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But there are wider questions than the immediate problems of conduct. A certain type of mind finds it almost impossible not to attempt ethical judgments on the whole universe, not to speculate whether the Cosmos, as we can imagine it from the part of it within the cognisance of man, offers a spectacle of moral or immoral or of non-moral significance. In the old times of Greece and in the modern world many have been devoid of the taste for argument on such subjects. Those who are uninterested in these abstract discussions are rarely in opposition to the mode of faith surrounding them, as to reject the doctrines held by the majority of one's friends and associates implies either a disagreeable disposition or an unusual interest in ultimate problems; they are usually orthodox according to their environment—Stoics, Epicureans, Jews, Episcopalians, Catholics, Quakers, Methodists, Mormons, Mohammedans, Buddhists, or whatever may be the prevailing dogma around them. The attitude of indifference to moral philosophy has practically no relation to what may be considered good or bad moral conduct; those characterised by it live above or below or round about their own moral standards in a fashion as variable as that of moral philosophers. Many of the saints, ancient and modern, have been notorious instances; question them as to their faith or as to the logical foundation of their renunciations and they will tell you in simple honesty or make it plain by their answers that they have no head for logic, that they cannot argue, but only know and feel their position to be true. In addition to the saints, many of the best and most of the pleasant people in the world are of this type.
The type strongly in contrast with the foregoing is found in persons of a more strenuous, perhaps more admirable but less agreeable character. The savour of acerbity may be a natural attribute of the critical character, and it is certainly not lessened where moral philosophy is the subject-matter of the criticism. The continual search after solutions of problems that may be insoluble at least makes the seekers excellent judges of wrong solutions. Like Luther and Loyola and Kant, they may be able to satisfy themselves, or, like Huxley, they may remain in doubt, but in either case they are excellent critics of the solutions of others. They are the firebrands of faith or of negation; they are possessed by an intellectual fury that will not let them cease from propagandising. They must go through the world as missionaries; and the missionary spirit is dual, one side zealous to proclaim the new, the other equally zealous to denounce the old. But theirs is the great work, "to burn old falsehood bare," to tear away the incrustations of time which people have come to accept as the thing itself, and in their track new and lively truth springs up, as fresh green follows the devastations of fire.
To most of us it seems of sufficient importance and of sufficient difficulty to make our decisions in the little eddies of good and evil that form as the world-stream breaks round our individual lives. Huxley strove to interpret the world-stream itself, to translate its movements into the ethical language of man. As knowledge of the forces and movements of the Cosmos has increased so has our general conception been intensified, our conception of it as a wondrous display of power and grandeur and superhuman fixity of order. But are the forces of the Cosmos good or evil? Are we, and the Cosmos of which we are a part, the sport of changeable and capricious deities, the pawns in a game of the gods, as some of the Greeks held; or of a power drunkenly malicious, as Heine once cynically suggested; or a battle-ground for a force of good and a force of evil as in so many Eastern religions? Are we dominated by pure evil, as some dark creeds have held, or by pure good, as the religion of the Western world teaches? And if we are dominated by pure evil, whence come good and the idea of good, or, if by pure good, whence evil and the idea of evil?
Huxley's interest in these great problems appears and reappears throughout his published writings, but his views are most clearly and systematically exposed in his "Romanes" lecture on "Evolution and Ethics" delivered and published at Oxford in 1894, and afterwards republished with a prefatory essay in the last volume of his Collected Essays. Not long before his death, Professor Romanes, who had come to live in Oxford, founded a University lectureship, the purpose of which was that once a year a distinguished man should address the University on a subject neither religious nor political. Mr. Gladstone was the first lecturer, and, at the suggestion of the founder, Huxley was chosen as the second. For years he had been taking a special interest in both religion and politics, and he was not a little embarrassed by the restrictions imposed by the terms of the foundation, for he determined to make ethical science the subject of his address, and
"ethical science is, on all sides, so entangled with religion and politics, that the lecturer who essays to touch the former without coming in contact with either of the latter, needs all the dexterity of an egg-dancer, and may even discover that his sense of clearness and his sense of propriety come into conflict, by no means to the advantage of the former."
As Huxley, on that great occasion, ascended the rostrum in the Sheldonian theatre, very white and frail in his scarlet doctor's robes, there must have been present in his mind memories of the occasion, four-and-thirty years before, when he first addressed an audience in the University of Oxford. Then he was a young man, almost unknown, rising to lead what seemed a forlorn hope for an idea utterly repugnant to most of his hearers. Now, and largely by his own efforts, the idea had become an inseparable part of human thought, and Huxley himself was the guest to whom the whole University was doing honour. Graduates from all parts of England had come to hear what, it was feared, might be his last public speech, and practically every member of the University who could gain admission was present. The press of the world attended to report his words as if they were those of a great political leader, about to decide the fate of nations. Although his voice had lost much of its old sonorous reach, and although the old clear rhythms were occasionally broken by hesitancies, the magic of his personality oriented to him every face.
