the structures are adobe and sun-dried brick.

This interesting city contains forty-five thousand inhabitants, two-thirds of whom are monks. Streams formed by the melting snow course down the surrounding mountains, flooding the plain. At a distance the city presents an imposing appearance with the adjacent Potala as the crowning glory.

In the centre of the city stands a cathedral, called the Jo-Kang, which contains one of the most renowned statues of Buddha. This image, of life size, is an object of the greatest reverence and adoration. It is made of a composition of metals, gold and silver predominating. Priests are always in attendance and lamps are constantly burning before it. The roof of the temple is gilded and the interior is richly furnished.

Situated in the suburbs, on a rocky elevation above the plain which overlooks the city, is a wonderful group of buildings forming the Potala, or palace of the Dalai Lama. This huge, conglomerate structure of granite rising story above story to an immense height fascinates the beholder, who marvels at the skill and patience of the builders.

As though to heighten its beauty, the Potala is separated from the city by a park of grass and trees about a mile wide, making the stately edifice look like a huge diamond encircled with emeralds. Nothing but a blind religious zeal could have brought to completion such a series of connected edifices with their miles of halls, courts, corridors, and labyrinthine passageways.

Scattered throughout Tibet are upward of three thousand monasteries, or lamaseries. Some of them are built in remote and inaccessible places and contain as many as seven thousand monks. Each lamasery has set apart for its use the best land in that vicinity, the cultivation of which is done by the common people, who are little better than serfs, or peons.

It is a notable fact that in this strange land there are many more men than women, although the reverse would be expected. The support of the hordes of lazy monks is a great incubus and retards the development of the country.



The use of water for cleansing purposes seems to be no part of the religion of the people; they never bathe their bodies and seldom wash the face and hands. To protect themselves from the biting cold they smear their faces with rancid butter, which, catching the smoke and dust, adds to the effectiveness as well as the strength of the odor. Their homes and places of worship reek with dirt and filth; small-pox, ailments of the eyes, and other contagious diseases are prevalent. Harelip, in a great measure due to lack of proper nutrition, is a very common ailment.

In leather and inlaid work the Tibetans show great skill, much of the decorative work on the handles of their swords and daggers being very artistic. The common people live in constant terror of evil spirits in this world and of terrible punishments in the hereafter; the educated classes believe they can drive off or propitiate all evil influences in this world, but fear they may be changed in a future rebirth to some vile form of being. In general, the people are treacherous and cowardly. For weapons of defence they use matchlocks; in firing them, the weapon is held directly in front of the nose.

Of domestic animals the yak is one of the most useful, since it not only serves as a beast of burden but furnishes rich milk, butter, and meat. The long hair of the animal is used for making ropes, tents, and cloth.

The yak resembles the ox in body, head, and legs; but it is covered with long, silky hair which hangs like the fleece of an Angora goat. The long, flowing hair of the tail reaches nearly to the ground. Thousands of these tails find their way to India where they are used for various household purposes.

Wild yaks are found in considerable numbers near the limits of perpetual snow, but at the approach of winter they descend to the wooded valleys just below the snow line. During the summer they pasture on the higher elevations. In their wild state yaks are fierce and dangerous. Being accustomed to high elevations, they fall sick and die when removed to the lowlands.

Milk is obtained not only from the yaks but from the sheep and goats. The sheep, being of large size, are frequently used to bear small loads. Many horses are raised, but they are used chiefly for riding.

Tibet is rich in gold, and for thousands of years the precious metal has been washed out of its surface by the crudest of methods. In fact, gold is washed from every river which has its sources in the Tibetan plateau. Most of it in time finds its way to China. Silver, copper, iron, lead, and mercury abound in the southeastern part and considerable quantities are mined.

Traffic is carried on by means of caravans, the most common pack animal being the yak. Almost all the commerce is controlled by Chinese merchants, and the chief article of trade is tea, which is received in exchange for wool, hides, musk, amber, and gold. The tea is an inferior kind known as "brick tea," being composed of the refuse, stems, and leaves of the plants cemented with rice water and pressed into hard bricks. This kind of tea is preferred by the Tibetans, who brew it with butter and other ingredients and consume the entire concoction. The tea trade amounts to several million pounds annually.



