ARRIVAL OF THE EXPLORING PARTY AT SYDNEY.

It was long before the party arrived in Sydney for, when it reached the Murrumbidgee and the apprehension of famine no longer existed, rest was so necessary for the cattle that it was indulged in for their sake chiefly, to an extent much beyond the wishes of the men. The oxen looked tolerably well therefore when the party did reach Sydney, although from so long a journey; and my men enjoyed at length the triumph among their fellows, to which they had long looked forward, on conducting the boat and boat-carriage safely once more into the yard of my office.

PIPER AND THE MEN REWARDED.

But Piper seemed to relish his share of triumph most, and certainly he well deserved the kindness he met with on all sides. I clothed him in my own red coat and I gave him also a cocked hat and feather which had once belonged to Governor Darling. His portrait thus arrayed soon appeared in the print shops; an ingenious artist (Mr. Fernyhough) having drawn his likeness very accurately. Piper was just the sort of man to enjoy superlatively all his newly acquired consequence. He carried his head high for (as he now found) everybody knew him and not a few gave him money. With these donations he purchased silk handkerchiefs and wore them in his breast, gowns for his gins, for he at last had TWO, and to his great credit he abstained from any indulgence in intoxication, looking down, apparently with contempt, on those wretched specimens of his race who lead a gipsy life about Sydney.

The men, after having been examined in my presence by the Council composed of the governor, his secretary, and the bishop, respecting the events of 27th May, were rewarded according to the standing and condition of each. The government granted every indulgence I asked in their behalf. Burnett, Muirhead, Woods, and Palmer obtained absolute pardons. Woods receiving besides a gratuity of 10 pounds, and several, specially noticed in my report, 5 pounds each. Those who had tickets of leave were rewarded with conditional pardons, and tickets of leave were awarded to the rest with one or two exceptions. Among those excluded was Drysdale, a most trustworthy man and in whose behalf I was therefore much interested. He had not been long enough in the colony to be entitled by the regulations to any indulgence; and all I could do was to obtain for him a very laborious place in the general hospital by holding which he avoided the hulk.

Piper was impatient to return to his own country near Bathurst, and I fulfilled all the conditions of my contract with him by allowing him an old firelock, blankets, etc., decorating him also with a brass plate on which he was styled not as usual "King," for he said there were "too many kings already," but "Conqueror of the Interior"—surely a sufficient passport for him among those most likely to read it, the good people of Bathurst. But when he came to bid me farewell he was accompanied much against his will by the murderer of Mr. Cunningham, Bureemal, who had been placed under his protection by Mr. Ferguson to be conducted back to his tribe. This fellow had grown so stout that I could perceive no resemblance in him to the youth he appeared when captured by Lieutenant Zouch, and he had acquired an impudent air very unlike that of other natives. According to his own confession he had put Mr. Cunningham to death in cold blood, and Mr. Ferguson had in return clothed and fed him for one year, and taught him the Lord's Prayer and Ten Commandments.

THE TWO TOMMIES.

The two Tommies still remained to be provided for, and they were both desirous of accompanying me to England. I had seriously intended to take one with me but, so docile and so much attached to my service were both of these youths, that I felt much difficulty in choosing between them. Meanwhile they remained at Sydney while official cares and troubles so thickened about me that I at length abandoned my intention, however reluctantly and, when they were about to return at last to their own country, I gave to each what clothes I could spare and they both shed tears when they left my house. They were to travel through the colony under the protection of Charles Hammond, one of my steadiest men who, having obtained his freedom in reward for his services with me, was proceeding towards Bathurst in charge of the teams of a Parcel Delivery Company.

BALLANDELLA.

The little Ballandella, child of The Widow, was a welcome stranger to my children among whom she remained and seemed to adopt the habits of domestic life con amore, evincing a degree of aptness which promised very favourably. The great expense of the passage home of a large family obliged me at last to leave her at Sydney under the care of my friend Dr. Nicholson who kindly undertook the superintendence of her education during my absence in England.

CHARACTER OF THE NATIVES OF THE INTERIOR.

My experience enables me to speak in the most favourable terms of the aborigines whose degraded position in the midst of the white population affords no just criterion of their merits. The quickness of apprehension of those in the interior was very remarkable, for nothing in all the complicated adaptations we carried with us either surprised or puzzled them. They are never awkward, on the contrary in manners and general intelligence they appear superior to any class of white rustics that I have seen.

LANGUAGE.

Their powers of mimicry seem extraordinary, and their shrewdness shines even through the medium of imperfect language and renders them in general very agreeable companions.

On comparing a vocabulary of the language spoken by the natives on the Darling with other vocabularies obtained by various persons on different parts of the coast I found a striking similarity in eight words, and it appears singular that all these words should apply to different parts of the human body. I could discover no term in equally general use for any other object as common as the parts of the body, such for instance as the sun, moon, water, earth, etc. By the accompanying list of words used at different places to express the same meaning,* it is obvious that those to which I have alluded are common to the natives both in the south-eastern and south-western portions of Australia; while no such resemblance can be traced between these words and any in the language spoken by natives on the northern coast. Now from this greater uniformity of language prevailing throughout the length of this large island, and the entire difference at much less distance latitudinally, it may perhaps be inferred that the causes of change in the dialect of the aborigines have been more active on the northern portion of Australia than throughout the whole extent from east to west. The uniformity of dialect prevailing along the whole southern shore seems a fact worthy of notice as connected with any question respecting the origin of the language, and whether other people or dialects have been subsequently introduced from the northern or terrestrial portion of the globe. These words although few may be useful to philologists as specimens of the general language and, as the names of parts of the body can be obtained by travellers from men the most savage by only pointing to each part, comparisons may be thus extended to the natives of other shores.

(*Footnote. See Appendix 2.1)

I am not aware that any affinity has been discovered, at least in single words, between the Australian language and that of the Polynesian people;* but with very slight means of comparison I may perhaps be excused for noticing the resemblance of Murroa, the name of the only volcanic crater as yet found in Australia to Mouna-roa, the volcano of the Sandwich Islands; and that tao, the name of the small yam or root eaten by Australians, is similar to taro, the name of thirty-three varieties of edible root and having the same meaning in the Friendly and Society Isles and also in the Sandwich Islands. (See Cook's Voyages and Polynesian Researches by William Ellis.)

(*Footnote. Mr. Threlkeld has detected in it a similarity of idiom to the languages of the South Sea islanders and the peculiarity of a dual number common to all. See his Australian Grammar, Sydney 1834.)

HABITS OF THOSE OF VAN DIEMEN'S LAND THE SAME.

The natives of Van Diemen's Land, the only inhabited region south of Australia, are said to have been as dark as the negro race and to have had woolly hair like them. Little is known of the language and character of the unfortunate Tasmanian aborigines, and this is the more to be regretted considering how useful a better knowledge of either might have been in tracing the progressive extension of the Australasian people. The prevailing opinion at present is that the natives of Van Diemen's Land were also much more ferocious than the natives of Australia. But, brief as the existence of these islanders has been on the page of history, these characteristics are very much at variance with the descriptions we have of the savages seen by the earliest European visitors, and especially by Captain Cook who thus describes those he saw at Adventure Bay in 1777: "Their colour is a dull black, and not quite so deep as that of the African negroes. It should seem also that they sometimes heighten their black colour by smoking their bodies, as a mark was left behind on any clean substance, such as white paper, when they handled it." Captain Cook then proceeds to describe the hair as being woolly, but all the other particulars of that description are identical with the peculiarities of Australian natives; and Captain King stated, according to the editor of the Northern Voyage of Cook, that "Captain Cook was very unwilling to allow that the hair of the natives seen in Adventure Bay WAS woolly." The hair of the natives we saw in the interior and especially of the females had a very frizzled appearance and never grew long; and I should rather consider the hair of the natives of Tasmania as differing in degree only from the frizzled hair of those of Australia.

HABITS AND CUSTOMS OF THE ABORIGINES.

Instead of the ferocious character latterly attributed to the natives of Van Diemen's Land we find on the contrary that Captain Cook describes them as having "little of that fierce or wild appearance common to people in their situation;" and a historian* draws a comparison, also in their favour, between them and the natives of Botany Bay, of whom THREE stood forward to oppose Captain Cook at his first landing. The ferocity subsequently displayed by natives of Van Diemen's Land cannot fairly be attributed to them therefore as characteristic of their race, at least until extirpation stared them in the face and excited them to acts of desperate vengeance against all white intruders.

(*Footnote. The History of New Holland by the Right Honourable William Eden, 1787 page 99.)