It is a curious and striking circumstance, a circumstance fully recognised by Huxley himself, that in this exposition of his ethical conception of the Cosmos he reconstructed, on the lines of his evolutionary philosophy one of the oldest and most widespread theories, a theory again and again reached by men of different civilisations and epochs. Manes, the Persian, from whose name the word "Manicheism" has been coined to denote his doctrine, taught in perhaps the most explicit fashion that the Cosmos was the battle-ground of two contending powers,—Ahriman, the principle of evil, and Ormuzd, the principle of good. This doctrine in some form or other is implicit in most of the greater religions, some of which have assumed an ultimate triumph for the principle of good, while others have left the issue doubtful. The Ahriman of Huxley, the principle of evil, is what he termed the cosmic process, that great play of forces, by which, in a ruthless struggle for existence, the fittest (by which is meant the most suited to the surrounding conditions and not necessarily the ethically best) have survived at the expense of the less fit. The Ormuzd, the principle of good, is what Huxley called the Ethical process, the process by which sentient, intelligent, and moral man has striven to replace the "old ape and tiger methods" of the cosmic process, by methods in which justice and mercy, sacrifice and consideration for others have a part.
To explain clearly the distinction he made between the ethical and cosmic processes. Huxley, in the prefatory essay ("Prolegomena") published in the volume with his Romanes lecture, developed the analogy of a cultivated garden reclaimed from surrounding wild nature. He described how the countryside, visible from his windows at Eastbourne, had certainly been in a "state of nature" about two thousand years ago when Caesar had set foot in Britain and had made the Roman camps, the remains of which still mark the chalk downs of England.
"Except, it may be, by raising a few sepulchral mounds, such as those which still, here and there, break the flowing contours of the Downs, man's hands had made no mark upon it; and the thin veil of vegetation which overspread the broad-backed heights and the shelving sides of the coombs was unaffected by his industry. The native grasses and weeds, the scattered patches of gorse, contended with one another for possession of the scanty surface soil; they fought against the droughts of summer, the frosts of winter, and the furious gales, which swept with unbroken force, now from the Atlantic, and now from the North Sea, at all times of the year; they filled up, as they best might, the gaps made in their ranks by all sorts of overground and underground ravagers. One year with another, an average population, the floating balance of the unceasing struggle for existence among the indigenous plants, maintained itself. It is as little to be doubted that an essentially similar state of nature prevailed in this region for many thousand years before the coming of Caesar; and there is no assignable reason for denying that it might continue to exist through an equally prolonged futurity except for the intervention of man."
This present state of nature, he explained, is only a fleeting phase of a process that has gone on for millions of years. Under the thin layer of soil are the chalk cliffs, hundreds of feet thick and witnesses of the entirely different phases of the struggle that went on while the cliffs were being formed at the bottom of the chalk sea, when the vegetation of the nearest land was as different from the existing vegetation as that is different from the trees and flowers of an African forest.
"Before the deposition of the chalk, a vastly longer period elapsed, throughout which it is easy to follow the traces of the same process of ceaseless modification and of the same internecine struggle for existence of living things; and when we can go no further back, it is not because there is any reason to think we have reached the beginning, but because the trail of the most ancient life remains hidden or has become obliterated."
The state of nature, then, is a fleeting and impermanent process.
"That which endures is not one or other association of living forms, but the process of which the Cosmos is the product and of which these are among the transitory expressions. And in the living world, one of the most characteristic features of this cosmic process is the struggle for existence, the competition of each with all, the result of which is the selection, that is to say, the survival of those forms which, on the whole, are best adapted to the conditions which at any period obtain; and which are, therefore, in that respect, and only in that respect, the fittest. The acme reached by the cosmic process in the vegetation of the Downs is seen in the turf with its weeds and gorse. Under the conditions, they have come out of the struggle victorious; and, by surviving, have proved that they are the fittest to survive."
For three or four years, the state of nature in a small portion of the Downs surrounding Huxley's house had been put an end to by the intervention of man.
