At the sugar works of Luhmayo, notwithstanding the number of pipes, and other methods of supplying water, the cylinders are always worked by oxen, and are kept in motion day and night. I took a view of the works during the night, and the extraordinary picture I beheld will never be effaced from my memory. In the middle of the spacious building appropriated to the operations blazed a large fire, fed by the refuse of sugar canes. Around lay negroes, some asleep, and others muttering to each other in an under-tone. Here and there sat one perfectly silent, wrapped in his own reflections, and apparently brooding over some gloomy plan. The oxen paced slowly round the pole, which directed the movement of the cylinders; the animals alternately disappearing in the obscure background, and returning to the point where the glare of the fire, falling full upon them, lighted them up as if by the sudden effect of magic. Behind them stalked a tall black figure, driving them on with a rod made of brambles. Groups of children were busily employed in thrusting the full sugar canes between the cylinders; and after they were pressed, collecting together the sapless reeds, and piling them up in regular heaps.

Next morning the person who officiated as medical superintendant of the plantation, showed me all the arrangements of the establishment. He gave me an account of his cures and operations, and told me that he often found it necessary to amputate, because the slaves purposely injure their fingers and arms in the Phalangeles (machines) in order to disable themselves. The worthy AEsculapius had never in his life read a regular medical work. He had originally been an overseer of slaves, and had afterwards turned doctor. He informed me that some time before I saw him, ninety negroes, his patients, had died of small-pox in the space of nine months, whereby the owner of the plantation had lost 45,000 dollars. The hospital was clean and well fitted up, but over-crowded with sick. Most of them died from intermitting fever, and from dropsy and rheumatism which followed it. Not a few of the male negroes suffer from a peculiar kind of cutaneous disease, which shows itself by large pustules on the arms and breast. After suppuration they dry and fall off, but leave indelible spots, which, on a black skin, are of a whitish color; on a brown skin, olive-green, and on a white skin, black. I never saw the disease in any other part of the country except in this valley. Negroes and persons of mixed blood are more subject to it than the whites.

The two plantations on the east side of the valley are Chambara and Quipico. The latter is celebrated for the fine sugar it produces, and is also well known on account of the original character of its late proprietor, Castilla. When I rode into the court, I was in a moment surrounded by about fifty fine greyhounds, and from every side others came springing forward. This was but a remnant of Castilla's collection. He was passionately devoted to hunting, and generally kept from 200 to 300 greyhounds, with which he rode out daily. A bell was rung at certain hours to collect the light-footed tribe to their meals. A gallows was erected in the court, where the intractable underwent capital punishment as a warning to the rest. One day when Castilla went out to hunt, he was joined in the chase by an Indian, who brought with him a common mongrel. This animal outstripped some of the greyhounds in speed, and quickly overtook the deer. Castilla immediately bought the dog, for which he gave the immense price of 350 dollars. A few days after he rode out to hunt with his best greyhounds, together with the newly-purchased dog. The pack being let loose, all the dogs set off in full chase, but the mongrel remained quietly beside the horses. On returning to the plantation, he was hung up on the gallows as a warning example.

To the north of Huacho, the Pampa del medio mundo, a sand plain, seven leagues long, stretches out to the village of Supe. At short successive distances farther to the north are the villages of Baranca, Pativilca (or rather Pati Huillca), and la Fortaleza. Then there intervenes a vast waste, which extends nearly to Huarmay. Between that village and the Port of Casma there is a similar long plain of sand. Thus do wastes, and fruitful valleys, alternate along the whole coast until near Tumbez, on the frontiers of the Republic of the Ecuador.

The whole district is rich in memorable monuments of the time of the Incas. The most important are the remains of the palace of King Chimu Cancha, not far from the harbor of Huanchaco, and the ruins of Paramanca, near la Fortaleza. Doctor Unanue[45] is of opinion that the latter edifice was built to commemorate the peace between King Chimu Cancha and his conqueror, Capac Yupanqui; and that of two other buildings, one (the larger), situated towards the east, marks the dominions of the powerful Inca Pachacutec, and the other (the smaller), towards the west, indicates the territory of the conquered Chimu. This supposition is, in my opinion, quite erroneous. Independently of the plainly-recognizable character of those ruins, the construction of which shows them to have been fortifications, their situation bears evidence against the inference of Unanue. Supposing the larger building to have indicated the position of the Inca Empire, it ought to have been situated to the south, and the smaller building would have been to the north. The only passable road along the coast led between these two fortified hills; and by them the road on that side to the Kingdom of Chimu could be cut off. The Incas well knew, from experience, that the subdued populations, usually after a longer or a shorter time, again revolted, and endeavored to shake off their yoke, and therefore they were on their guard against such an occurrence. Capac Yupanqui must have greatly mistrusted an enemy so formidable as Chimu Cancha, who had only yielded after the most obstinate resistance, and it is no slight proof of this that Paramanca[46] was built as a fortress to hold the subjugated nations in check. It was not, however, built as a monument of victory, for such monuments were always erected in Cozco, the capital, and never on the field of battle. Etymology affords no solution of this question. Some write Paramonga, others Paramanca. I regard the latter as the most correct. Garcilaso de la Vega calls the valley Parmunca. In the Quichua dialect Paramanca[47] signifies a pot for rain. It is therefore possible that the name may indicate an allusion to heavy torrents of rain, which, though now unusual on this particular part of the coast, may have occurred in this basin-like valley after a great earthquake.

Five leagues to the south of Huacho are the extensive Salinas, or salt pits, which supply Peru and Chile with excellent salt. They spread from the sea coast to the distance of half a league eastward, and present a most extraordinary aspect. On approaching them the traveller might fancy he beholds a field of glaciers, on which the sun's rays produce wonderful effects of variegated color.

This salt is the produce of a natural evaporation of the sea water, which trickles through the porous stones of the coast, and fills every intervening hollow. The whole space is parcelled into divisions, called fields, from which, according to a definite regulation, square masses, weighing each one hundred pounds, are cut. In a few days the holes are again filled up with sea water, which, in the space of twelve to sixteen, or sometimes twenty to twenty-four months, being evaporated by the sun, leaves a precipitate completely filling up the square holes. The government has farmed the salinas to a private individual in Huacho, who keeps on the spot an overseer with the necessary number of laborers. This establishment is an inexhaustible source of wealth, and it can only be destroyed by a violent earthquake. In the bay on which the salinas border there is very convenient and secure anchoring ground, where coasters are constantly lying, ready to receive the salt, and convey it to any Peruvian or Chilean port. Most of the laborers employed in the salinas suffer from diseases of the skin and rheumatism. Water and provisions have to be brought from Huacho. The Indians, when they come from the mountains to convey salt, never take their llamas to the salinas. They go straight to Huacho, where the animals are loaded at the great depots. Each llama carries the weight of one hundred pounds, which, however, is not, like ordinary burthens, laid on the bare back of the animal—beneath it is placed a layer of thick woollen cloth, called a jerga.

The road southward from the Salinas runs, for the distance of nine leagues, through deep sand, chiefly along the sea-coast, and is bounded on the east by the Lomas de Lachay. Here flocks of strand snipes and flamingoes fly constantly before the traveller, as if to direct his course. In the pescadores (fishermen's huts), five leagues from the Salinas, brackish water and broiled fish may be obtained, and sometimes even clover, which is brought hither, from the distance of several miles, to feed the hungry horses. From the pescadores the road crosses steep sand-hills, which rise from three to four hundred feet high, and fall with a declivity of more than sixty degrees towards the sea. The road leads along the side of these hills, and, where the ground is not firm, it is exceedingly dangerous. On a false step of the horse the ground yields beneath his hoof, and rolls down the declivity; but by due care the rider can easily recover a solid footing. There is on one of these hills a very large stone, which at a certain distance presents in color and form a deceptious similarity to an enormous-sized seal. Almost perpendicularly under it is a small bay, inhabited by a multitude of seals. The dull crashing sound made by the breakers on the shore, mingling with the howling of these animals, makes a gloomy impression on the traveller who is passing along the height above them, and creates a sort of shuddering sensation. The natives call this place and its sounds the Grita Lobos (the Sea-dog's Howl). From this hilly ground the road descends into the fruitful valley of the Pasamayo, which contains two villages and eighteen plantations.