The habits and customs of the aboriginal inhabitants are remarkably similar throughout the wide extent of Australia, and appear to have been equally characteristic of those of Van Diemen's Land: geological evidence also leads us to suppose that this island has not always been separated from the mainland by Bass Strait. The resemblance of the natives of Van Diemen's Land to those of Northern Australia seemed indeed so perfect that the first discoverers considered them "as well as the kangaroo, only stragglers from the more northern parts of the country;" and as they had no canoes fit to cross the sea, that New Holland, as it was then termed, "was nowhere divided into islands, as some had supposed."

TEMPORARY HUTS. MODE OF CLIMBING TREES.

Their mode of life, as exhibited in the temporary huts made of boughs, bark, or grass,* and of climbing trees to procure the opossum by cutting notches in the bark, alternately with each hand as they ascend, prevails not only from shore to shore in Australia but is so exactly similar in Van Diemen's Land and at the same time so uncommon elsewhere that Tasman, the first discoverer of that island, concluded "that the natives either were of an extraordinary size, from the steps having been five feet asunder or THAT THEY HAD SOME METHOD which he could not conceive of climbing trees by the help of such steps." It is strong presumptive evidence therefore of the connection of the inhabitants of Van Diemen's Land with the race in Australia that a method of climbing trees, now so well known as peculiar to the natives of Australia, should have been equally characteristic of those of Tasmania. The notches made in climbing trees are cut by means of a small stone hatchet and, as already observed, with each hand alternately. By long practice a native can support himself with his toes on very small notches, not only in climbing but while he cuts other notches, necessary for his further ascent, with one hand, the other arm embracing the tree. The elasticity and lightness of the simple handle of the mogo or stone hatchet employed (see Figure 5 above) are well adapted to the weight of the head and assist the blow necessary to cut the thick bark with an edge of stone. As the natives live chiefly on the opossum, which they find in the hollow trunk or upper branches of tall trees and, as they never ascend by old notches but always cut new ones, such marks are very common in the woods; and on my journeys in the interior I knew, by their being in a recent state, when I was approaching a tribe; or when they were not quite recent how long it was since the natives had been in such parts of the woods; whether they had any iron hatchets or used still those of stone only; etc.

(*Footnote. Many usages of these rude people much resemble those of the wandering Arabs. Dr. Pococke mentions some open huts made of boughs raised about three feet above the ground which he found near St. John D'Acre. He observes: "These materials are of so perishing a nature, and trees and reeds and bushes are so very scarce in some places that one would wonder they should not all accommodate themselves with tents but we find they do not in fact." Volume 2 page 158. "And that they should publish and proclaim in all their cities and in Jerusalem saying, Go forth unto the mount and fetch olive branches and pine branches and myrtle branches and palm branches and branches of thick trees to make booths as it is written." Nehemiah 8:15.)

REMARKABLE CUSTOMS.

The men wear girdles usually made of the wool of the opossum, and a sort of tail of the same material is appended to this girdle, both before and behind, and seems to be the only part of their costume suggested by any ideas of decency. The girdle answers besides the important purpose of supporting the lower viscera, and seems to have been found necessary for the human frame by almost all savages.

CHARMED STONES. FEMALES EXCLUDED FROM SUPERSTITIOUS RITES.

In these girdles the men, and especially their coradjes or priests, frequently carry crystals of quartz or other shining stones, which they hold in high estimation and very unwillingly show to anyone, taking care when they do that no woman shall see them.*

(*Footnote. Genesis 28:18. "From this conduct of Jacob and this Hebrew appellative, the learned Bochart, with great ingenuity and reason, insists that the name and veneration of the sacred stones called Baetyli, so celebrated in all Pagan antiquity, were derived. These baetyli were stones of a round form, they were supposed to be animated, by means of magical incantations, with a portion of the Deity; they were consulted on occasions of great and pressing emergency, as a kind of divine oracles, and were suspended either round the neck or some other part of the body." Burder's Oriental Customs volume 1 page 40.)

BANDAGE OR FILLET AROUND THE TEMPLES.

The natives wear a neatly wrought bandage or fillet round the head and whiten it with pipe-clay as a soldier cleans his belts.* They also wear one of a red colour under it. The custom is so general, without obvious utility, at least when the hair is short, that we may suppose it is also connected with some superstition.

(*Footnote. See illustration Cambo Volume 1.)

STRIKING OUT THE TOOTH.

But still more remarkable is the practice of striking out one of the front teeth at the age of puberty, a custom observed both on the coast and as far as I penetrated in the interior. On the western coast also Dampier observed that the two fore-teeth were wanting in all the men and women he saw. According to Piper certain rites belong to this strange custom. The young men retire from the tribe to solitary places, there to mourn and abstain from animal food for many days previous to their being subjected to this mutilation. The tooth is not drawn but knocked out by an old man, or coradje, with a wooden chisel, struck forcibly and so as to break it. It would be very difficult to account for a custom so general and also so absurd, otherwise than by supposing it a typical sacrifice, probably derived from early sacrificial rites. The cutting off of the last joint of the little finger of females seems a custom of the same kind; also boring the cartilage between the nostrils in both sexes and wearing therein, when danger is apprehended, a small bone or piece of reed.*

(*Footnote. The aborigines of Australia seem to resemble more, although at so great a distance, those of the Sandwich Islands than the natives of any other of the numerous isles so much nearer to them. According to Cook this strange custom of striking out the teeth prevails also there. "The knocking out their fore teeth," says that navigator, "may be, with propriety, classed among their religious customs. Most of the common people and many of the chiefs had lost one or more of them; and this we understood was considered as a propitiatory sacrifice to the Eatooa to avert his anger; and not like the cutting off a part of the finger at the Friendly Islands to express the violence of their grief at the death of a friend." Cook's Voyage.)

PAINTING WITH RED.

To paint the body red seems also a custom of the natives in all parts that I have visited: but the most constant use of colours both white and red appears on the narrow shield or hieleman (see below) which is seldom to be found without some vestiges of both colours about the carving with which they are also ornamented.*

(*Footnote. "A German pays no attention to the ornament of his person; his shield is the object of his care; and this he decorates with the liveliest colours." Tacitus de Mor. Germ. c.6.)

RAISED SCARS ON ARMS AND BREAST.

The "large punctures or ridges raised on different parts of their bodies, some in straight and others in curved lines" distinguish the Australian natives wherever they have been yet seen and, in describing these raised scars, I have quoted the words of Captain Cook as the most descriptive although having reference to the natives of Adventure Bay, in one of the most southern isles of Van Diemen's Land, when first seen in 1777.

CUTTING THEMSELVES IN MOURNING.

It is also customary for both men and women to cut themselves in mourning for relations. I have seen old women in particular bleeding about the temples from such self-inflicted wounds.*

(*Footnote. "We often read of people cutting themselves, in Holy Writ, when in great anguish; but we are not commonly told what part they wounded. The modern Arabs, it seems, gash their arms which with them are often bare: it appears from a passage of Jeremiah that the ancients wounded themselves in the same part, 'Every head shall be bald, and every beard clipt; upon all hands shall be cuttings and upon the loins sackcloth.' Chapter 48:37." Harmer volume 4 page 436.)

AUTHORITY OF OLD MEN.

Respect for age is universal among the aborigines. Old men, and even old women, exercise great authority among assembled tribes and "rule the big war" with their voices when both spears and boomerangs are ready to be thrown.* Young men are admitted into the order of the seniors according to certain rites which their coradjes, or priests, have the sagacity to keep secret and render mysterious.

(*Footnote. Leviticus 19:32. "Thou shalt rise up before the hoary head, and honour the face of the old man." The Lacedemonians had a law that aged persons should be reverenced like fathers. See also Homer Iliad 15:204 et 23:788. Odyss. 13:141.)

LAW AGAINST EATING EMU FLESH.

No young men are allowed to eat the flesh or eggs of the emu, a kind of luxury which is thus reserved exclusively for the old men and the women. I understood from Piper, who abstained from eating emu when food was very scarce, that the ceremony necessary in this case consisted chiefly in being rubbed all over with emu fat by an old man. Richardson, one of our party, was an old man and Piper reluctantly allowed himself to be rubbed with emu fat by Richardson; but from that time he had no objection to eat the flesh of that bird. The threatened penalty was that young men, after eating it, would be afflicted with sores all over the body.

NATIVE DOGS.