"The patch was cut off from the rest by a wall; within the area thus protected the native vegetation was, as far as possible, extirpated, while a colony of strange plants was imported and set down in its place. In short, it was made into a garden. This artificially treated area presents an aspect extraordinarily different from that of so much of the land as still remains in the state of nature outside the wall. Trees, shrubs and herbs, many of them appertaining to the state of nature in remote parts of the globe, abound and flourish. Moreover, considerable quantities of vegetables, fruit, and flowers are produced, of kinds which neither now exist nor have ever existed except under conditions such as obtain in the garden and which therefore are as much works of the art of man as the frames and glass-houses in which some of them are raised. That the 'state of art' thus created in the state of nature by man, is sustained by and dependent on him, would at once become apparent if the watchful supervision of the gardener were withdrawn, and the antagonistic influences of the general cosmic process were no longer sedulously warded off, or counteracted."
He proceeds to describe how, under such circumstances, the artificial barriers would decay, and the delicate inhabitants of the garden would perish under the assaults of animal and vegetable foes. External forces would reassert themselves and wild nature would resume its sway. While, in a sense, he had strenuously advocated the unity of all nature, he found in it two rivals: the artificial products of sentient man and the forces and products of wild nature. These two he believed to be in inevitable opposition and to represent the good and the evil forces of the world.
In the dim ages of the past, the forces that have gone to the making of man have been part of the cosmic process. In the endless and wonderful series of kaleidoscopic changes by which, under the operation of natural laws, the body, habits, and the character of man have been elaborated slowly from the natal dust, there is the widest field for the operation of the most acute intelligence to study and trace the stages in the process. But if intellectual delight in studying the process be left out of account, a serious question at once appears. In the higher stages of evolution the cosmic forces, ceasing to act merely on insentient matter, have operated on sentient beings, and in so doing have given rise to the mystery of pain and suffering. When the less fit of chemical combinations or even of the lower forms of life perished in the struggle, we may regard the process with the unemotional eye of pure intelligence. But "pain, the baleful product of evolution, increases in quantity and in intensity with advancing stages of animal organisation, until it attains its highest level in man." And so it comes about that the cosmic process produces evil, sorrow, and suffering. Consideration of the cosmic process leads up against the mystery of evil.
Huxley argued that the various philosophies and civilisations of the past had led by different paths to a similar conclusion. The primitive ethical codes of man were not unlike the compacts of a wolf-pack, the understanding to refrain from mutual attack during the chase of a common prey. Conceptions of this kind became arranged in codes and invested with supernatural sanction. But in Hindustan and Ionia alike, material prosperity, no doubt partly the result of the accepted codes, produced culture of the intellect and culture of the pleasures. With these came the "beneficent demon, doubt, whose name is legion and who dwells amongst the tombs of old faiths." The doubting intellect, acting on the codes, produced the conception of justice-in-itself, of merit as divorced from the effect of action on others, the abstract idea of goodness.
The old philosopher, turning from this new conception to the Cosmos, found that incompatible with goodness. Suffering and sorrow, sunshine and rain, were distributed independently of merit. With Greek and Semite and Indian the conscience of man revolted against the moral indifference of nature. Instead of bringing in a verdict of guilty, they attempted reconciliation in various ways. Indian speculation invented or elaborated the theory of transmigration, in which the Karma or soul-character passed from individual to individual, the algebraic sums of happiness in the whole chain being proportional to merit. The Stoics were metaphysicians and imagined an immanent, omnipotent, and infinitely beneficent First Cause. Evil was incompatible with this, and so they held, against experience, that either it did not exist, or that it was inflicted for our benefit or due to our fault. In one fashion or another, all the great systems of thought had recognised the antagonism and had attempted some explanation of it. Huxley's view was that the modern world with its new philosophy was only retreading the toil-worn paths of the old. Scientific optimism was being replaced by a frank pessimism. Cosmic evolution might be accountable for both good and evil, but knowledge of it provided no better reason for choice of the good than did earlier speculation. The cosmic process was not only non-moral but immoral; goodness did not lead to success in it, and laws and moral precepts could only be addressed to the curbing of it.
In a sense these conclusions of Huxley seemed to lead to absolute pessimism, but he offered some mitigating considerations. Society remains subject to the cosmic process, but the less as civilisation advances and ethical man is the more ready to combat it. The history of civilisation shows that we have some hope of this, for "when physiology, psychology, ethics, and political science, now befogged by crude anticipations and futile analogies, have emerged from their childhood, they may work as much change on human affairs as the earlier-ripened physical sciences wrought on material progress." And so, remembering that the evil cosmic nature in us has the foothold of millions of years, and never hoping to abandon sorrow and pain, we may yet, in the manhood of our race, accept our destiny, and, with clear and steady eyes, address ourselves to the task of living, that we and others may live better.