Chancay, the principal town in this valley, is the residence of a sub-prefect. It is a league and a half from the river, and a short league from the sea, where there is an inconsiderable and not very safe port, which can only be entered by small vessels. The number of inhabitants is about 1200, chiefly Indians and Mulattos. Excellent fruits and vegetables, good beef, mutton, and poultry, and well-flavored fish, are found here in abundance. The houses are all of the poorest structure, and are sparingly and rudely furnished. In the neighboring farms, some of which are large, as Torreblanco, Pasamayo, &c., maize is extensively cultivated for exportation and for food to the swine, which are very numerous. In no other valley of Peru are there so many earth-fleas, or piques, as they are called, particularly about the plantations. The pique is a small, white insect, which lives in sand, but fastens as a parasite on man and beast, more particularly on swine. It attacks man by penetrating the skin, for the most part under the toe-nails, where an egg is laid, from which a painful tumor is afterwards formed. Should this be neglected, the brood is developed, and penetrates further into the flesh. Then follow violent inflammations and imposthumes, which sometimes assume so serious a character that the amputation of the foot becomes necessary. While the pique is penetrating there is no sensation of its presence; it is first felt on the development of the egg, and then it is still easy to remove the bag which contains it, and the mother with it. The Negresses accomplish this with great dexterity. They make an aperture in the skin by scratching it with a needle, and then they draw the bag out. Should it burst, they take out the egg with the needle; but this is a very delicate operation. I have always been able to do it more speedily and more securely with the lancet. The hole is commonly of the size of a bean, and hot cigar ashes are put into it to destroy any eggs or larvae which may remain. These insects do not always confine themselves to the feet; they sometimes attack the body and the face, and it is in general extremely difficult for the patient to discover how or where he became acquainted with such troublesome companions. I once had six tumors, caused by broods of piques, on my right foot, and I could not trace the annoyance to any other cause than having stopped for a few minutes, while my horse was being saddled, in the corral, or yard, of a plantation.

The road from Chancay to the Haciendas of Bisquira, Andahuasi, and the village of Sayan, extends in a northeasterly direction, through a dreary valley of sand, between rows of sterile hillocks of the most singular forms. I had once to travel along twelve leagues of this wearisome road, under the most oppressive heat of the sun. The mules were quite overcome, and when we reached the Cuesta de los ahorcados (the hill of the hanged) they would not move another step. We had to descend and give them a long rest. We stretched ourselves under the bellies of the animals, the only shade we could get in this treeless waste. At last, after a very difficult journey, during which we lost ourselves in a marsh in the neighborhood of Bisquira, we arrived about midnight at Andahuasi. On this road, only two leagues from Chancay, near the Hacienda of Chancayllo, are situated the Colcas, most remarkable subterraneous structures, of the time of the Incas. According to tradition, they were built by the Yuncas, during the campaign of Capac Yupanqui against Chimu Cancha, as provision magazines for the numerous army, more than 120,000 strong.

At the mouth of the Pasamayo, on the north bank, there are some salinas, which, however, are far more inconsiderable than those of Huacho.

The first time I went from Huacho to Lima, I wished to pass over the whole road, twenty-eight leagues, in one uninterrupted ride; accordingly I left Huacho at two o'clock, P. M., in order that I might cross the great sand-flats during the night. A negro who knew the road accompanied me. We passed through Chancay at midnight. Some muleteers, lying before a hut, called to us, and warned us to stop, as the river had swelled very much. Nevertheless we proceeded onward, and by one o'clock we reached the Pasamayo, which, in consequence of the heavy rains from the mountains, had overflowed its banks. Several travellers had stretched themselves on the ground to wait for the morning light, and in the hope that the flood would by that time subside. No Chimbadores[48] were to be had. My negro guide looked at the water with dismay, and declared that he had never before witnessed so furious a swell. However, we had no time to lose, and I resolved to attempt the passage of the river. Trusting to my well tried horse, which had already carried me safely through many difficult coasting journeys, I cautiously rode into the river, which became deeper at every step. The overwhelming force of the stream was felt by my horse; and he presently lost his footing, though he still continued to struggle vigorously against the force of the current. At this juncture, some passing clouds obscured the moon, and I lost sight of a group of trees which, before leaving the opposite bank, I fixed my eye upon as a guiding beacon. Quite powerless, my horse and I were carried away by the stream, and driven against a rock in the middle of the river. I now heard the anxious outcries of my negro and the travellers on the bank, whilst the waves rose over my head. With a convulsive effort I pulled the bridle, and the horse then turning completely round, once more gained his solid footing. I then gave him the spur, and the courageous animal dashing again into the midst of the current, swam with me to the bank. I rode forward with my negro in search of a better fording-place, and after several fruitless attempts, we at length found one, and we crossed the river safely. The other travellers did not venture to follow our example, but called out begging us not to leave them behind. I sent the negro back on my horse to bring them over; and the noble animal went backward and forward no less than seven times without making one false step. After all this exertion, he bore me with unflagging spirit into Lima, where we arrived at noon on the following day.

From the Pasamayo, the road runs for the space of two leagues tolerably level, and for the most part amidst plantations. Then succeed steep sandy hills, for the distance of about four leagues. The roads are very wearisome both to horse and rider, especially in the declivities towards the plains, where the horse is frequently over his knees in sand. In those parts there are also some extraordinary atmospheric mirrors, in which we beheld ourselves in reflection, riding over our own heads, and our figures magnified to gigantic proportions. Six leagues from Chancay, there are two wretched huts, forming the tambo, or inn, in which travellers obtain refreshment. From thence the road runs through a stony tract, partially strewn with large masses of rock, called the Piedras gordas, and leading to the marshes which surround the Copacahuana plantations. Two leagues further on is the river Chillon, which, like the Pasamayo, may generally be easily forded, but which swells furiously during heavy falls of rain. At a short distance behind the river, the road, called the Camino de Valles, joins that leading to Cerro de Pasco. About a league from Lima there is a place called Palo seco, which, like Piedras gordas, is a celebrated haunt of robbers. The traveller has reason to congratulate himself if he passes these two places without an attack.

FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote 41: The Indians resort to very artful methods of hiding their money. They sometimes conceal it between the boards of the boxes in which their eggs are packed, or stitch it into the stuffing of their asses' saddles. They often submit to be killed rather than avow where their money is concealed.]

[Footnote 42: The word Pacchacamac signifies He who created the world out of nothing. It is compounded of Paccha, the earth, and camac, the participle present of caman, to produce something from nothing.]

[Footnote 43: Literally—"But there, sir, I lost the stirrups." Meaning that he did not understand it. The Spanish phrase, Perder los estribos, signifies to get confused or embarrassed.]

[Footnote 44: Chola is the common designation for an Indian female. The masculine is Cholo.]

[Footnote 45: Nuevo dia del Peru. 1824.]

[Footnote 46: According to some ancient authors Paramanca was built by King Chimu as a frontier fortress against the neighboring nations. There is some foundation for this view of the subject, as Chimu Cancha had, long before he was attacked by Capac Yupanqui, carried on war most fiercely with Cuyz Mancu, King of Pacchacama, and Chuquiz Mancu, King of Runahuanac (the present Lunahuana).]

[Footnote 47: Para (rain) Manca (pot).]

[Footnote 48: Guides, who conduct travellers across rivers, being well acquainted with the fords. They are also called Vadeadores.]



CHAPTER IX.

The Coast southward of Lima—Chilca—Curious Cigar cases made there—Yauyos—Pisco—Journey to Yca—A night on the Sand Plains—Fatal Catastrophe in the year 1823—Vine Plantations at Yca—Brandy and Wine—Don Domingo Elias—Vessels for transporting Brandy (Botijas and odres)—Cruel mode of skinning Goats—Negro Carnival—Peculiar species of Guinea Pig—The Salamanqueja—Cotton Plantations—Quebrada of Huaitara—Sangallan—Guano—Retrospect of the Peruvian Coast—Rivers—Medanos—Winds—Change of Seasons—the Garuas—The Lomas—Mammalia—Birds—Amphibia.

The coast, southward of Lima, is similar in aspect, climate, and character, to those parts north of the city which have just been described. Fruitful valleys, villages, and plantations, commodious sea-ports, and vast sandy wastes, alternate one with the other. Heat, sometimes almost insupportable, is succeeded by chilly and unhealthy mists; whilst here and there the scattered monuments of the wealth and greatness of bygone ages present a remarkable and painful contrast to present poverty and misery.