The native dog, so common in Australia, is not found in Tasmania; while on the other hand two animals, the Dasyurus ursinus and Thylacynus, exist in Tasmania but have not been found hitherto in Australia. Have these been extirpated in Australia by the dog on his introduction subsequently to the opening of the straits? It may be observed that this is the more likely as the above-mentioned species found in Van Diemen's Land only, consist of those two unable to climb and avoid such an enemy. The Australian natives evince great humanity in their behaviour to these dogs. In the interior we saw few natives who were not followed by some of these animals, although they did not appear of much use to them. The women not unfrequently suckle the young pups and so bring them up, but these are always miserably thin so that we knew a native's dog from a wild one by the starved appearance of the former. The howl of a native dog in the desert wilds is the most melancholy sound imaginable, much resembling that of a tame dog when he has lost his master. We find no remains of this genus among the fossils and it seems therefore probable that the dog accompanied the native, wherever he came from.

FEMALES CARRYING CHILDREN.

We trace a further resemblance between this rude people and the orientals in their common method of carrying children on their shoulders; and the sketch of Turandurey with Ballandella so mounted (Plate 24) affords the best illustration of a passage in Scripture which has very much puzzled commentators.* But the savage tribes of mankind as they approach nearer to the condition of animals seem to preserve a stronger resemblance to themselves and to each other. The uniform stability of their manners seems a natural consequence of the uncultivated state of their faculties; and it is satisfactory to discover such direct illustrations of ancient history among these rude and primitive specimens of our race.

(*Footnote. "Was the custom anciently the reverse of this? So it might be imagined from Isaiah 49:22. 'They shall bring thy sons in their arms and thy daughters shall be carried upon their shoulders'"! Harmer's Oriental Customs.)

WEAPONS. THE SPEAR. WOOMERA.

The weapons used by the natives are not more remarkable and peculiar in their construction than general in their use on every shore of New Holland. The spear is thrown by means of a woomera which is a slight rod about three feet long having at one end a niche to receive the end of the spear. The missile is shot forward by this means with great force and accuracy of direction; for by the peculiar method of throwing the spear the woomera affords a great additional impetus from this most ingenious lengthening of the arm to that extent.*

(*Footnote. For the shape of the woomera see Moyengully Plate 49 above; and the manner of throwing the spear may be seen in Plate 8 Volume 1.)

THE BOOMERANG. ITS PROBABLE ORIGIN.

The boomerang, a thin curved missile, can be thrown by a skilful hand so as to rise upon the air and thus to deviate from the ordinary path of projectiles, its crooked course being nevertheless equally under control. It is of the form here represented, being about two feet four inches long. These weapons are cut according to the grain from the curved parts of acacia or other standing trees of compact hard wood. They usually weigh about 9 1/2 ounces. One side, which is the uppermost in throwing, is slightly convex, and is sometimes elaborately carved. The lower side is flat and plain. The boomerang is held, not as a sabre, but sickle-wise, or concave towards the thrower and, as a rotatory motion is imparted to it when sent off, the air presents so much resistance to the flat side and so little to the sharp edge as it cuts forward, that the long-sustained flight of the whirling missile seems independent of the common effect of gravitation.

The native, from long practice, can do astonishing things with this weapon. He seems to determine with great certainty what its crooked and distant flight shall be, and how and where it is to end. Thus he frequently amuses himself in hurling the formidable weapon to astonishing heights and distances from one spot to which the missile returns to fall beside him. Sometimes the earth is made a fulcrum to which the boomerang descends only to resume a longer and more sustained flight, or to leap, perhaps, over a tree and strike an object behind it.

The contrivance probably originated in the utility of such a missile for the purpose of killing ducks where they are very numerous, as on the interior rivers and lagoons and where, accordingly, we find it much more in use than on the seacoast and better made, being often covered with good carving.* (See Cambo, Volume 1, also small figures in Plate 28 above.)

(*Footnote. That Dampier saw this weapon also on the western coast in latitude 16 degrees 50 minutes is evident from the following observation. "These swords were afterwards found to be made of wood and rudely shaped something like a cutlass.")

SHIELD OR HIELEMAN.

There is also much originality in the shield or hieleman of these people. It is merely a piece of wood of little thickness and 2 feet 8 inches long, tapering to each end, cut to an edge outwards and having a handle or hole in the middle behind the thickest part. This is made of light wood and affords protection from missiles, chiefly by the facility with which it is turned round the centre or handle.

SKILL IN APPROACHING THE KANGAROO.

Great ingenuity is necessary and is as cleverly practised by the natives in approaching the kangaroo. This they display in creeping, stalking with bushes, advancing behind trees, etc. and to such a degree are their wits sharpened by their appetites that they can even distinguish when the kangaroo kills a fly; and they consider in their proceedings, from the habit of the kangaroo to kill flies and smell the blood, whether the animal may discover from the blood the fly contains that men are near.

FOOD OF THE NATIVES. MODES OF COOKING.

The natives are accustomed to cook such animals by digging a hole in the ground, making a fire in it, and heating the stones found about. The kangaroo is placed in this hole with the skin on, and is covered with heated embers or warm stones.

OPOSSUM. SINGEING.

The opossum which constitutes the more ordinary food of the native is not cooked so much, but only singed, so as to have a flavour of the singed wool; but it is nevertheless palatable enough even to a white man.

VEGETABLE FOOD. THE SHOVEL.

The young natives of the interior usually carry a small wooden shovel (see foreground figure, Plate 12 Volume 1) with one end of which they dig up different roots, and with the other break into the large anthills for the larvae, which they eat: the labour necessary to obtain a mouthful even, of such indifferent food, being thus really more than would be sufficient for the cultivation of the earth according to the more provident arrangements of civilised men. Yet in a land affording such meagre support the Australian savage is not a cannibal: while the New Zealander, who inhabits a much more productive region, notoriously feasts on human flesh.

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.

Were it expedient to enter here into further details, or upon a longer description of the natives of Australia, I might quote largely from Captain Cook's account of those he saw at Adventure Bay, Van Diemen's Land, as being more detailed and descriptive, both of the natives in the interior, and of those also around the whole circumference of Australia, than any I could give. In the descriptions by Dampier and other navigators who have touched on any part of these shores we recognise the same natives with all their characteristics, and are led to conclude that they are derived from the same stock and, as the judicious compiler of the first History of New Holland considered it most probable from this and other circumstances "that the number is small, and that the interior parts of the country are inhabited,"* I may observe that I have had no reason to entertain a contrary opinion from what I saw of the interior country beyond the Darling. The native population is very thinly spread over the regions I have explored, amounting to nearly a seventh part of Australia. I cannot estimate the number at more than 6000; but on the contrary I believe it to be considerably less. They may increase rapidly if wild cattle become numerous; and as an instance I may refer to the number and good appearance of the Cudjallagong tribe near Macquarie range where they occasionally fell in with a herd of wild cattle.

(*Footnote. History of New Holland pages 31 and 232.)

DESTRUCTION OF THE KANGAROO.

The kangaroo disappears from cattle runs, and is also killed by stockmen merely for the sake of the skin; but no mercy is shown to the natives who may help themselves to a bullock or a sheep. Such a state of things must infallibly lead to the extirpation of the aboriginal natives, as in Van Diemen's Land, unless timely measures are taken for their civilisation and protection. I have heard some affecting allusions made by natives to the white men's killing the kangaroo. At present almost every stockman has several strong kangaroo dogs; now it would be only an act of justice towards the aborigines to prohibit white men by law from killing these creatures which are as essential to the natives as cattle are to the Europeans. The prohibition would be at least a proof of the disposition of the strangers to act as humanely as they possibly could towards the natives. If wild cattle on the contrary become numerous the natives also might increase in number and, if not civilised and instructed now, might become formidable and implacable enemies then, as no absolute right to kill even wild cattle would be conceded to them. The evils likely to result from such circumstances were apparent both in the commencement and termination of my first journey; but although the desert character of the interior renders such a state of things less likely to happen, at least on a larger scale, the unfortunate race whom we have found on the shores of Australia are not the less entitled to our protection.

CIVILISATION OF THE ABORIGINES.

Some adequate provision for their civilisation and maintenance is due on our part to this race of men, were it only in return for the means of existence of which we are depriving them. The bad example of the class of persons sent to Australia should be counteracted by some serious efforts to civilise and instruct these aboriginal inhabitants. That they are capable of civilisation and instruction has been proved recently in the case of a number who were sentenced for some offence to be confined with a chaingang on Goat Island in Sydney harbour. By the exertions of Mr. Ferguson, who was I believe a missionary gentleman, these men were taught in five months to read tolerably well, and also to explain in English the meaning of the Lord's Prayer and Ten Commandments. During that time they had been initiated in the craft of stone-cutting and building so as to completely erect a small house. They grew fat and muscular and appeared really stronger men, when well fed, than the white convicts.