CHAPTER IX

THE PRIMAL HOME OF THE SARACEN

Who has not had the youthful imagination fired by the "Arabian Nights"? The simplicity and lifelike reality of these interesting stories, made even more fascinating by their Oriental color, appeal both to young and old.

So great has been their popularity that few works have been translated into so many different languages, while their influence on the literature of the present day is felt in a marked degree. They are more than the luxurious fancies of the Arab's mind, for they vividly set forth the love and hate, the craft and hypocrisy, the courage and revenge of his race. Moreover, they portray in a truly dramatic manner the innermost life and thought of the Moslem, while they captivate the senses by a magnificent panorama of exquisite banquets, lovely characters, charming gardens, and beautiful palaces.

The country and the descendants of the race that created these masterly storiettes are surely worthy of careful consideration. A region that is the birthplace of a religion claiming nearly two hundred million converts scattered all over the world must possess a special interest.

We are apt to look askance at everything Arabic as bordering on ignorance and savagery; but if we study the past of this alert race we shall find a profusion of historical side lights that are valuable; we shall also find in Arabic literature much to admire. The Arab is poetic and delights in imagery. There are Arabic poems dating back one thousand years before the Christian era that for beauty of thought, vigor, and polish are equal to those produced by any nation and in any age.

In the Middle Ages the Arabs led the world in commerce, exploration, art, science, and literature. The secret of their successful conquests was not in the number of their soldiers but in the courage inspired by the Muhammadan religion. Death has no terrors for the fanatical Moslem, for to him it is the vestibule of paradise where the pleasures of earth await those who fight in the holy cause.

By nature the Arab is active, vivacious, and keen-witted. He is proud of his lineage, earnest, and hospitable. The mother not only takes care of the home but educates the children; and, strange as it may seem to the outside world, illiteracy is practically unknown to Arabia.

To the Arabic race we are indebted for our knowledge of arithmetic, and many of the principles of algebra and geometry. The pendulum, the mariner's compass, and the manufacture of silk and cotton textiles were introduced into Europe by the Arabs. They claim to have used gunpowder as far back as the eleventh century. In the year 706 paper was made at Mecca and from there its manufacture spread all over the western world. To them we owe many of the useful arts and practical inventions which were later brought to perfection by other nations.



Now, no one is quite certain about the Saracens as a people because the name has been very loosely used. It was applied by Roman soldiers to several wandering tribes of Arabs who were much accustomed to mistaking other people's flocks of sheep and herds of cattle for their own. Most likely there never was a Saracenic Empire. But there certainly was a time when Arabians controlled not only the Arabian peninsula, but also Syria and the fertile plains of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers as well; and that great region became known as the "Land of the Saracens." From Damascus to Bagdad, and from the Bab-el-Mandeb to the Gulf of Oman, the Moslem was all-powerful.

Let us glance at the country itself. In the first place, Arabia is not a nation but a country made up of petty states—some independent, some controlled by the sultan of Turkey; two or three are included in the British Empire. But the country itself is very far removed from the rest of the world so far as accessibility is concerned; and although its coast is scarcely a gunshot from the greatest trade route of the East, Arabia is to-day one of the least-known countries in the world.

In general, the country is a moderately high table-land bordered by low coast plains. Much of it is an out-and-out desert; all of it is arid. Long ago it was divided into Arabia Petraea, Arabia Deserta, and Arabia Felix—that is, the rocky, the desert, and the happy. It is needless to say that Arabia the happy was the part receiving enough rainfall to produce foodstuffs.

The coast-line of this great peninsula is nearly as great as that of the Atlantic and Gulf coast of the United States; but in its entire extent, not far from four thousand miles, there is scarcely a harbor in which a good-sized fishing schooner could find safe anchorage. Even at Aden a steamship cannot approach within a quarter of a mile of the shore. So one will not be far out of the way in designating Arabia as an impassable country with an impossible coast.