These gloomy views come from Huxley with such weight and authority that even in a sketch of his life and opinions it may be noticed that they do not seem necessary deductions from the evolutionary conception of the world. The first count adduced against the cosmic process is its connection with suffering. It may be doubted, so far as the animal world is concerned, if Huxley has not exaggerated the gravity of this. The two greatest contributors to the modern conception of evolution are not in agreement with him. Alfred Russel Wallace wrote:
"On the whole, then, we conclude that the popular idea of the struggle for existence entailing misery and pain on the animal world is the very reverse of the truth. What it really brings about is the maximum of life and of the enjoyment of life with the minimum of suffering and pain. Given the necessity of death and reproduction—and without those there could have been no progressive development of the animal world—and it is difficult even to imagine a system by which a greater balance of happiness could have been secured."
This view was evidently that also of Darwin himself, who thus concluded his chapter on the struggle for existence: "When we reflect on this struggle, we may console ourselves with the full belief that the war of nature is not incessant, that no fear is felt, that death is generally prompt, and that the vigorous, the healthy, and the happy survive and multiply." As for man himself, though it be true that in him the consummation of pain is reached, still this is no isolated fact of far-reaching ethical importance. It is in direct dependence on the increased physical and mental development of man, and these are equally necessary for and equally susceptible to increased pleasure and increased happiness. It is not necessary to regard the cosmic process as evil. Even when man, in various ages, had elaborated the conception of abstract goodness, and had endeavoured to make his justice a doling out of reward and punishment according to merit, it was not inevitable to bring in a verdict of guilty against the Cosmos. It is quite true that, in all the ages, man has seen the sun shine on the unjust as on the just. But it is an easy reflection that the world could not turn round on individual merit, and if few are so guilty as to deserve the agonies of grief that may come to all, still fewer deserve some of the simpler and more common joys of life. The conception that was implicit in the disciplines of the older philosophies is still open to the philosophy of evolution. Behind it, as behind the "self-hypnotised catalepsy of the devotee of Brahma," the Buddhist aspirations to Nirvana, the apatheia of the Stoics, there may lie a recognition of the worthlessness of the individual: an equable acceptation of one's self as part of a process: a triumph of intelligence over selfishness. Finally, behind the sharp division made between man and the Cosmos, there still lurks one of the oldest and most enduring fallacies of the world, a fallacy that Huxley himself spent a great part of his intellectual life in discovering and routing. The fallacy is the conception of the Cosmos as something separate and apart from man, as something through which he, however briefly, passes. Thus Omar sang:
"Myself, when young, did eagerly frequent Doctor and saint, and heard great argument About it and about: but evermore Came out by the same door where in I went.
"With them the seed of wisdom did I sow, And with mine own hand wrought to make it grow; And this was all the Harvest that I reaped— 'I came like Water, and like Wind I go.'
"Into this Universe, and Why not knowing Nor Whence, like water willy-nilly flowing; And out of it, like Wind along the Waste I know not Whither, willy-nilly blowing."
But, the more profoundly does the conception of evolution lay hold of human thought, the more inevitable it becomes to recognise that man and all that is best in man—his aspirations, ideas, virtues, and practical and abstract justice and goodness—are just as much the product of the cosmic process and part of the Cosmos as the most sinister results of the struggle for existence.
CHAPTER XVII
CLOSING DAYS AND SUMMARY
Huxley's Life in London—Decennial Periods—Ill-health—Retirement to Eastbourne—Death—Personal Appearance—Methods of Work—Personal Characteristics—An Inspirer of Others—His Influence in Science—A Naturalist by Vocation—His Aspirations.
Huxley's life followed the quiet and even tenor of that of a professional man of science and letters. The great adventure in it was his youthful voyage on the Rattlesnake. That over, and his choice made in favour of science as against medicine, he settled down in London. He married happily and shared in the common joys and sorrows of domestic life. Advancement came to him steadily, and, although he was never rich, after the first few years of life in London, his income was always adequate to his moderate needs. For the greater part of his working life, he lived actually in London, in the ordinary style and with the ordinary social enjoyments of a professional man. His duties in connection with the Royal College of Science and with the Geological Survey were not arduous but constant; his time was fully occupied with these, with his scientific and literary work, with the business of scientific societies, with the occasional obligations of royal commissions, public boards, and lecturing engagements. The quiet routine of his life was diversified by many visits to provincial towns to deliver lectures or addresses, by meetings of the British Association, by holidays in Switzerland, during which, with Tyndall, he made special studies of the phenomena of glaciation, and in the usual Continental resorts, and by several trips to America.