The natives have also proved very good shepherds when any of them have been induced, by proper encouragement and protection, to take charge of a flock. Tommy Came-first, one of the lads who travelled with me, had previously tended sheep for a year and had given great satisfaction.

My experiment with the little native girl, Ballandella, will be useful I trust in developing hereafter the mental energies of the Australian aborigines for, by the last accounts from Sydney, I am informed that she reads as well as any white child of the same age.

CHAPTER 3.15.

Geological specimens collected. Connection between soil and rocks. Limestone. Granite. Trap-rocks. Sandstone. Geological structure and physical outline. Valleys of excavation. Extent of that of the Cox. Quantity of rock removed. Valley of the Grose. Wellington Valley. Limestone caverns. Description and view of the largest. Of that containing osseous breccia. First discovery of bones. Small cavity and stalagmitic crust. Teeth found in the floor. A third cavern. Breccia on the surface. Similar caverns in other parts of the country. At Buree. At Molong. Shattered state of the bones. Important discoveries by Professor Owen. Gigantic fossil kangaroos. Macropus atlas. Macropus titan. Macropus indeterminate. Genus Hypsiprymnus, new species, indeterminate. Genus Phalangista. Genus Phascolomys. Ph. mitchellii, a new species. New Genus Diprotodon. Dasyurus laniarius, a new species. General results of Professor Owen's researches. Age of the breccia considered. State of the caverns. Traces of inundation. Stalagmitic crust. State of the bones. Putrefaction had only commenced when first deposited. Accompanying marks of disruption. Earthy deposits. These phenomena compared with other evidence of inundation. Salt lakes in the interior. Changes on the seacoast. Proofs that the coast was once higher above the sea than it is at present. Proofs that it was once lower. And of violent action of the sea. At Wollongong. Cape Solander. Port Jackson. Broken Bay. Newcastle. Tuggerah Beach. Bass Strait.

GEOLOGICAL SPECIMENS COLLECTED.

As any geological information respecting a country so little known as the eastern coast of Australia may be acceptable to the public, I venture to subjoin a few observations on some of the more prominent subjects of my researches, and I do so with the more confidence because it will appear how largely I am indebted for the interest they possess to the kindness of my scientific friends in England.

CONNECTION BETWEEN SOIL AND ROCKS.

During the surveys and expeditions I carefully collected specimens at every important locality, and I have thus been enabled since my return to England to mark upon my maps the geological structure of the country. By this means also I have been able to determine the relative value of the land in the districts recently explored and to compare it with that of the country previously known.

By a little attention to the geological structure of Australia we learn how much the superficial qualities of soil and productions depend upon it, and where to look for arable spots amid the general barrenness. The most intelligent surveyors of my department have on several occasions contributed considerably to my collection.

Curiosity led me to investigate some of the fossil remains of those lately discovered regions while my public duties obliged me to study also the external features of the country; and I have thus been enabled to draw some inferences respecting various changes which have taken place in the surface and in the relative level of sea and land.

The following are the principal rocks which I noticed in the country.

LIMESTONE.

Limestone occurs of different ages and quality presenting a considerable variety.

1. A light-coloured compact calcareous rock resembling mountain limestone; at Buree and Wellington, rising, at the former place, to the height of about 1500 feet above the sea.

2. A dark grey limestone appears at perhaps a still greater height on the Shoalhaven river; in immediate contact with granite.

3. A crystalline variegated marble is found in blocks a few miles westward of the above, near the Wollondilly.

4. Another variety of this rock is very abundant in the neighbourhood of Limestone plains on the interior side of the Coast ranges and near the principal sources of the Murrumbidgee. This contains corals belonging to the genus favosites; crinoideae are also found abundantly in the plains and distinguish this limestone from the others above-mentioned.

These rocks present little or no appearance of stratification.

A remarkably projecting ridge on the banks of Peel's river contained limestone of so peculiar an aspect as to resemble porphyry, and it was associated with a rock having a base of chocolate-coloured granular felspar. (See Volume 1.)

A yellow highly calcareous sandstone, apparently stratified, occurs near the banks of the Gwydir. Large rounded boulders of argillaceous limestone have been denuded in the bed of Glendon brook; and an impure limestone is found in the neighbourhood of William's river, both belonging to the basin of the Hunter and not much elevated above the sea. Calcareous tuff or grit may be observed in various localities, and calcareous concretions abound in the blue clay of almost all the extensive plains on both sides of the mountains.

A soft shelly limestone, most probably of recent origin though slightly resembling some of the oolites of England, occurs extensively on the southern coast between Cape Northumberland and Portland bay where it forms the only rock with the exception of amygdaloidal trap.

GRANITE.

Granite or granitic compounds are more or less apparent at or near the sources of the principal rivers; but with the exception of the Southern Alps and some patches in the counties of Bathurst and Murray this fundamental rock is visible in Australia only where it appears to have cracked a thick overlying stratum of ferruginous sandstone. Thus near the head of the river Cox where the latter attains its greatest elevation, and from the character of the valley has evidently been violently disturbed, we find granite in the valley near the bed of the stream.

Observation 1. Such is the character of the country where the waters separate, or in the line of greatest elevation which we are accustomed to term the Coast Range. The general direction of this range is north-north-east and accords perfectly with the hypothesis of Dr. Fitton, founded on the general parallelism observed in the range of the strata, even on the north-western coast, as noticed in his interesting little volume, the first ever devoted to Australian Geology.* The parallelism so remarkable in the range of strata in that portion, the general tendency of the coastlines to a course from the west of south to the east of north on the mainland, and even in the islands west of the Gulf of Carpentaria, and a general elevation of the strata towards the south-east, as deduced from Flinders' remarks, are all facts which should be studied in connection with the direction of the granite along this part of the eastern coast.

(*Footnote. An account of some Geological specimens from the coasts of Australia by William Henry Fitton, M.D., F.R.S., V.P.G.S., etc. 1826.)

Observation 2. It may be also observed that the sandstone reposing on the rock eastward of this division or watershed is slightly inclined towards the sea, whereas all the sandstone on the interior side, or westward of it, dips to the north-west.

TRAP-ROCKS.

Trap-rocks are displayed in a great variety of situations. They often occur connected with limestone in valleys, sometimes constitute lofty ranges as on the north or left bank of the Hunter, and along the seashore at the Illawarra; they likewise cap the summit of isolated hills, but no particular place can be assigned to them with reference to the position of any other rocks. Trap forms a good soil on decomposition as is shown in the rich districts of the Illawarra, Cowpastures, Valley of the Hunter, Liverpool Plains, Wellington Valley, and Buree.

Vesicular lava and amygdaloid are the chief ingredients of some of the best parts of Australia Felix. In that region volcanic phenomena are more apparent than in other parts of Eastern Australia, especially where the Grampians, consisting of a mass of sandstone 4000 feet thick, seem a portion of the great formation covering the districts of the north. The strata in these mountains are inclined to the north-west, as if in obedience to the upheavings of Murroa or Mount Napier, an extinct volcano in the very line of their outcrop.

Observation. We found in the interior, hills of sandstone only, but at this extremity of the great Coast range granite is extensively exposed in ridges, between which, in one extensive district, are round heights of mammeloid form, consisting of pure lava, and in another, tabular masses of trap reposing on granite occupy one side of a valley.

GRAVEL.

Beds of gravel are not common in these parts of Australia; but occur partially in the basins of the larger streams on the interior side of the Coast range where the pebbles in general consist of quartz.

SANDSTONE.

The prevailing geological feature in all Eastern Australia is the great abundance of a ferruginous sandstone in proportion to any other rocks. The sterility of the country where it occurs has been frequently noticed in these volumes. It is found on the coast at Port Jackson and it was the furthest rock seen by me in the interior beyond the Darling.

A deposit upwards of 1200 feet thick forms the Blue Mountains west of Sydney, ranging thence, with the intersection of no other rock of importance, to the Hawkesbury; and although declining towards the sea at the rate of only 100 feet per mile, or 1 in 52, or at an angle of about 1 degree with the horizon; yet it is traversed by ravines which increase in depth in proportion as the sandstone attains a greater elevation, and present perpendicular crags and cliffs of a very remarkable character.

A region consisting of a sandstone deposit of so great thickness and so slightly inclined necessarily presents a monotonous aspect in all directions; and when it is compared with European countries composed of many formations and presenting great diversity of scenery it proves how much geological structure influences pictorial and physical outlines. (See Plate 10 Volume 1, also Plate 38 above.)

In the eastern part of Australia the geologist will certainly find sections in abundance but they are nearly all of sandstone for, with few exceptions no other rocks have been denuded in situations similarly exposed.

GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND PHYSICAL OUTLINE. VALLEYS OF EXCAVATION. EXTENT OF THAT OF THE COX.

The ravines which discharge their waters into the little river Cox occupy an area of 1,212 square miles, or one-half of the county of Westmoreland on the right or south side of that river, and one-fourth of the county of Cook on the other. Of this area 796 square miles, equal to one-half of the county of Westmoreland, are on the right or south side of that river, and 416, or one-fourth of the county of Cook, on the left. The whole extent comprises the basin of this mountain stream, and is bounded by heights rising very gradually from about 1000 feet at the gorge or outlet of the Cox, to 3,400 feet on the north side at Blackheath, and on the south to Murruin and Werong, summits of still greater elevation; the lowest part of the ridge bounding this basin on the west or interior side being nearly 3000 feet above the level of the sea. Cox's river flows over a bed of water-worn rocks which, in the upper part of the valley, is 2,150 feet above the sea, and on the road to Bathurst this bed consists of trap and granite. The river falls rapidly on leaving the granite of the vale of Clwyd to a level not much above that of the sea, and it escapes near its junction with the Warragamba from this spacious basin through a gorge about 2,200 yards wide and flanked on each side by points about 800 feet high.

QUANTITY OF ROCK REMOVED.

Supposing but two-thirds of the enclosed area of sandstone to have been excavated to the depth of 880 feet only, which I allow as the mean thickness of the stratum thus broken into, and considering the inclination of the Cox and other valleys, then 134 CUBIC MILES of stone must have been removed from this basin of the Cox alone.

VALLEY OF THE GROSE.

The valley of the Grose, whose basin is contiguous to that of the Cox on the north, is of less extent but enclosed by cliffs of greater perpendicular height. That river has been already described in the journal, and the general character of the valley through which it flows is represented in Plate 10 Volume 1.* We now perceive but slight indications of the action by which the great area of stone in the valley of the Cox, the Grose etc. has been removed. There are no accumulations of sand but huge blocks of rock, scarcely worn by attrition, occur in great abundance in the bed of the stream; neither do we find in the larger channels of the rivers below any sand deposits, but on the contrary the very rich alluvium which distinguishes the banks of the Hawkesbury.

(*Footnote. This book is already almost too full of plates and I beg to refer the geological reader to my three-sheet map of the Colony for the superficial forms and extent of these valleys.)

WELLINGTON VALLEY.

In the year 1830, after I had traced out the new line of descent from the Blue Mountains to the interior country by the pass which I then named Mount Victoria, I extended my survey to the heights beyond Wellington Valley. This includes a rich alluvial tract watered by the river Bell, one of the principal tributaries of the Macquarie, and is about 170 miles to the westward of Newcastle. It is bounded on each side by a compact calcareous rock resembling the mountain limestone of England and rising on the east side to about 100 feet above the Bell.

On the west side of this valley hills of greater elevation, consisting of a red sandstone and conglomerate, extend parallel to the limestone; and on the east side of it is another range composed of trap-rocks. The basis of a tract still further eastward, dividing the watershed of the interior from that which sends its streams to the sea is, as has been already observed, of granite.

The limestone presents a naked and rugged surface composed of pointed, weather-worn blocks between which are small crevices leading to caves and fissures. From these crevices a warm air ascends, accompanied by a smell peculiar to the caves. The worn aspect of the external rock, resembling half-dissolved ice, is very remarkable, particularly near the largest caverns.

An account of the survey of these caves was communicated to the Geological Society in a paper read on the 13th of April 1831, of which an abstract was published in its Proceedings, but the particulars respecting the animal remains found by me have derived great additional importance from the discoveries made by Professor Owen since my return to England. I may be excused therefore for again calling attention to the situation of those curious caves respecting which the following details are now published with the consent of the Council of the Society.

LIMESTONE CAVERNS.

The entrance to the caves of Wellington Valley is in the side of a low hill and 65 feet above the adjacent alluvial flat. It consists of two crevices between large blocks of limestone in one side of a hollow about 12 feet deep; and which has evidently been widened by water. (Plate 41.)

DESCRIPTION AND VIEW OF THE LARGEST.

We first descended the fissure at the mouth of the large cave, and then clambered over great rocks until, at 125 feet from the entrance, we found these inequalities to be covered by a deep bed of dry, reddish dust, forming an even floor. This red earth lay also in heaps under lateral crevices, through which it seemed to have been washed down from above. On digging to a considerable depth at this point, we found a few fragments of bone, apparently of the kangaroo. At 180 feet from the mouth is the largest part of the cavern, the breadth being 25 feet and the height about 50 feet. The floor consisted of the same reddish earth, but a thick stalagmitic crust extended for a short distance from a gigantic stalactite at the further end of the cavern. On again digging several feet deep into the red earth here we met with no lower layer of stalagmite nor any animal remains.

On a corner of the floor behind the stalactite and nearly under a vertical fissure we found a heap of dry white dust into which one of the party sunk to the waist.* (G. Plate 44.)

(*Footnote. The dust when chemically examined by Dr. Turner was found to consist principally of carbonate of lime with some phosphate of lime and animal matter. Proceedings of the Geological Society for 1831.)

Passing through an opening to the left of the stalactite we came upon an abrupt descent into a lower cavern. Having reached the latter with some difficulty, we found that its floor was about 20 feet below that of the cavern above. It was equally level and covered to a great but unascertained depth with the same dry red earth which had been worn down about five feet in a hollow or rut.

A considerable portion of the farthest part of the floor (at H) was occupied with white dust or ashes similar to that found in the corner of the upper floor (at G).

This lower cavern terminated in a nearly vertical fissure which not only ascended towards the external surface but descended to an unascertained depth beneath the floor. At about 30 feet below the lowest part of the cavern it was found to contain water, the surface of which I ascertained was nearly on a level with that of the river Bell. Having descended by a rope I found that the water was very transparent but unfit to drink, having a disagreeable, brackish flavour.

This lower cavern is much contracted by stalactites and stalagmites. After having broken through some hollow-sounding portions (at O and N) we entered two small lateral caverns and in one of these, after cutting through (at I) about eight inches of stalagmitic floor, we discovered the same reddish earth. We dug into this deposit also, but discovered no pebbles or organic fragments; but at the depth of two and a half feet met with another stalagmitic layer which was not penetrated. This fine red earth or dust seems to be a sediment that was deposited from water which stood in the caves about 40 feet below the exterior surface; for the earth is found exactly at that height both towards the entrance of the first cavern and in the lateral caverns. (See Plate 44.)

That this cave had been enlarged by a partial sinking of the floor is not improbable, as broken stalagmitic columns, and pillars like broken shafts, once probably in contact with the roof, are still apparent. (See the view of the largest cavern Plate 43.)

OF THAT CONTAINING OSSEOUS BRECCIA.

Eighty feet to the westward of this cave is the mouth of another of a different description. Here the surface consists of a breccia full of fragments of bones; and a similar compound, confusedly mixed with large blocks of limestone, forms the sides of the cavity. This cave presents in all its features a striking contrast to that already described. Its entrance is a sort of pit, having a wide orifice nearly vertical, and its recesses are accessible only by means of ladders and ropes. Instead of walls and a roof of solid limestone rock we found shattered masses apparently held together by breccia, also of a reddish colour and full of fragments of bones. (Plate 45.) The opening in the surface appears to have been formed by the subsidence of these rocks at the time when they were hurled down, mixed with breccia, into the position which they still retain. Bones were but slightly attached to the surface of this cement, as if it had never been in a very soft state, and this we have reason to infer also from its being the only substance supporting several large rocks and at the same time keeping them asunder. On the other hand we find portions of even very small bones, and also small fragments of the limestone, dispersed through this cementing substance or breccia.

FIRST DISCOVERY OF BONES.

The pit had been first entered only a short time before I examined it by Mr. Rankin, to whose assistance in these researches I am much indebted. He went down by means of a rope to one landing-place and then, fixing the rope to what seemed a projecting portion of rock, he let himself down to another stage where he discovered, on the fragment giving way, that the rope had been fastened to a very large bone, and thus these fossils were discovered. The large bone projected from the upper part of the breccia, the only substance which supported as well as separated several large blocks, as shown in the accompanying view of the cave (Plate 45) and it was covered with a rough tuffaceous encrustation resembling mortar. No other bone of so great dimensions has since been discovered within the breccia. (See Figures 12 and 13, Plate 51.)

From the second landing-place we descended through a narrow passage between the solid rock on one side and huge fragments chiefly supported by breccia on the other, the roof being also formed of the latter and the floor of loose earth and stones.