It is estimated that about seven millions of people live in the entire peninsula. To say that these belong to the Semitic race is merely to say that they are dark-skinned and black-haired. The Arab, whether a merchant dwelling in a city along the coast, or a Bedouin wandering with flocks and herds, is a product of the desert and of the teachings of Islam. His black eyes twinkle with shrewdness and he is a past master of craftiness. As a trader he is unsurpassed, and Arab traders control the interior commerce of western Asia and northern Africa just as the Chinese control the trade of southeastern Asia.

As a Bedouin of the desert the Arab is supreme in his way. Savage and blood-thirsty by nature, if there is no caravan to rob or common enemy to fight, neighboring tribes easily find cause for fighting one another. Usually a quarrel over pasture lands in the same locality furnishes an excuse for a feud that results in the extermination of one tribe or the other.

A hatred of those who are not followers of the prophet is a heritage of all Arabs. The merchant class, who are wealthy and usually educated, may have trained themselves to conceal it, but they possess it. Even to the most liberal Arab, one who is not of the faith of Islam is a "dog of an unbeliever." Among Bedouins, not to rob the caravan containing the belongings of a Christian would be a sin. There is one exception, however; if a Bedouin sheik agrees to convoy a party of "unbelievers," together with their valuables, over a robber-infested route, he will carry out his bargain faithfully.

Family ties among the Bedouin Arabs are much the same to-day as they were two thousand years ago. The great-grandfather, grandfather, or father, as the case may be, is the head of the family, and his will is law. The tribe is governed by a sheik, who is simply a "boss." He does not inherit his office, nor is he elected to it by popular vote; he elects himself because he is the best man, and he "holds over" for the same reason.

The family mansion of the Bedouin is a tent made of goat-hair cloth. Some tents occupy as much ground as is covered by a small cottage. The tent of a sheik may be richly furnished with rugs and silk portieres; ordinarily, a coarse hearth-rug and a divan cover are about the only furnishings. The cooking utensils are primitive—one or two kettles to a family; and of tableware there is practically nothing more than one or two platters. Meat is freely eaten and coffee is commonly a part of each meal. In the place of bread, flour about as coarse as oatmeal is mixed to a paste, rolled or beaten into thin cakes, and cooked in hot butter. Dates are almost always a part of the food supply.

The camel has first place in the wealth of the Bedouin, but sheep and goats in many instances form a part of his herds. The tents of a family are pitched where the grazing is good and the families move about as they will. All disputes are settled by the sheik, and he is apt to emphasize his decisions by the free use of his lance shaft. Whenever it becomes necessary because of poor grazing, the whole clan or tribe may move to a distant place. All household goods are wrapped in packs or put into saddle bags. Two or three camels will readily carry the tent and luggage of a family. The women are carried in litters; the men ride camels. Horses are rarely ridden at such times.

If a caravan is to be plundered, however, the best horses are used, and in addition to his lance the raider carries a heavy knife. Perhaps a few firearms may be carried, but they are generally either flintlocks or the older matchlocks. It is only within a few years that the modern rifle with metal cartridge has found favor with the Bedouin.



The great Arabian peninsula, seemingly so far out of the world, produces many things, some of which the world cannot do well without. First of all, it is the home of the camel. Perhaps a more awkward and ungainly animal has not been domesticated, but certainly none is more useful. We are told by students of natural history that the camel is the descendant of the llama kind which seems to have originated in the South American Andes. Just how or when the descent from the New World, which is really the Old World, to the Old World, which is really the New World, was made we are not informed; nevertheless, it looks as though the natural history student has the right end of the argument. After the animal got to Arabia it "developed." And while the result may not have been very artistic, no one will deny that it was good workmanship; for the world has never produced a more useful helper to mankind.

Practically all the riding animals are of the one-hump or Arabian species. They are much larger and stronger than the two-hump animals. One variety is slim and comparatively light in weight. These animals, as a rule, are trained to a swift gait, and are used solely as riding animals. They are called dromedaries, a word that means swift-runner.

Most of the other species are reared for the same purpose as domestic cattle. Some are valuable as beasts of burden, others are shorn for their coating, still others are kept for their milk and flesh. A well-trained dromedary will sell for three hundred dollars and upward; a pack animal rarely brings more than one-fourth as much. The milk of the camel is equal to that of the best domestic cows and is greatly prized. The hair of several species surpasses sheep's wool in texture and is used in the finer kinds of cloth, and it is the most precious textile in high-priced Oriental rugs and shawls. Ordinarily, however, camel's hair is coarse and is used for the cheapest textiles. Arabia is the source from which a large proportion of the camels used in the caravan trade of Asia and Africa is obtained. Fermented camel's milk is much used all over western Asia.