Proceeding southward of Lima by way of Lurin, we arrive at Chilca, a wretched village situated on a soil which affords nothing to supply the wants of human existence. It appears an incomprehensible mystery that man should have fixed his abode on a spot where Nature has granted nothing for his nourishment, not even a drop of pure water; whilst at the distance of a few miles, luxuriant valleys offer, spontaneously, those products which the most laborious toil must fail to extort from the ungrateful soil of Chilca. The hope of wealth from commercial speculation or mining industry has peopled many inhospitable shores, and has raised populous towns on barren deserts; but at Chilca there are no such stimuli of interests. Nevertheless, they may possibly have existed in former ages, for the numerous ruins scattered around the village tend to confirm the opinion that the population was very extensive under the government of the Incas. The force of custom and of local attachment which frequently chains man to the spot where his progenitors have lived happily, is all that can bind the natives of Chilca to their miserable dwelling-place. In few villages, as in Chilca, have the Indians for more than 300 years so carefully avoided mixing with people of other races. They employ themselves in plaiting straw for hats and cigar-cases. The latter they make in a singularly beautiful style with white and colored straw, which they plait into various figures and patterns—sometimes into names, and even lines of poetry. Some of these cigar-cases sell for upwards of a hundred dollars. Fishing is a less profitable occupation to the people of Chilca, or, as they are called in the country, the Chilquenos; for, owing to the great distance, only certain kinds of fish can be sent to the Lima market. Near the village there is a bed of very strong red-colored salt, which is exported to the mountains, but which sells at a lower price than the salt of Huacho.

Five leagues south of Chilca, on the river of the same name, lies the village called Canete, which is the residence of a Sub-prefect. The very interesting province of Yauyos extends from this village in an easterly direction towards the Cordilleras. The inhabitants of this province are distinguishable by their faces and figures, and also by their manners and language, from the Indians of the coast and the mountains. In stature they are small. They have expanded foreheads, animated eyes, prominent cheek-bones, and wide mouths. Their limbs are slender, and their skin is of a swarthy brown. Their dialect, the Cauqui, contains many radical words of the Quichua language. After this nation was subjugated by the Incas their language was so intermixed with others, that it is now very difficult to trace out its origin. It appears to be totally different from the Chinchaysuyo language.

Some very considerable sugar plantations, and several villages, lie between Canete and Pisco. Among the villages, Lunahuana and Chincha (upper and lower) are celebrated for their great fertility. Two rivers, at the distance of five leagues from each other, flow in a parallel direction between Chincha and Pisco, and to their waters the valleys are indebted for their rich vegetation. On account of their width these rivers can only be passed with the assistance of Chimbadores, and many travellers annually perish in their incautious attempts to ford them. The little town of Pisco is on the left bank of the south river, and half a league from it there is a secure harbor with good anchoring ground. This town has acquired some importance by the exportation of brandy; and it has recently become more active and populous owing to the near vicinity of the Guano islands. The custom-house and the port captain's office are on the shore, where there is also a large building erected by Don Domingo Elias, for a brandy depot. The little town of Pisco has suffered much from the plundering attacks of European pirates, from earthquakes, and more recently from the War of Independence. Several parts of it have been rebuilt. Within the few last years much has been done in the way of improving and ornamenting it. A broad trench has been dug round the town, serving the purpose of drainage, and thereby greatly contributing to preserve the health of the place. Pisco is merely the key to the large interior town of Yca, which is fourteen leagues distant. I visited it in the year 1842. The steamer conveyed me in eighteen hours from Callao to Pisco, where I hired horses and a guide. He was a Catalonian, who had frequently travelled to Yca.

At three o'clock, P. M., we left Pisco. At first the road passed over very hard ground, then through deep sand, which continued till we got to Yca. Notwithstanding the heat, which in the month of February is insupportable, I was wrapped up in my woollen poncho. Experience had taught me that in the hotter districts the change of temperature which takes place at night, and causes fever, is least injurious when the traveller is protected in warm clothing. My Catalonian guide, who, with his arms covered merely by his shirt sleeves, nevertheless suffered greatly from the heat, could not comprehend why I had chosen such a dress. When I informed him that eleven days before I had, in the same clothing, passed a night on the Cordilleras, in the midst of snow, he shook his head in token of incredulity. Whilst the bell rang for evening prayers we rode into the Huilla Curin Plantation, which is surrounded by a charming grove of palm trees. We stopped for a few moments to gather some excellent figs. About midnight a heavy fog spread over the plain, and veiled from our sight a cross on the south, which had hitherto served to keep us in the right direction. We, however, advanced about a league farther. The Catalonian then often alighted to smell the sand, in order to ascertain whether we were taking the proper course. This is a very good practical method; for in deserts through which caravans frequently pass, the dung of the beasts of burthen mixed with the sand affords a sure indication of the track. When we had got about three quarters of a league farther on, we came close against a rock, which my guide—in whose acquaintance with the locality I had the most unbounded confidence—declared was quite unknown to him. There was therefore no doubt that we had got out of the right course. I lighted a cigar, and on examining, by its feeble light, my pocket compass, I discovered that instead of keeping to the south-east we had diverged to the west. As there was now no hope that the fog would clear away before day-break, we rolled ourselves in the warm sand, to await the coming morning.

I afterwards learned that in this very spot numerous travellers had lost their way, and had perished of thirst. In the year 1823, a ship stranded on this coast, with three hundred and twenty dragoons on board, under the command of Colonel Lavalle. The soldiers succeeded in getting ashore, but thirty-six hours afterwards they were lost in this sandy desert. When intelligence of the shipwreck reached Pisco, a cavalry regiment was despatched to search for the sufferers, and to supply them with provisions and water; but when they were found it was discovered that one hundred and sixteen men had died from fatigue and thirst, and a few days after fifty more perished from exhaustion. It is generally supposed that a healthy man can live four or five days unsupplied with food and drink. In the temperate climate of Europe, and with bodily rest, this, perhaps, may be the case; but in the burning wastes of Peru to be deprived of nourishment for only forty-eight hours, and at the same time to wander about in deep sand, would be followed by certain death. Severe thirst is the most horrible of torments, especially when the body is surrounded by a medium altogether of an arid nature. At sea it can be much longer endured than on a surface of sand.

When the grey dawn of morning appeared we again mounted our horses, and rode by my compass in the direction of E.S.E. After riding a few leagues, we turned an acute angle, which brought us into the main road, and we arrived that forenoon in Yca.

On my return I so arranged my journey as to pass the night in Huilla Curin, where the horses were supplied with forage, consisting of the shoots and leaves of the Mastick-tree (schinus molle).

Yca is a moderately large and very agreeably situated town. Like most of the larger towns on the coast it is peopled with inhabitants of all colors, particularly Mestizos. It is the residence of a sub-prefect and many rich planters. Scarcely anything but the vine is cultivated in the Haciendas of the environs; and this branch of husbandry contributes greatly to enrich the province. It is astonishing to see with what facility the vine thrives in a soil apparently so unfruitful. The young shoots are stuck into the sand almost half a foot deep, then tied up and left to themselves. They quickly take root and shoot forth leaves. Whilst the surrounding country bears the appearance of a desert, the vineyards of Yca are clothed in delightful verdure. The grapes are of superior quality, very succulent and sweet. The greater part are used for making brandy, which is extremely good and very well flavored. All Peru and a great part of Chile are supplied with this liquor from the Vale of Yca. The common brandy is called Aguardiente de Pisco, because it is shipped at that port. A kind of brandy of superior quality, and much dearer, made from Muscatel grapes, is called Aguardiente de Italia. It is distinguished by a very exquisite flavor. Very little wine is made at Yca. In some plantations they make a thick dark-brown kind, which is very sweet, and much liked by the Peruvians, though not very agreeable to a European palate. Only one planter, Don Domingo Elias,[49] the richest and most speculative cultivator on the whole coast, makes wine in the European manner. It is very like the wine of Madeira and Teneriffe, only it is more fiery, and contains a more considerable quantity of alcohol. Specimens which have been sent to Europe have obtained the unqualified approbation of connoisseurs. The flavor is considerably improved by a long sea voyage.