SMALL CAVITY AND STALAGMITIC CRUST.

We then reached a small cavern ending in several fissures choked up with the breccia. One of these crevices (K. Plate 44) terminated in an oven-shaped opening in the solid rock (Plate 50) and was completely filled in the lower part with soft red earth which formed also the floor in front of it and resembled that in the large cavern already described. Osseous breccia filled the upper part of this small recess and portions of it adhered to the sides and roof adjoining, as if this substance had formerly filled the whole cavity. At about three feet from the floor of this cavity (Plate 50) the breccia was separated from the loose earth below by three layers of stalagmitic concretion, each about two inches thick and three apart; and they appeared to be only the remains of layers once of greater extension, as fragments of stalagmite adhered to the sides of the cavity as shown in Plate 50. The spaces between what remained of these layers were filled with red ochreous matter and bones embedded partially in the stalagmite. Those in the lower sides of the layers were most thickly encrusted with tuffaceous matter; those in the upper surfaces on the contrary were very white and free from the red ferruginous ochre which filled the cavities of those in the breccia, although they contained minute transparent crystals of carbonate of lime.

TEETH FOUND IN THE FLOOR.

On digging (at K) into the soft red earth forming the floor of this recess, some fragments of bone, apparently heavier than those in the breccia, were found, and one portion seemed to have been gnawed by a small animal. We obtained also in this earth the last phalange of the greatest toe of a kangaroo, and a small water-worn pebble of quartz. By creeping about 15 feet under a mass of solid rock which left an opening less than a foot and a half above the floor, we reached a recess about 15 feet high and 12 feet wide (L). The floor consisted of dry red earth and, on digging some feet down, we found fragments of bones, a very large kangaroo tooth (Figure 6 Plate 47) a large tooth of an unknown animal (Figures 4 and 5 Plate 51) and one resembling some fragments of teeth found in the breccia. (See Figures 6, 7, 8, and 9, Plate 51.)

A THIRD CAVERN.

We next examined a third cave about 100 yards to the westward of the last described. The entrance, like that of the first, was tolerably easy, but the descent over the limestone rocks was steeper and very moist and slimy. Our progress downwards was terminated by water which probably communicated with the river Bell, as its level was much lower when the cave was first visited during a dry season. I found very pure iron ochre in some of the fissures of this cavern but not a fragment of bone.

BRECCIA ON THE SURFACE.

Perceiving that the breccia, where it occurred below, extended to the surface, I directed a pit to be dug on the exterior about 20 feet from the mouth of the cave and at a part where no rocks projected. (N, Plate 44.) we found that the hill there consisted of breccia only; which was harder and more compact than that in the cave and abounded likewise in organic remains.

Finally I found on the summit of the same hill some weathered blocks of breccia from which bones protruded, as shown in the accompanying drawing of a large and remarkable specimen. (Plate 46.)

SIMILAR CAVERNS IN OTHER PARTS OF THE COUNTRY.

Other caverns containing breccia of the same description occur in various parts within a circuit of 50 miles, and they may probably be found throughout the limestone country not yet examined.

AT BUREE.

On the north bank of the Macquarie, 8 miles east from the Wellington caves, and at Buree, about 50 miles to the south-east of them, I found this breccia at considerable depths, having been guided to it by certain peculiar appearances of subsidence and disruption, and by yawning holes in the surface, which previous experience had taught me to consider as indications of its existence.

On entering one of these fissures from the bed of the little stream near Buree and following, to a considerable distance, the subterraneous channel of the rivulet, we found a red breccia containing bones as abundantly as that of Wellington Valley. It occurred also amidst masses of broken rocks, between which we climbed until we saw daylight above and, being finally drawn out with ropes, we emerged near the top of a hill from a hole very similar in appearance to the mouth of the cave at Wellington, which it also resembled in having breccia both in the sides of the orifice and in the surface around it.

AT MOLONG.

At Molong, 36 miles east of Wellington Valley, I found some concreted matter within a small cavity of limestone rock on the surface and, when broken, this proved to be also breccia containing fragments of bone.

SHATTERED STATE OF THE BONES.

It was very difficult to obtain any perfect specimens of the remains contained in the breccia—the smallest of the various portions brought to England have nevertheless been carefully examined by Professor Owen at the Hunterian Museum, and I have received from that distinguished anatomist the accompanying letter containing the result of those researches and highly important determinations by which he has established several points of the greatest interest as connected with the Natural History of the Australian continent.

IMPORTANT DISCOVERIES BY PROFESSOR OWEN.

Royal College of Surgeons, May 8th, 1838.

Dear Sir,

I have examined, according to your request, the fossil remains which you discovered in Wellington Valley, Australia, and which are now deposited in the Museum of the Geological Society; they belong to the following genera:

GIGANTIC FOSSIL KANGAROOS.

MACROPUS Shaw.

Sp. 1. Macropus atlas. O. This must have been at least one-third larger than Macropus major, the largest known existing species: it is chiefly remarkable for the great size of its permanent spurious molar; in which respect it approaches the subdivision of Shaw's genus, called Hypsiprymnus by Illiger. The remains of this species consist of a fragment of the right ramus of the lower jaw. (I*) Figure 1 Plate 47.

(*Footnote. The numbers and letters within a parenthesis in this letter refer to labels on the specimens.)

Sp. 2. Macropus titan. O. I gave this name to an extinct species, as large as the preceding, but differing chiefly in the smaller size of the permanent spurious molar; which in this respect more nearly corresponds with the existing Macropus major. The remains of this species consist of a fragment of the right ramus of the lower jaw. (II) Figure 3 Plate 47.

In both the above specimens the permanent false molar is concealed in its alveolus, and was discovered by removing part of the substance of the jaw, indicating the nonage of the individuals.

A portion of cranium with the molar series of teeth of both sides. (II) Figures 4 and 5 Plate 47. This specimen I believe to belong to Macropus titan.

The permanent false molar, which is also concealed in this upper jaw, is larger than that of the lower jaw of Macropus titan, but I have observed a similar discrepancy in size in the same teeth of an existing species of Macropus.

To one or other of the two preceding gigantic species of kangaroo must be referred:

II.a. Crown of right inferior incisor, Figure 6 Plate 47.

II.b. Lower extremity of right femur.

II.c. Lower extremity of right femur, with the epiphysis separated, showing its correspondence in age with the animals to which the fossil jaws belonged.

II.d. 5th Lumbar vertebra, Figure 8 Plate 47.

II.e. 10th or 11th Caudal vertebra. The proportion of this bone indicates that these great kangaroos had a relatively stouter and perhaps shorter tail than the existing species.

Macropus sp. indeterminate. Agrees in size with Macropus major, but there is a difference in the form of the sacrum: the second vertebra of which is more compressed—to this species which cannot be determined till the teeth be found, I refer the specimens marked:

III. Sacrum.

III.a. Proximal end of left femur.

III.b. Proximal end of left tibia, in which the anterior spine sinks more gradually into the shaft than in Macropus major. As this is the only species with the skeleton of which I have been enabled to compare the preceding fragments, I am not able to pronounce as to their specific distinctness from other existing species of equal size with the Macropus major.

Macropus sp. indeterminate. From want of skeletons of existing species of kangaroo, I must also leave doubtful the specific determination of a species smaller than Macropus major, represented by the left ramus of the lower jaw (IV) in which the permanent false molar is in place together with four true molars, and which would therefore be a species of Halmaturus of Fred. Cuvier.

Macropus.

(V.) Part of the left ramus of the lower jaw, with two grinders in place, and a third which has not quite cut through the jaw.

(V.a.) Sixth and seventh grinders according to the order of their development, right side, upper jaw, of a kangaroo not quite so large as Macropus major.

Several other bones and portions of bone are referable to the genus Macropus, but they do not afford information of sufficient interest or importance to be specially noticed.

GENUS HYPSIPRYMNUS.

Hypsiprymnus, sp. indeterminate.

(VI.) Figures 1 and 2 Plate 48. A portion of the upper jaw and palate with the deciduous false molar and four true molars in place on each side; the fifth or posterior molar is concealed in the alveolus, as also the crown of the permanent false molar.

Hypsiprymnus.

(VI.a.) Figure 3 Plate 48. Part of the right ramus of the lower jaw, exhibiting a corresponding stage of dentition.

Observation. This species is rather larger than any of the three species with the crania of which I have had the opportunity of comparing them: there is no evidence that it agrees with any existing species.

GENUS PHALANGISTA.

(VII.) Cranium, coated with stalactite.