The Arabian horse has been famous in literature and in song for more than two thousand years. The district of Nejd has been the chief breeding locality for these horses for many centuries. Contrary to tradition, however, even the finest animals are neither so large nor so swift as American thoroughbred horses. The qualities that have made the Arabian horse famous are its beautiful proportions, endurance, and intelligence. Young colts mingle freely with their owners and attendants, and they need, therefore, only the training to make them saddle-wise; they require no "breaking." Brought up with the family and treated with the greatest kindness from its birth the colt learns to regard his master as his best friend.

Ordinarily but little water is given them, and they are so well trained that a good animal will go a whole day in summer and two days in winter without drink. The pure, full-blood Arabian is never sold. It may be acquired only by gift, by capture in war, or by legacy. Animals of mixed breed, however, are freely sold, most of them going to Turkey and to India.

Mocha coffee is another product for which Arabia is renowned. The coffee berry bearing this name is of the peaberry variety—that is, only one of the two seeds within the husk comes to maturity. Most of the coffee is grown in Yemen and the adjoining vilayets, and it received its name because it was formerly marketed at the port of Mocha. Of late years it has been shipped from Hodeida.

The business is in the hands of Arab merchants, and the coffee is carried to Hodeida by caravans. On its way it is carefully sorted by hand into three or more grades. The finest grade is sold to wealthy Turkish customers at from three to five dollars per pound; the inferior grades command prices varying from thirty cents to twice or three times as much. Very little of the product ever passes outside of Turkey. All the Mocha coffee grown in Yemen would not much more than supply New York City.

The pearl fisheries along the Arabian coast of the Persian Gulf are also controlled by Arab traders. From there are obtained some of the finest pearls to be found, and also many tons of mother-of-pearl shells. The yearly product of the fisheries is thought to exceed more than two millions of dollars in value. The pearls are found in a species of oyster, and to obtain them the divers must go to the bottom in from thirty to ninety feet of water. Expert divers can remain under water as long as two minutes.

The oysters are taken ashore to be opened, and Turkish inspectors are on hand to levy a tax on the product. A few pearls may escape him, especially if he is temporarily blinded by the glare of several piasters; but the pearl industry is taxed for about all that it is worth.

Mecca, the birthplace of the Prophet Muhammad, is the city to which every disciple of Islam is supposed to make a pilgrimage at least once in his lifetime. The chief income of the inhabitants of Mecca is obtained by renting rooms and entertaining the visiting pilgrims who flock thither.

In the centre of the city is the so-called Sacred Mosque, or area, which is entirely enclosed by a covered structure of colonnades having minarets and cupolas. Within the centre of this enclosed space is a cube-shaped building called the Kaaba, which contains the famous sacred Black Stone. This stone, probably of meteoric origin, gives to the building its sanctity, and is an object of the greatest veneration to every pious Moslem, who kisses it repeatedly. There is also within the enclosure a building containing the holy well, Zemzem, the only well in Mecca.

No unbeliever is permitted to enter the sacred enclosure, much less to pollute the Holy Kaaba by his presence. A few infidels disguised as pilgrims, at the risk of their lives, have visited this sacred place.

The preparations for pilgrimage are unique. The pilgrims assemble near Mecca during the holy month and begin the sacred rites by bathing and assuming the sacred garb. This suit consists of two woollen wrappers, one worn around the middle of the body and the other around the shoulders. With bare head and slippers covering neither heel nor instep the pilgrim sets forth on his holy journey.

While wearing this dress he is admonished to bring his thoughts into harmony with the sanctity of the territory he now traverses. He is not to shave, anoint his head, pare his nails, or bathe until the end of the pilgrimage. Among the various rites to be performed after reaching Mecca is walking seven times around the Kaaba, first slowly, then quickly. Before leaving the city the pilgrim drinks water from the holy well, Zemzem.