The brandy, which is exported by sea, is put into large vessels made of clay, called botijas. In form they are like a pear, the broad ends being downwards. At the top there is a small aperture, which is hermetically closed with gypsum. The large botija when filled weighs six or seven arobas. Two are a load for a mule. To the pack-saddle, or aparejo, two baskets are fastened, in which the botijas are placed with the small ends downwards. These botijas were formerly also used for conveying the brandy across the mountains; but, in consequence of the dangerous, slippery roads, over which the mules often fell, many were broken. Still greater damage was sustained at the springs and wells on the coast, for the poor animals, after their long journeys through the sandy wastes, rushed, on perceiving water, in full flight to the springs. As it happens that there is often room for only five or six mules, and from seventy to eighty were often pressing forward, a great number of the botijas were unavoidably dashed to pieces in spite of all the caution the arrieros could exercise. The annual loss of brandy was immense, and to counteract this evil, bags of goatskin were introduced. These skins are now generally used for the conveyance of brandy across the mountains. The method of skinning the goats is the most horribly cruel that can be conceived. A negro hangs the living animal up by the horns, and makes a circular incision round his neck, which, however, goes no further than to the flesh. He then draws the skin from the body of the writhing animal, which utters the most frightful cries. When the skin is completely removed, and not till then, is the suffering animal killed. The negroes assert that the skin is most easily removed in this manner, and that the odres[50] become thereby more durable. It is to be hoped that humanely disposed planters will soon put an end to this barbarous and unreasonable practice.

I happened to be in Yca at the time of the celebration of the negro carnival, which I will here briefly describe. In some of the principal streets of the town large arches are erected, and gaily decorated with ribbons. Round these arches negresses and mestizas dance, and endeavor to stop the negroes whilst riding at full gallop under the arches. The negroes start from the distance of about one hundred paces, and gallop straight to the boundary, where the women endeavor to seize the bridle, and to throw the rider from his saddle. The task of the men is to ride past the women without being stopped; and when they fail in so doing, they have to pay a fine, and are hooted into the bargain. It is hard to say which is most surprising;—the speed of the horses, the dexterity of the riders, or the courage of the negresses, who fearlessly throw themselves in the way of the galloping horses. During the race the negroes are pelted with unripe oranges and lemons, which, when thrown by the vigorous arm of a zamba, inflict a sufficiently heavy blow. I saw a negro gallop to and fro for the space of an hour, at full speed, and every time he passed under the arch he dexterously evaded the outstretched hands of the women; thus giving proof of uncommon bodily strength. While dashing at full speed through the arch of the bridge, and leaning forward on the horse's neck, he seized two negresses, one with each of his arms, and pulled them into the saddle beside him.

The climate of Yca is hot, and not altogether healthy, for the torrents of rain which fall from the hills swell the river so as to make it overflow its lower bank, where marshes are formed, in which malaria is developed. Most of the plantations in the environs are more healthy.

All the bushes in the vicinity of the town are inhabited by a kind of Guinea pig (Cavia Cuttleri, King). These animals are exceedingly numerous. After sunrise and towards evening, they leave their lurking places and play about in the grass. Upon the whole they are not shy, and they allow people to approach them pretty closely. The natives call this little animal the Cui del Montes, and they believe it to be the progenitor of the tame Guinea pig. This notion is, however, quite erroneous.

Along the whole of the Peruvian coast there is found a small animal of the lizard kind, of which the natives are very much afraid. They call it the Salamanqueja. It lives in the fissures of walls, and is sometimes seen creeping along the lime plaster of houses. Its bite is believed to be mortal. From the descriptions given of this animal, I was curious to see it, and I commissioned some persons to procure me one. At last, an Indian brought me a specimen very much crushed, and I found that I had already got several of them in my collections. I now obtained more of them, and the natives beheld me with astonishment carrying them alive in my hand. Of the Salamanqueja there are two species, the Diplodactylus lepidopygus, Tsch., and the Discodactylus phacophorus, Tsch. They are nearly related to each other, being only distinguished by one species having an orifice in the thighs, serving as a passage for an issue from a gland which secretes a very acrid fluid. This little animal never bites; but it is possible that the fluid by touching a fresh wound, or scratch, may cause very serious consequences.

To the south of Yca there are some large cotton plantations; the most considerable of which belong to Don Domingo Elias. The cotton for exportation is shipped at the port of San Nicolas. Many experienced captains of ships declare the bay of San Nicolas to be the safest and best along the whole of the western coast of South America.

The Quebrada of Huaitara, which stretches to the east of Yca, is the principal channel of communication between this part of the coast and the rich mountain provinces of Jauja and Huancavelica, and from the latter places to Ayacucho and Cosco.

Opposite to Pisco and Chinca there is a group of small islands, of which the largest, Sangallan, is six English miles distant from Pisco. These islands have of late years become celebrated on account of the great quantity of guano that has been exported from them.

Guano (or according to the more correct orthography, Huanu)[51] is found on these islands in enormous layers of from 35 to 40 feet thick. The upper strata are of a greyish-brown color, which lower down becomes darker. In the lower strata the color is a rusty red, as if tinged by oxide of iron. The Guano becomes progressively more and more solid from the surface downward, a circumstance naturally accounted for by the gradual deposite of the strata, and the evaporation of the fluid particles. Guano is found on all the islands, and on most of the uninhabited promontories of the west coast of South America, especially in those parts within the tropics. I have often been assured that beds of Guano several feet high, covered with earth, are found inland at some distance from the sea; but I never met with any, and I have some doubt of the correctness of the statement. If, however, these inland strata really exist, I am inclined to believe that they can only be found on hilly ground; and in that case they afford strong evidence of a considerable elevation of the coast.

Guano is formed of the excrements of different kinds of marine birds, as mews, divers, sheerbeaks, &c.; but the species which I can name with more precision are the following:—Larus modestus, Tsch.; Rhinchops nigra, Lin.; Plotus Anhinga, Lin.; Pelecanus thayus, Mol.; Phalacrocorax Gaimardii, and albigula, Tsch. (Pelecanus Gaimardii, Less., Carbo albigula, Brandt), and chiefly the Sula variegata, Tsch.

The immense flocks of these birds as they fly along the coast appear like clouds. When their vast numbers, their extraordinary voracity, and the facility with which they procure their food, are considered, one cannot be surprised at the magnitude of the beds of Guano, which have resulted from uninterrupted accumulations during many thousands of years. I kept for some days a living Sula variegata, which I fed abundantly with fish. The average weight of the excrement daily was from 3-1/2 to five ounces. I have no doubt that when the bird is in a state of freedom the weight must be much greater, for these birds are constantly plunging into the sea, in order to devour the fishes which they find in extraordinary masses around all the islands. When an island is inhabited by millions of sea-birds, though two-thirds of the guano should be lost while flying, still a very considerable stratum would be accumulated in the course of a year.

The marine birds nestle on the uninhabited islands, or on rocks near the shore; but they never settle on the flat beach, or any place distant from it inland. On this fact, I ground my conjecture that those beds of guano in the interior, which may have been removed from the shore by important elevations of the coast, are to be found only on hills.

During the first year of the deposit the strata are white, and the guano is then called Guano Blanco. In the opinion of the Peruvian cultivators, this is the most efficacious kind. It is found in the Punta de Hormillos, on the islands of Islay, Jesus, Margarita, &c.

As soon as the dealers in guano begin to work one of the beds, the island on which it is formed, is abandoned by the birds. It has also been remarked, that since the increase of trade and navigation, they have withdrawn from the islands in the neighborhood of the ports.

Much has recently been written on the employment and utility of guano; but the manner in which it is applied as manure in Peru, seems to be but little known. The Peruvians use it chiefly in the cultivation of maize and potatoes. A few weeks after the seeds begin to shoot, a little hollow is dug round each root, and is filled up with guano, which is afterwards covered with a layer of earth. After the lapse of twelve or fifteen hours, the whole field is laid under water, and is left in that state for some hours. Of the Guano Blanco a less quantity suffices, and the field must be more speedily and abundantly watered, otherwise the roots would be destroyed. The effect of this manure is incredibly rapid. In a few days the growth of a plant is doubled. If the manure be repeated a second time, but in smaller quantity, a rich harvest is certain. At least, the produce will be threefold that which would have been obtained from the unmanured soil.

The haciendas of the valley of Chancay have, during the last fifty years, consumed annually from 33,000 to 36,000 bushels of guano brought from the islands of Chancha and Pisco. The price of the bushel of colored guano is one dollar and a quarter, and the price of the white from two to three dollars. The price has recently undergone many fluctuations, in consequence of the great exports to Europe.

The employment of this kind of manure is very ancient in Peru; and there is authentic evidence of its having been used in the time of the Incas. The white guano was then chiefly found on the islands opposite to Chincha; so that for upwards of 600 years the deposit has been progressively removed from those islands without any apparent decrease of the accumulation. The uniformity of climate on a coast where there is not much rain, must contribute to render the Peruvian guano a more arid manure than the African, as fewer of the saline particles of the former being in solution, they are consequently less subject to evaporation.