(VII.a.) Part of right ramus, with spurious and 2nd molar.

(VII.b.) Right ramus, lower jaw.

Observation. The two latter specimens disagree with Phalangista vulpina in having the spurious molar of relatively smaller size, and the 2nd molar narrower: the symphysis of the lower jaw is also one line deeper in the fossil. As the two latter specimens agree in size with the cranium, they probably are all parts of the same species, of which there is no proof that it corresponds with any existing species. But a comparison of the fossils with the bones of these species (which are much wanted in our osteological collections) is obviously necessary to establish the important fact of the specific difference or otherwise of the extinct Phalanger.

GENUS PHASCOLOMYS.

Sp. Phascolomys mitchellii, a new species.

(VIII.) Figure 4 Plate 48. Mutilated cranium.

(VIII.a.) Figure 5 Plate 48. Part of lower jaw belonging to the above.

(VIII.b.) Figure 6 Plate 48. Right series of molar teeth in situ.

(VIII.c.) Right ramus of the lower jaw.

Observation. These remains come nearer to the existing species than do those of any of the preceding genera; but after a minute comparison I find that there is a slight difference in the form of the grinders which, in the fossil, have the antero-posterior diameter greater in proportion than the transverse; the first grinder also is relatively larger, and of a more prismatic form; the upper incisors are less compressed and more prismatic; this difference is so well marked that, once appreciated, anyone might recognise the fossil by an incisor alone. There is a similar difference in the shape of the lower incisor. The fossil is also a little larger than the largest wombat's cranium in the Hunterian Collection. From these differences I feel no hesitation in considering the species to which these fossils belong as distinct; and propose to call it Phascolomys mitchellii.

NEW GENUS DIPROTODON.

I apply this name to the genus of Mammalia represented by the anterior extremity of the right ramus, lower jaw, with a single large procumbent incisor.

(IX.) Figure 1 Plate 49. This is the specimen conjectured to have belonged to the Dugong, but the incisor resembles the corresponding tooth of the wombat in its enamelled structure and position. See Figure 2 Plate 49 and a section of the wombat's teeth in Figure 7 Plate 48. But it differs in the quadrilateral figure of its transverse section, in which it corresponds with the inferior incisors of the hippopotamus.

To this, or to some distinct species, of equal size, have belonged the fragments of bones of extremities marked X., X.a., X.b.

GENUS DASYURUS.

Dasyurus laniarius, O. A new species. I apply this name to the species to which the following remains belong.

(XI.) Figures 3 and 4 Plate 49. Portions of the left side of the upper jaw.

(XI.a.) Figure 5 Plate 49. Portions of the left side of the upper jaw.

(XI.b.) Figure 6. Left ramus lower jaw, with last grinders.

(XI.c.) Figure 7. Anterior part of the right ramus of lower jaw.

This species closely resembles Dasyurus ursinus, but differs in being one-third larger, and in having the canines, or laniaries, of proportionately larger size.

The position of the teeth in the specimen marked XI.c. Figure 7, which are wider apart; leads me to doubt whether it is the lower jaw of Dasyurus laniarius, or of some extinct marsupial carnivore of an allied but distinct species.

GENERAL RESULTS OF PROFESSOR OWEN'S RESEARCHES.

The general results of the above examination are:

1. That the fossils are not referable to any known extra-Australian genus of mammals.

2. That the fossils are not referable, from the present evidence, to any existing species of Australian mammal.

3. That the greater number certainly belong to species either extinct or not yet discovered living in Australia.

4. That the extinct species of Macropus, Dasyurus, Phascolomys, especially Macropus atlas and Macropus titan are larger than the largest known existing species.

5. That the remains of the saltatory animals, as the Macropi, Halmaturi, and Hypsiprymni, are all of young individuals; while those of the burrowing Wombat, the climbing Phalanger, and the ambulatory Dasyure, are of adults.

I remain, dear Sir, etc.

(Signed) Richard Owen.

AGE OF THE BRECCIA CONSIDERED.

Nothing could be discovered in the present state of these caverns at all likely to throw any light on the history or age of the breccia, but the phenomena they present seem to indicate more than one change in the physical outline of the adjacent regions, and probably of more distant portions of Australia; at a period antecedent to the existing state of the country.

STATE OF THE CAVERNS.

Dry earth occurred in the floor of both the caverns at Wellington Valley and in the small chamber (Plate 28) of the breccia cave it was found, as before stated, beneath the three lines of stalagmite and the osseous breccia. It seems probable therefore that this earth once filled the cave also to the same line, and that the stalagmite then extended over the floor of red earth. Moreover I am of opinion that the interval between the stalagmite and the roof was partly occupied by the bone breccia of which portions remain attached to the roof and sides above the line of stalagmite. It is difficult to conceive how the mass of red earth and stalagmitic floors could be displaced, except by a subsidence in the original floor of the cave. But the present floor contains no vestiges of breccia fallen from the roof, nor any remains of the stalagmitic crust once adhering to the sides, which are both therefore probably deposited below the present floor.

In the external or upper part of the same cave, as shown in Plate 45, the floor consisted of the red dust, and was covered with loose fragments of rock, apparently fallen from conglomerated masses of limestone and breccia which also however extended under the red earth there. Thus it would appear that traces remain in these caverns: First, of an aqueous deposit in the red earth found below the stalagmite in one cavern, and beneath breccia in the other. Secondly, of a long dry period, as appears in the thick crust of stalagmite covering the lowest deposit in the largest cavern, and during which some cavities were filled with breccia, even with the external surface. Thirdly, of a subsidence in the breccia and associated rocks and, lastly, of a deposit of red earth similar to the first.

TRACES OF INUNDATION.

The present floor in both caves bears all the evidence of a deposition from water which probably filled the interior of the cavern to an unknown height. It is clear that sediment deposited in this manner would, when the waters were drawn off, be left in the state of fine mud, and would become, on drying, a more or less friable earth.

STALAGMITIC CRUST.

Any water charged with carbonate of lime which might have been subsequently introduced would have deposited the calcareous matter in stalactites or stalagmites; but the general absence of these is accounted for in the dryness of the caves. This sedimentary floor contained few or no bones except such as had previously belonged to the breccia, as was evident from the minuter cavities having been still filled with that substance.

I do not pretend to account for the phenomena presented by the caverns, yet it is evident, from the sediments of mud forming the extensive margins of the Darling, that at one period the waters of that spacious basin were of much greater volume than at present, and it is more than probable that the caves of Wellington Valley were twice immersed under temporary inundations. I may therefore be permitted to suggest, from the evidence I am about to detail of changes of level on the coast, that the plains of the interior were formerly arms of the sea; and that inundations of greater height have twice penetrated into, or filled with water, the subterraneous cavities, and probably on their recession from higher parts of the land, parts of the surface have been altered and some additional channels of fluviatile drainage hollowed out. The accumulation of animal remains very much broken and filling up hollow parts of the surface show at least that this surface has been modified since it was first inhabited; and these operations appear to have taken place subsequently to the extinction, in that part of Australia, of the species whose remains are found in the breccia; and previously to the existence, in at least the same districts, of the present species.

STATE OF THE BONES.

No entire skeleton has been discovered, and very rarely were any two bones of the same animal found together. On the contrary even the corresponding fragments of a bone were frequently detected some yards apart (as for instance those in Figures 2 and 1 Plate 49).

PUTREFACTION HAD ONLY COMMENCED WHEN FIRST DEPOSITED.

On the other hand it would appear from the position of the teeth in one skull (Figure 4 Plate 48) that they were only falling out from putrefaction at the time the skull was finally deposited in the breccia, and from the nearly natural position of the smaller bones in the foot of a dasyurus (Figure 2 Plate 51) it can scarcely be doubted that this part of the skeleton was imbedded in the cement when the ligaments still bound the bones together. The united radius and ulna of a kangaroo (Figure 1 Plate 51) are additional evidence of the same kind; and yet if the bones have been so separated and dispersed and broken into minute fragments, as they now appear in this breccia, while they were still bound together by ligaments, it is difficult to imagine how that could take place under any natural process with which we are acquainted.

ACCOMPANYING MARKS OF DISRUPTION. EARTHY DEPOSITS.

It may however be observed that the breccia is never found below ground without unequivocal proofs in the rocks accompanying it of disruption and subsidence, and that the best specimens of single bones have been found wedged between huge rocks, where the breccia occurs like mortar between them, in situations eight or ten fathoms underground.

THESE PHENOMENA COMPARED WITH OTHER EVIDENCE OF INUNDATION.