From 3 deg. 35' to 21 deg. 48' south latitude, a plain of sand, 540 leagues long, and varying from 3 to 20 leagues in breadth, stretches along the coast of the Pacific Ocean. It is intersected by chains of small hillocks, which, extending westward from the Cordilleras, gradually diminish in height, and either become blended with the plain, or form abrupt promontories, which project into the sea. Between the river Loa, which marks the southern frontier of the Peruvian coast, and the Tumbez, on the northern boundary, fifty-nine rivers, great and small, pass through the line of coast. Proceeding from the avalanches of the Andes or the small alpine lakes, they force their way through narrow mountain-valleys, irrigate the waste grounds, and then, after brief courses, flow into the great ocean.

A fine light yellow drift sand covers hill and dale. It is only where rivers intersect the plain that oases of luxuriant vegetation are formed. The peril of traversing these plains is greatly increased by the movability of the sand and the Medanos. The strong winds raise immense clouds of dust and sand. The sand rises in columns of from eighty to a hundred feet high, which whirl about in all directions, as if moved by magic. Sometimes they suddenly overshadow the traveller, who only escapes from them by rapid riding.

The medanos are hillock-like elevations of sand, some having a firm, others a loose base. The former, which are always crescent-shaped, are from ten to twenty feet high, and have an acute crest. The inner side is perpendicular, and the outer or bow side forms an angle with a steep inclination downward. When driven by violent winds, the medanos pass rapidly over the plains. The smaller and lighter ones move quickly forwards before the larger ones; but the latter soon overtake and crush them, whilst they are themselves shivered by the collision. These medanos assume all sorts of extraordinary figures, and sometimes move along the plain in rows forming most intricate labyrinths, whereby what might otherwise be visible in the distance is withdrawn from the view of the traveller. A plain often appears to be covered with a row of medanos, and some days afterwards it is again restored to its level and uniform aspect. Persons who have the greatest experience of the coast are apt to mistake their way, when they encounter these sand-hills.

The medanos with immovable bases are formed on the blocks of rock which are scattered about the plain. The sand is driven against them by the wind, and as soon as it reaches the top point it descends on the other side until that is likewise covered; thus gradually arises a conical-formed hill. Entire hillock-chain with acute crests are formed in a similar manner. The small hillock-chain, by which the coast is intersected obliquely from east to west, is a boundary which arrests the progress of the wandering medanos; otherwise fruitful oases would soon be converted into barren sand-flats. A correct observation of these hillock-chains affords a most certain scale for ascertaining the direction of the prevailing wind. On their southern declivities are found vast masses of sand drifted thither by the mid-day gales. The northern declivity, though not steeper than the southern, is only sparingly covered with sand. If a hillock-chain somewhat distant from the sea extends in a line parallel with the Andes, namely from S.S.E. to N.N.W., the western declivity is almost entirely free of sand, as it is driven to the plain below by the southeast wind, which constantly alternates with the wind from the south.

The movements and new formations in the deserts (like restorations from death to life) are only in full activity during the hot season; for then the parched sand yields to the slightest pressure of the atmosphere. In the cold season its weight increases by the absorption of humidity. The particles unite in masses, and more easily resist the wind. In the meantime the hillocks also acquire more firmness or compression by the increased weight which presses on them from above.

In November, summer commences. The rays of the sun are refracted on the light grey sandy carpet, and are reflected back with scorching power. Every living thing which does not quickly escape from their influence is devoted to certain destruction. No plant takes root in the burning soil, and no animal finds food on the arid lifeless surface. No bird, no insect moves in the burning atmosphere. Only in the very loftiest regions, the king of the air, the majestic condor, may be seen floating, with daring wing, on his way to the sea coast. Only where the ocean and the desert blend with each other is there life and movement. Flocks of carrion crows swarm over the dead remains of marine animals scattered along the shore. Otters and seals impart life to the inaccessible rocks; hosts of coast birds eagerly pounce on the fish and mollusca cast on shore; variegated lizards sport on the sand hillocks; and busy crabs and sea spiders work their way by furrows through the humid coast.

The scene changes in May. A thin veil of mist then overspreads the sea and the shore. In the following months the thickness of the mist increases, and it is only in October that it begins to disperse. In the beginning and at the end of the period called winter this mist commonly rises between nine and ten o'clock in the morning, and disappears about three, P.M. It is heaviest in August and September; and it then lies for weeks immoveable on the earth. It does not resolve into what may be properly called rain, but it becomes a fine minute precipitate which the natives call GARUA (thick fog or drizzling rain). Many travellers have alleged that there are places on the Peruvian coast which have been without rain for centuries. The assertion is to a certain degree correct, for there are many districts in which there never is rain except after an earthquake, and not always even then.

Though the garua sometimes falls in large drops, still there is this distinction between it and rain, that it descends not from clouds at a great height, but is formed in the lower atmospheric regions, by the union of small bubbles of mist. The average perpendicular height over which this fog passes does not exceed one thousand two hundred feet; its medium boundary is from seven to eight hundred feet. That it is known only within a few miles of the sea is a highly curious phenomenon; beyond those few miles it is superseded by heavy rains; and the boundary line between the rain and the mist may be defined with mathematical precision. I know two plantations, the one six leagues from Lima, the other in the neighborhood of Huacho: one half of these lands is watered by the garuas, the other half by rain, and the boundary line is marked by a wall.

When the mists set in, the chain of hillocks (Lomas) bordering the sand-flats on the coasts undergoes a complete change. As if by a stroke of magic, blooming vegetation overspreads the soil, which, a few days previously, was a mere barren wilderness. Horses and cattle are driven into these parts for grazing, and during several months the animals find abundance of rich pasture. There is, however, no water; but they do not appear to suffer from the want of it, for they are always in good healthy condition on leaving the Lomas.

In some parts of northern Peru, where the garuas are scanty, the fertility of the soil depends wholly on the mountain rains, for in summer most of the rivers are dried up. When there is a deficiency of rain, the cattle on the coast suffer greatly. A few years ago a haciendado, or cultivator, in the vale of Piura, lost 42,000 sheep; the usual flood, without which the necessary fodder could not be raised, did not come on at the proper time. At Piura there is such a total absence of dew, that a sheet of paper left for a whole night in the open air does not, in the morning, exhibit the smallest trace of humidity. In central and south Peru the moisture scarcely penetrates half an inch into the earth.

In the oases the garuas are much heavier than in the adjacent wastes. Along the whole of the coast there is no rain, and no vegetation throughout a large circuit. The rain commences first in the north at Tumbez, and there extensive woods are seen. Towards the east it begins first in the valleys of the Cordilleras, which abound in vegetation. These very extraordinary phenomena remain as yet unexplained; they, however, merit the closest investigation of meteorologists.

I may conclude this chapter by a brief view of the Fauna of the higher vertebral animals. In the region of the coast I have found twenty-six species of mammalia, only eight of which belong exclusively to the coast. Sixteen of the other species are to be found in the mountains or in the forests. The relation of this number to the whole of the mammalia of Peru is 1:4, 3. Distributed by single orders, they are in the following proportions:—Bats, four species, of which only one (Vespertilio innoxius, Gerv.) belongs to this region alone. Beasts of prey, ten kinds; among them one of the mephitic class, known to the natives by the name of zorillo, or anash; an otter (Lutra chilensis, Ben.); a fox (Canis azarae, Pr. Max.), which abounds in the cotton plantations in the neighborhood of Lima and throughout all the Lomas, where he preys on the lambs; several of the feline race, among which are the two great American species—the puma and the ounce, which are seldom seen on the coast, but are considerably larger than those in the mountains. The American lion is timid, and shuns man. When caught young he is easily tamed. The Indians of the northern provinces sometimes bring these lions to Lima, and get money for showing them. They lead them by a string, or put them in large sacks, and carry them about on their backs, until a show-loving crowd assembles around them. The ounces are very bold and fierce. They penetrate into plantations, and attack children and horses. They very cunningly avoid the numerous snares laid for them by the Indians. An encounter with this animal is serious and dangerous. A hunt seldom ends without some of the pursuers being killed or wounded by the animal.

I have already spoken of the seals. There are three kinds of didelphic or marsupial animals on the coast. The natives call them mucamuca. They live in bushes and shrubberies, and they often find their way into the store-rooms of the plantations.

Of the great section of the Rodentia, I know of only seven species in Peru; but I have no doubt that this number might be doubled by a careful search in the valleys on the coast. The common house-mouse is very numerous in Lima. The brown rat appears seldom. It came to Peru only a few years ago; but there is reason to apprehend that it will soon be very numerous. Probably it has been imported by Hamburgh ships. In Callao I saw specimens of some that had been killed. I did not see the common black rat in Peru.