That changes have taken place in the relative level of land and sea is evident from the channel of the Glenelg which is worn in the rock to a depth of five fathoms below the sea level. The sea must have either risen, or the earth must have subsided, since that channel was worn by any current of water for it is now as still as a canal, the tide making a difference of only a few inches.

The features on the shores of Port Jackson extend underwater, preserving the same forms as they have above it; while the bays and coves now subject only to the ebb and flow of a tide present extensive ramifications, and can only be considered the submerged valleys of a surface originally scooped out by erosion at a period when the land stood higher above the sea.

SALT LAKES IN THE INTERIOR.

The hills on the margins of the Australian salt lakes are always on the north-east side, or opposite that of the prevailing south-west winds. The formation of these hills is probably due to the action of the wind, the growth and decomposition of small shells, the carbonate of lime disengaged by evaporation, and the concretion of calcareous matter and friable tuff so common in these ridges.

In two of the most remarkable, Mitre Lake and Greenhill Lake, a portion of the basin of each, between the hilly curves and the water, was filled by a dark-coloured perfectly level deposit, apparently of vegetable mould. This being of a quality different from that of the hills, it would appear that any process by which these heights may have originated through the agency of the water adjacent and the wind could not continue after this different formation had accumulated between them. Accordingly where this dark-coloured deposit is most extensive the curved hill concentric with the outer margin seems less perfect; but whether worn by time or sweeping inundations I cannot pretend to say.

That some affinity exists between such accumulations and the salt water in the lakes is the more probable from the present state of those of Cockajemmy, which occur in the bed of a former current, and between the rocky sides of a kind of ravine. Even in such a situation a mound of very firm ground has been formed on the eastern bank of each, and was found very convenient for the passage of the ravine by the carts of the party. (See above.)

In those hills beside salt lakes on the plains a tendency to regular curvature was the chief feature: the relative situation with respect to the water and the wind was always the same; while in some cases, where grassy flats had once been lakes, crescent-shaped green mounds were still apparent on the north-eastern sides of each. If these remains of salt water are of less volume than they have been formerly, as may be presumed from these circumstances; and if the waters according to Professor Faraday's analysis "are solutions of common salt and, except in strength, very much resemble those of the ocean,"* we cannot have much difficulty in believing that the sea deposited the water in these situations at no very remote period.

As a dark-coloured soil is also found in the ridges about some of these lakes we must look deeper for the original cause of such depressions in those extensive plains; and may attribute them either to cavities or protuberances in the lower rocks, which may not have been sufficiently filled or covered by the superincumbent deposits: or they may be due to partial subsidences in a thin stratum of limestone.

CHANGES ON THE SEACOAST. PROOFS THAT THE COAST WAS ONCE HIGHER ABOVE THE SEA THAN IT IS AT PRESENT. PROOFS THAT IT WAS ONCE LOWER. AND OF VIOLENT ACTION OF THE SEA.

The sea, probably when higher relatively to the land than it is at present, appears to have acted with some violence in isolating various points along the eastern coast; most of which we now find curiously analogous, in their situation on the southern sides of inlets, and in being now united to the mainland by mounds of sand.

AT WOLLONGONG.

The point of Wollongong was formerly an island and is now only connected by drifted sandhills with the site of the township.

CAPE SOLANDER.

Cape Solander, the south head of Botany Bay, on which Captain Cook first landed, was evidently once an island though at present connected with the mainland by the neck of sand which separates Botany Bay from Port Hacking.

PORT JACKSON.

The south head of Port Jackson has also been isolated but is again connected with the shore of Bellevue between Bondi Bay and Rose Bay, by drifted hills of sand. The north head appears to have been likewise isolated.

BROKEN BAY.

Barrenjoey, the south head of Broken Bay, is connected only by a low beach of sand.

NEWCASTLE.

The Beacon head of Newcastle was once an island; and the drifted sand forming the hills on which the town is built has since been thrown up by the sea.

TUGGERAH BEACH.

Brisbane Water, Tuggerah beach, and Lake Macquarie are also striking proofs of change of the same character as those at Port Jackson, especially as they occur in a country possessing no inland lakes, and along a coastline which is very even and straight in other respects.

BASS STRAIT.

The line of rocky islets extending across Bass Strait seems to be the remains of land once continuous between the two shores, probably when the current was still active in the channel of the Glenelg, and before the sea had penetrated far within the heads of Port Jackson.

Thus it would appear that the Australian continent bears marks of various changes in the relative height of the sea; on its shores and in the interior; and that the waters have been at some periods much higher and at another period lower with respect to the land than they are at present.

...

(APPENDIX 2.1.

VOCABULARY OF WORDS HAVING THE SAME MEANING IN DIFFERENT PARTS OF AUSTRALIA.

APPENDIX 2.2.

METEOROLOGICAL JOURNAL KEPT DURING THE JOURNEY INTO THE INTERIOR OF NEW SOUTH WALES IN 1836.)

...

APPENDIX 2.3.

EXTRACT FROM THE SYDNEY HERALD OF MAY 21, 1838.

The murder of Mr. Faithful's servants by the blacks having created a more than ordinary sensation among the settlers in the interior, we have obtained the following authentic particulars of that desperate outrage. It appears that on the morning of the 11th ultimo, a party of men in charge of Mr. Faithful's sheep on the route to Port Phillip were preparing to proceed from the Winding Swamp, about 30 miles beyond the Ovens River, on their way to the Goulburn, where it was understood that good sheep stations might be had; and while the bullocks were being yoked the men with the drays heard the shouts of the shepherds crying out for help. These men, who were at a short distance from the encampment collecting the sheep, were presently seen running with great speed towards the dray, pursued by a body of blacks throwing spears after them. Their companions near the encampment, three of whom were armed with guns, immediately ran to their assistance, and if possible to drive off the blacks, who by that time were within 300 or 400 yards of the camp. One of these men, named Bentley, fired his gun in the air, thinking that such a display would intimidate them, but it had no effect. The blacks still came forward, cautiously sheltering themselves behind the trees in their path until, when within near approach of the adverse party, one came forward and was in the act of deliberately poising his spear when Bentley shot him dead and was himself immediately after pierced with three spears. This unfortunate man was last seen desperately fighting with the butt-end of his musket. The combat now became general—spears flew in all directions and several shots were fired without effect, owing to the caution exercised by the blacks of interposing the trees between themselves and the defensive party, but still gradually closing upon the latter. It was now seen that further resistance would be of no avail, and that in flight lay the only chance of safety, as the blacks continued to increase in numbers as they advanced. There was fifteen in all of Mr. Faithful's servants, out of which seven in number were killed by the blacks, and one other so severely wounded that his recovery is considered hopeless. When attempting to make their escape a line was opened by the blacks, consisting of about 150 in number, who thus appeared at the fugitives' right and left as they passed. At about 100 yards distance from the scene of this outrage, another strong party of armed blacks was drawn up, doubtless as a reserve, but they took no part in the contest. There could not, we are assured, have been fewer than 300 fighting men present—not an old man was seen among them. The party in charge of the sheep and cattle had remained at this particular place from the Saturday previous, waiting the arrival of Mr. George Faithful, who was only a day's stage behind, and was then momentarily expected. During their stay every precaution was taken by the overseer and the rest to keep on friendly terms with the natives, who constantly hovered about the encampment in groups of 10 or 20 at a time. So friendly did they appear, that neither the overseer nor any of the men, save Bentley, anticipated any hostile intention; but his suspicion was excited by the fact of no women appearing at any time among the blacks, and by finding, while going his rounds as guard, the night preceding the attack, a large number of spears, at a short distance from the camp, which he concealed. All the sheep, except 130, we understand, have been recovered, and some of the cattle; the remainder, it is expected, may also be recovered when a party sufficiently strong to protect themselves from the blacks can be formed to go in search of them.

...

(APPENDIX 2.4.

AN ACCOUNT OF THE NUMBER OF POUNDS OF WOOL IMPORTED FROM NEW SOUTH WALES AND FROM VAN DIEMEN'S LAND FROM 1820 TO 1837, DISTINGUISHING EACH YEAR.

APPENDIX 2.5.

AN ACCOUNT OF THE NUMBER OF SHIPS, AND THEIR TONNAGE, CLEARED OUT TO NEW SOUTH WALES AND VAN DIEMEN'S LAND FROM 1820 TO 1837, DISTINGUISHING EACH YEAR.

APPENDIX 2.6.

AN ACCOUNT OF THE NUMBER OF SHIPS, AND THEIR TONNAGE, REPORTED INWARDS FROM NEW SOUTH WALES AND VAN DIEMEN'S LAND FROM 1820 TO 1837, DISTINGUISHING EACH YEAR.)