The Armadillo (Dasypus tatuay, Desm., L.) is seldom seen. It is found in some of the Yucca and Camote plantations. The negroes eat it, and its flesh is said to be good.

Of wild ruminating animals there is only one on the coast: it is a kind of Roe (Cervus nemorivagus, F. Cuv., the venado of the natives). The venados chiefly inhabit the brushwood along the coast; but after sunset they visit the plantations, where they commit considerable damage. They are smaller than our European roe, and somewhat more brown. Englishmen at Lima go out to hunt them. The natives do not take much interest in the chase. This animal is also met with in the coldest regions of the Cordilleras; but it does not come down to the old forests, where the Red Deer (Cervus rufus, F. Cuv.) supplies its absence.

In the woods which surround some of the plantations in the valleys of Lima, wild boars (Chanchos Simarones) are occasionally found. They are of immense size. At the plantation called the Hacienda de Caraponga, one was killed, of which the head alone was an ordinary burthen for a mule.

The number of birds in this very extensive quarter of Peru (the marine and river fowl being excepted) is very inconsiderable. The scarcity of woods and high trees may probably account for this. Besides the carrion vulture, condors collect in great numbers on the shore to prey on the stranded whales. Falcons seldom appear, except the small Sparrow Hawk (Falco sparverius, L.), which is very numerous in Peru. One of the most common birds is the little Earth Owl (Noctua urucurea, Less.), which is met with in nearly all the old ruins scattered along the coast. The Pearl Owl (Strix perlata, L.) is bred in several plantations, as it is found useful in catching mice. Swallows are not very common; they do not nestle on the housetops, but on walls at some distance from towns. The Peruvians give them the euphonious name, Palomitas de Santa Rosa (Santa Rosa's little pigeons). Among the singing-birds the Crowned Fly King (Myoarchus coronatus, Cab.) is the most distinguished. The head, breast, and belly of this bird are deep red, the wings and back very dark brown. He always plants himself on the highest point of a tree, flies perpendicularly upward, whirls about in the air singing, and drops down again straight to his former perch. The Limenos have given this elegant bird a very unbecoming name, which I need not repeat here. On some parts of the coast it is called Saca-tu-real (draw out your real), because his song sounds like these words. Some fine Tanagers (Tanagra frugilega, Tsch.; Tanagra analis, Tsch.) visit the fruit gardens round Lima. I saw two birds, of the starling species, the red-bellied Picho (Sturnella militaris, Viell.), and the glossy-black Chivillo (Cassicus palliatus, Tsch.), which are kept in cages on account of their very melodious song. Three kinds of parrots, which abound in the valleys on the coast, commit great depredations in the maize fields. The largest (Conurus tumultuosus, Tsch.) is green, with a red forehead, and some red feathers scattered over the body. A second sort builds its nest chiefly on the sides of rocks (Conurus rupicola, Tsch.), and only occasionally visits the plantations. The third is the smallest, but at the same time the most beautiful of the whole (Conurus sitophaga, Tsch.). A fine green overspreads all the upper part of the body, a blue fringe borders the feathers of the wings; and a bright citron-yellow is diffused over the forehead, neck, breast, and belly. It is only seven inches long. Pigeons, large and small, swarm in such multitudes over the corn-fields, and in the environs, that they may almost be called the great plague of the country. One of the finest is the little Turtuli (Chaemepelia gracilis, Tsch.), on the wing of which there is a row of very beautiful shining violet spots. The Cuculi, one of the largest pigeons, is a great favorite. It is kept much in cages. Its song, which is monotonous, yet very melodious, is kept up from the earliest hours of the morning until midday, and it begins again nearly at sunset. The song consists merely of a threefold repetition of cu-cu-li. After a pause, it resumes the song again. There are, however, some of those birds which repeat the cuculi oftener than thrice, and their price increases according to the number of their uninterrupted repetitions, which seldom exceed five or six. In Cocachacra, however, I heard one of these birds which repeated its cuculi fourteen times. The owner would not sell it under fourteen gold ounces.

The amphibia on the Peruvian coast are proportionally much better represented than the two foregoing classes. The gigantic tortoises (Chelonia imbricata and Ch. midas, Schweig.) visit in great numbers the few little frequented inlets. The elephant tortoise (Testudo Schweigeri) is often found on some islands, and in the marshy mouths of several rivers.

Two kinds of Crocodiles (Champsa sclerops and Ch. fissipes, Wagl.) inhabit the Rio de la Chira. They grow to the length of fourteen or fifteen feet.

Among the lizard class of reptiles, very large bright green Iguanas are found on the south coast; for instance, in the Caletas near Merillones, &c.; but there are great numbers of the land Agama, of which I found several new species, viz., Steirolepis tigris, thoracica, quadrivittata, xanthostigma, Tsch.; Liolaemus elegans, Tsch.; Ctenoblepharys adspersa, Tsch., &c., &c. I have already mentioned the Gecko, called the Salamanqueja.

Serpents upon the whole are rather seldom seen. They belong to different kinds, some poisonous, some innoxious (for example, Zacholus, Psammophis, Oxyrrhopus, Siphlophis, Ophis, Elaps, &c., &c.). A very poisonous viper (Echidna ocellata, Tsch.) inhabits the sugar-cane fields. Its bite is almost instantaneously mortal.

The genuine frog is not to be found on the coast, and of the bladder frog only two kinds are known (Cystignathus roseus and nodosus, Dum. Bibr.). I have found three amphibia of the toad class. The Thorn toad (Bufo spinulosus, Wiegam.), which has its body thickly covered with a thorny kind of warts. The beautiful red spotted toad (Bufo thaul), and a very curious and ugly kind with a round, swelled out body, a loose skin, and a large bladder under the chin (Anaxyrus melancholicus, Tsch.). At night the cry of this animal is a discordant melancholy howl.

FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote 49: Elias is eminent not only as an extensive landowner and cultivator, but as a statesman. During the revolution of 1843 and 1844, he was called upon to place himself at the head of the government. He discharged the duties of that high office with singular judgment and moderation. He and his lady are distinguished for their courteous and liberal hospitality; and many foreign visitors, like myself, look back with pleasure on the happiness they derived from the friendship of Don Domingo Elias.]

[Footnote 50: An odre is a goat-skin prepared for carrying wine.]

[Footnote 51: The original word is Huanu, which is a term in the Quichua dialect meaning "animal dung;" for example, Huanacuhuanu (excrement of the Huanacu). As the word is now generally used it is an abbreviation of Pishu Huanu—Bird-dung. The Spaniards have converted the final syllable nu into no, as they do in all the words adopted from the Quichua which have the like termination. The European orthography Guano, which is also followed in Spanish America, is quite erroneous, for the Quichua language is deficient in the letter G, as it is in several other consonants. The H, in the commencement of the word, is strongly aspirated, whence the error in the orthography of the Spaniards, who have sadly corrupted the language of the Autochthones of Peru.]



CHAPTER X.

Roads leading to the Sierra—Chaclacayo and Santa Ines—Barometrical observations—San Pedro Mama—The Rio Seco—Extraordinary Geological Phenomenon—Similar one described by Mr. Darwin—Surco—Diseases peculiar to the Villages of Peru—The Verugas—Indian mode of treating the disorder—The Bird-catching Spider—Horse-Shoeing—Indian Tambos—San Juan de Matucanas—The Thorn-apple and the Tonga—The Tambo de Viso—Bridges—San Mateo—Passports—Acchahuari—Malady called the Veta—Its effects on horses—Singular tact and caution of Mules—Antarangra and Mountain Passes—Curious partition of Water—Piedra Parada—Yauli—Indian Smelting Furnaces—Mineral Springs—Portuguese Mine owners—Saco—Oroya—Hanging Bridges—Huaros—Roads leading from Oroya.

From Lima two main roads lead to the Sierra or the mountains. One runs northward through the valley of Canta, in the direction of the rich silver mines of Cerro de Pasco; the other, taking a more southerly direction, passes through the Quebrada of Matucanas, to the villages of Tarma, Jauja, and Huancayo; and still further south, leads to Huancavelica, Ayacucho, and Cuzco. All the roads running from the coast to the Sierra, present a similarity of character. Taking an oblique direction from the margin of the coast, they run into one or other of the fan-shaped Cordillera valleys, all of which are intersected by rivers. Following the course of these rivers, the roads become steeper and steeper, and the valleys soon contract into mere ravines, terminating at the foot of the Cordillera. The traveller then threads his way up the acclivity, amidst stupendous masses of rock, until he reaches the lofty ridge. Then a gradual descent leads to the level heights, and thence into the deep mountain valleys.

Former travellers having already described the route by way of Canta, I will here trace the course through the Quebrada of Matucanas. In so doing, I am enabled to present to the reader the results of some barometrical observations which are the more interesting, inasmuch as the Cordillera here advances more nearly to the coast than at any other point.

The most easterly gate of the city of Lima (the Portada de Maravillas) opens upon a broad road, which runs directly eastward. At the distance of about a league and a half from the city, the road passes over a stone bridge called the Puente de Surco, a place famed for robbers. At this point the surrounding country presents a wild and dreary aspect. Ranges of grey and barren hills encompass the valley; the ground is for the most part covered with sand and gravel. Desolate remains of plantations and the ruins of habitations bear evidence of the life and activity that once animated this desert region, now abandoned by all save the fierce bandit and his victim, the solitary traveller.

Along the margins of the river, patches of moor-ground here and there serve as pasture. Clover and maize are produced only in those parts where the soil is manured and artificially watered. Low brushwood and reeds, growing on the banks of the Rimac, supply firewood to the city of Lima, and are a source of profit to some of the plantation-owners in the valley. At Periachi, four leagues from the capital, the road takes a turn to north-east, and continues in that direction, with but little deviation, as far as the base of the Cordillera. Two leagues beyond Pariachi we reach Chaclacayo, a village containing about thirty miserable reed huts. The plantation of Santa Ines, a little further on, is situated at 2386 feet above the level of the sea.[52] Mr. Maclean, an English merchant in Lima, who has sent many interesting Peruvian plants to the hothouses of England, and who has made some very attentive barometrical observations during a journey in the interior of the country, calculates the altitude of Chaclacayo at 2265 feet above the sea.[53] Rivero makes it 2010 feet above that level.[54] The difference between these calculations is remarkable; and in more considerable altitudes the discrepancy is still more considerable, being sometimes as much as from eight to nine hundred feet. I am inclined to believe that it is attributable less to inaccuracy of observation than to the very imperfect instrument made use of by Rivero. Maclean's observations, with some trifling exceptions, correspond with mine. He used one of Fortin's barometers, and I one of Lefevre's, which, prior to my departure from Europe, had, during several weeks, been regulated at the observatory in Paris. Unluckily, this excellent instrument was injured by a fall from my horse, and I found it impossible to get it repaired. Some barometrical observations made by M. C. Gay, during a journey in Peru, in the years 1839-40, with one of Bunten's barometers, deviate very considerably from all those above mentioned. Between the calculations of Gay and Rivero there is an average difference of from six hundred to one thousand feet.

On the road to Pasco, the Hacienda of Cavallero corresponds, in its distance from the capital, with the village of Chaclacayo, on the road I am here describing. At Chaclacayo wheat and sugar are cultivated. The sugar cane thrives well, and might be grown in greater quantity. In some of the coast districts I have seen the sugar cane cultivated at the height of 4500 feet above the sea; and I have seen it grow spontaneously, and attain perfect maturity, as high as 6800 feet.

From Santa Ines the road continues gradually ascending to the little village of San Pedro Mama, where the two rivers, San Mateo and Santa Olaya, unite and form the Rimac. The walls of mountain which enclose the valley here rise almost perpendicularly, and afford nestling-places for small, richly-plumed parrots (Conurus rupicola, Tsch.). I was much surprised to see these birds inhabiting the barren rocks, as the parrot always dwells in woody regions, and is found in other places only when on its passage. I know no other species of this family, save the one I have just mentioned, which permanently nestles on mountains.

Three leagues beyond San Pedro lies the village of Cocachacra. It is a small and poor place, but is picturesquely situated, and enjoys a fine climate. Its name, signifying coca-field, or plantation, denotes that coca must formerly have been cultivated here. At present that plant is not grown in any part near the coast, as it requires a damp and very warm climate. Cocachacra is 5386 feet above the level of the sea. Maclean fixes the altitude of San Pedro Mama, Santa Olaya, and Cocachacra, at 5331 feet. Supposing this calculation to be correct with respect to the latter village, it cannot also apply to San Pedro Mama and Santa Olaya, which lie much lower. At the two last-mentioned places I made no barometrical observations.

On the Pasco road the hamlet of Llanga is situated, at twelve leagues from Lima. On the other road Cocachacra is the same distance from the capital; but Cocachacra is about 2400 feet higher than Llanga. Between Cavallero and Llanga there is an interesting geological phenomenon, which I will here describe.

At the distance of two leagues from Lima the road takes a turn. At first it runs direct north, or north-north-west; suddenly it turns to north-north-east, and advances along the bank of the river Chillon as far as Cavallero. From thence, with slight deviations, it continues in the same course to Llanga, but at a considerable distance from the river, as the latter takes a wide sweep northward. From Cavallero the road runs for the space of three leagues, still ascending, through a barren district, along the dry bed of a river, called the Rio Seco. The last half-league of the way is very steep, and leads to the ridge of a chain of hillocks running diagonally across the valley. The ground is strewed with fragments of porphyry and other kinds of rock, like the bed of the Rimac. On reaching the ridge of the line of hillocks, the traveller beholds on the other side a hollow basin, like the dry bed of a lake: a furrow, extending lengthwise through this hollow, is the continuation of the bed of the river which is intersected by the chain of hills. Descending into the valley, and again following the course of the Rio Seco to the distance of about three leagues, we reach the village of Alcocoto, and once more arrive on the bank of the Rio de Chillon.

Here, therefore, we have evidence of the following remarkable facts, viz.:—that at some former period the river of Chillon flowed north-westward from Alcocoto to Cavallero, in the bed that is now dry; and that a chain of hills has been upheaved diagonally across the valley and the river. By this chain of hills the water, being dammed up, formed a lake; then it was again driven back; until the stream broke into a new course at Alcocoto, by which means the lake emptied itself, and, having no new supply of water, it dried up. Now the Rio de Chillon flows from Alcocoto to Cavallero, taking a wide turn, first westward, next south-westward, and lastly, direct south, until, at a sharp angle, it unites with the old bed of the river. The point of junction is a quarter of a mile from the Hacienda Cavallero. This is, however, not a solitary example of the course of a river being interrupted by the uplifting of a ridge of hills. A similar instance is mentioned by Mr. Darwin, who, however, did not see it himself, but who describes it as follows, from the observation of his countryman, Mr. Gill, the engineer:—

"Travelling from Casma to Huaraz, not far distant from Lima, he (Mr. Gill) found a plain covered with ruins and marks of ancient cultivation, but now quite barren. Near it was the dry course of a considerable river, whence the water for irrigation had formerly been conducted. There was nothing in the appearance of the water-course to indicate that the river had not flowed there a few years previously; in some parts, beds of sand and gravel were spread out; in others, the solid rock had been worn into a broad channel, which in one spot was about forty yards in breadth, and eight feet deep. It is self-evident that a person following up the course of a stream will always ascend at a greater or less inclination. Mr. Gill, therefore, was much astonished, when walking up the bed of this ancient river, to find himself suddenly going down hill. He imagined that the downward slope had a fall of about forty or fifty feet perpendicular. We here have unequivocal evidence that a ridge had been uplifted right across the old bed of the stream. From the moment the river-course was thus arched the water must necessarily have been thrown back, and a new channel formed. From that period, also, the neighboring plain must have lost its fertilizing stream, and become a desert."[55]

The inference here deduced is, that the rising took place at a period when the district was inhabited and cultivated by men. Of the period of the uplifting between Cavallero and Alcocoto I could discern no proofs. But the impression produced by the dry river bed involuntarily suggests the idea that, at no very distant period, it must have been the lodgment of a stream; for it is in all respects similar to the temporary dry river beds so frequently met with on the coast of Peru.

I made repeated visits to the Rio Seco, and I always contemplated with wonder the curious deviation of the river's course. But I must candidly confess that during my abode in Peru, I did not venture to attribute that deviation to so partial an uplifting; for I was ignorant of the existence of any similar phenomenon which would have supported such an opinion. Now, however, the example referred to by the eminent English geologist, and which has its existence on the same coast of Peru, sets all my doubts at rest, and I am quite convinced of the correctness of Mr. Darwin's view of the subject.

Having made this digression, I must now carry the reader back to Cocachacra. Pursuing the road to the distance of three leagues further, we arrive at San Geronimo de Surco. The valley in this part becomes more contracted; but on the whole its character is unchanged, with the exception that the mountains gradually become higher and steeper, and the soil less fertile. The road frequently runs along lofty walls of rock, or winds round sharp projections, which overhang deep chasms, in passing which the greatest precaution is requisite.

In several of the valleys on the road from the coast to the Sierra, and above all in the valley of Surco, there are certain springs, the water of which the Indians never drink. When a stranger unguardedly approaches one of these springs for the purpose of quenching his thirst, he is saluted by warning cries of Es agua de Veruga! (It is veruga water!) Even horses and mules are not suffered to refresh themselves at these springs, where the water is supposed to have the effect of producing a disorder called the Verugas. As the existence of this disease is not known in any other country, there appears ground for believing that it has its origin in certain local circumstances. The verugas first manifests itself by sore throat, pains in the bones, and other feverish symptoms. In the course of a few days an eruption of red-colored pimples, or boils, appears. These pimples sometimes increase in magnitude, till, in some parts of the body, they become nearly as large as an egg, and blood flows from them to such an excess, that the strength of the patient is exhausted, and consumption frequently follows. From the small verugas the flow of blood is greatest. I knew an instance of a half-caste Indian who from a small veruga below the ankle lost two pounds of blood.

I was not able to trace this disease to any other cause than that which the Indians assign to it. At all events, it is certain that travellers who abstain from drinking the water of the condemned springs, escape the verugas; whilst those who only once taste such water, are attacked by the disorder. It is the same with mules and horses. One of my mules which drank veruga water was attacked by a large tumor on the leg. The disease is notoriously prevalent in the village of Santa Olaya.

The medical treatment of the Verugas by the Indians is quite empirical. They administer to the patient the infusion of a plant which they call Huajra-Huajra; that is, Horn-Horn.[56] I never witnessed any convincing proof of its efficacy. Its operation appears to be merely sudorific. A preparation of white maize is also frequently given, and it has the effect of assisting the action of the skin. When the eruption of the verugas is tardy, a few spoonfuls of wine are found to be of great service. Sudorific and purifying medicines, together with cutting out the large verugas, and keeping the wounds for a time in a state of suppuration, have heretofore been found the best mode of treatment. An accurate chemical analysis of the water which the Indians declare to be agua de veruga, would be very desirable.[57]

In the Quebrada of Canta, where the verugas are less common than in that of Matucanas, another disease, called the Uta, is of very frequent occurrence. The uta is a sort of cancer, and it is more fearful in its consequences than the verugas. Probably in no country in the world do so many local diseases prevail as in Peru. Every valley has its own peculiar disease, which frequently does not extend beyond the boundary of a few square miles, and is quite unknown in neighboring districts. The origin of these disorders is, doubtless, to be traced to certain mineral or vegetable influences as yet unknown. It is remarkable how unequally these baneful visitations affect the different races of the inhabitants. The Indians and the lighter classes of half-castes are most frequently attacked by the verugas; the whites are less liable to the disease, whilst the negroes and people of the darker shades of mixed blood seldom suffer from it. The Indians and the Chinos are particularly liable to the uta. The caracha, of which I have already spoken,[58] visits the Negroes, the Zamboes, and the Mulattoes; the lighter-complexioned races being much less liable to it.

At Quibe I saw a bird-catching spider (mygale), of extraordinary large size. The back part of the body alone measured two inches. Being at some distance I supposed it to be one of the rodent animals, and I fired at it. To my mortification I discovered my mistake when too late, for the specimen was completely destroyed by the shot, and was useless for my collection. The Indians assured me that on the margin of the stream which flowed near the plantation many larger individuals were to be found; but I never saw another of such remarkable size as the one I inadvertently destroyed.

San Geronimo de Surco is 6945 feet above the level of the sea. It is a long village, and is situated in one of the most fertile parts of the valley. The houses are detached one from another, and each is surrounded by a little chacra. This place may be regarded as the boundary-line between the coast and the Sierra. The climate is agreeable—rather hot than cold. Most of the coast plants thrive here with little culture. Bananas, chirimoyas, superb granadillas, pomegranates, camotes, &c., grow here in luxuriant abundance. Yuccas I did not see: their elevation boundary is lower. San Geronimo de Surco is infested with swarms of annoying insects, especially sancudos (Culex molestus, Kell.), and stinging flies (species of Simoleum), which banish sleep from the resting-place of the weary traveller.

In this village there is an old Spaniard who keeps a tambo, and at the same time exercises the calling of a farrier. One of my horse's shoes being loose, I got him to fasten it on. For hammering in eight nails he made me pay half a gold ounce, and at first he demanded twelve dollars. He doubtless bore in mind the old Spanish proverb: "Por un clavo se pierde una herradura, por una herradura un cavallo, por un cavallo un cavallero,"[59] and he felt assured that I must have the damage repaired at any price. Shortly after my arrival in the Sierra I got myself initiated in the art of horse-shoeing, and constantly carried about with me a supply of horse-shoes and nails, a plan which I found was generally adopted by travellers in those parts. It is only in the larger Indian villages that farriers are to be met with, that is to say in places fifty or sixty leagues distant from each other.

From Surco the road runs to the distance of two leagues tolerably level, and very close to the river, which, from Cocachacra, bears the name of Rio de San Mateo. The next village is San Juan de Matucanas, at a little distance from which there is a tambo, situated at the height of 8105 feet above the sea.[60] These tambos of the Sierra are wretched places, but the traveller may find in them shelter, and possibly some miserable kind of food. Even in Lima the tambos are not much better. In the capital a tambo affords the traveller the accommodation of a room, containing a table, a chair, and a bedstead; for it is always understood that he brings his mattress and bedding along with him. In the interior of the country the accommodation is limited to an empty space on the floor, just large enough to spread a mattress upon. Whenever the state of the weather permitted I always preferred sleeping in the open air. Even on a rainy night a lodging on the outside of the door is preferable to the interior of the hut, where Indians, negroes, dogs and pigs are all huddled together. In these tambos there is seldom any scarcity of brandy or chicha; but the hungry traveller sometimes cannot get even a potatoe or a bit of maize. Frequently, when the Indians really have provisions they will not produce them, because they are fearful of not being paid. This suspicion is pardonable enough; for when troops march through the villages the inhabitants are often cheated by the officers, and ill-treated into the bargain. Generally, in this part of the country, the people are civil, and will readily sell provisions if they are paid. Not so the Indians of the higher mountains eastward of the Cordillera. To the traveller's demand for something to eat, their uniform reply is "Manam canchu" (we have nothing); and it is often found necessary to resort to force in order to convert this monotonous answer into the more agreeable "Ari conchu" (here is something).

Matucanas, which is rather a large village, lies on the left bank of the Rimac. The houses are of brick, and roofed with straw. The soil round this village is fertile, though not favorable to the growth of those plants which demand a very warm temperature. The agricultural produce is therefore limited to maize, wheat, lucerne (which is very abundant), and potatoes; the latter are sent in great quantities to the capital. The cactus grows on the hills, and its excellent fruit (tunas) forms also an article of trade.

Beyond Matucanas the valley contracts into a narrow ravine no broader than the bed of the river, and it gradually assumes a wilder character. The way is difficult along the ridge of hills which borders the left bank of the river. The vegetation is less monotonous and scanty than in the valleys of the coast, and all the fissures of the hills are filled with verdure. The stunted willow (Salix Humboldtii, Wild.) grows along the banks of the river, and on the less steep declivities is seen the red thorn-apple (Datura sanguinea, R. Pav.). To the latter the natives give the names Huacacachu, Yerba de Huaca, or Bovachevo; and they prepare from its fruit a very powerful narcotic drink, called tonga. The Indians believe that by drinking the tonga they are brought into communication with the spirits of their forefathers. I once had an opportunity of observing an Indian under the influence of this drink. Shortly after having swallowed the beverage he fell into a heavy stupor: he sat with his eyes vacantly fixed on the ground, his mouth convulsively closed, and his nostrils dilated. In the course of about a quarter of an hour his eyes began to roll, foam issued from his half-opened lips, and his whole body was agitated by frightful convulsions. These violent symptoms having subsided, a profound sleep of several hours succeeded. In the evening I again saw this Indian. He was relating to a circle of attentive listeners the particulars of his vision, during which he alleged he had held communication with the spirits of his forefathers. He appeared very weak and exhausted.