In a rough-and-ready fashion, Huxley's active life may be broken into a set of decennial periods, each with tolerably distinctive characters. The first period, roughly from 1850 to 1860, was almost purely scientific. It was occupied by his voyage, by his transition to science as a career, his researches into the invertebrate forms of life, the beginning of his palaeontological investigations, and a comparatively small amount of lecturing and literary work. The second decennium still found him employed chiefly in research, vertebrate and extinct forms absorbing most of his attention. He was occupied actively with teaching, but the dominant feature of the decennium was his assumption of the Darwinian doctrines. In connection with these latter, his literary and lecturing work increased greatly, and the side issues of what was, in itself, purely a scientific controversy began to lead him into metaphysical and religious studies. The third period, from 1870 to 1880, was considerably different in character. He had become the most prominent man in biological science in England, at a time when biological science was attracting a quite unusual amount of scientific and public attention. Public honours and public duties, some of them scientific, others general, began to crowd upon him, and the time at his disposal for the quiet labours of investigation became rapidly more limited within this period. He was secretary of the Royal Society, a member of the London School Board, president of the British Association, Lord Rector at several universities, member of many royal commissions, government inspector of fisheries, president of the Geological Society. In this multitude of duties it was natural that the bulk of strictly scientific output was limited, but, on the other hand, his literary output was much larger. Between 1880 and 1890 he had reached the full maturity of a splendid reputation, and honours and duties pressed thick upon him. For part of the time he was president of the Royal Society, the most distinguished position to which a scientific man in England can attain, and he was held by the general public at least in as high esteem as by his scientific contemporaries. A small amount of original scientific work still appeared from his pen, but he was occupied chiefly with more general contributions to thought.
Throughout his life, Huxley had never been robust. From his youth upwards he had been troubled by dyspepsia with its usual accompaniment of occasional fits of severe mental and physical depression. In 1872 he was compelled to take a long holiday in Egypt, and, although he returned to resume full labour, it is doubtful if from that time onwards he recovered even the strength normal to him. In 1885, his ill-health became grave; in the following years he had two attacks of pleurisy, and symptoms of cardiac mischief became pressing. He gradually withdrew from his official posts, and, in 1890, retired to Eastbourne, where he had built himself a house on the Downs. The more healthy conditions and the comparative leisure he permitted himself had a good effect, and he was able to write some of his most brilliant essays and to make a few public appearances: at Oxford in 1893, when he delivered the Romanes lecture; at the meeting of the British Association in 1894, when he spoke on the vote of thanks to the President, the Marquis of Salisbury; at the Royal Society in the same year when he received the recently established "Darwin Medal." Early in the spring of 1895, he had a prostrating attack of influenza, and from that time until his death on June 29, 1895, he was an invalid. He was buried in the Marylebone cemetery at Finchley, to the north of London.
Huxley was of middle stature and rather slender build. His face, as Professor Ray Lankester described it, was "grave, black-browed, and fiercely earnest." His hair, plentiful and worn rather long, was black until in old age it became silvery white. He wore short side whiskers, but shaved the rest of his face, leaving fully exposed an obstinate chin, and mobile lips, grim and resolute in repose, but capable of relaxation into a smile of almost feminine charm.
He was a very hard worker and took little exercise. Professor Howes describes a typical day as occupied by lecture and laboratory work at the College of Science until his hurried luncheon; then a cab-drive to the Home Office for his work as Inspector of Fisheries; then a cab home for an hour's work before dinner, and the evening after dinner spent in literary work or scientific reading. While at work, his whole attention was engrossed, and he disliked being disturbed. This abstraction of his attention is illustrated humorously by a story told by one of his demonstrators. Huxley was engaged in the investigations required for his book on the Crayfish, and his demonstrator came in to ask a question about a codfish. "Codfish?" said Huxley; "that's a vertebrate, isn't it? Ask me in a fortnight and I'll consider it." While at work he smoked almost continuously, and from time to time he took a little relaxation, for the strains of a fiddle were occasionally heard from his room. Indeed he was devoted to music, regarding it as one of the highest of the aesthetic pleasures. He tells us himself:
"When I was a boy, I was very fond of music, and I am so now; and it so happened that I had the opportunity of hearing much good music. Among other things, I had abundant opportunities of hearing that great old master, Sebastian Bach. I remember perfectly well—although I knew nothing about music then, and, I may add, know nothing whatever about it now—the intense satisfaction and delight which I had in listening, by the hour together, to Bach's fugues. It is a pleasure which remains with me, I am glad to think; but, of late years, I have tried to find out the why and wherefore, and it has often occurred to me that the pleasure derived from musical compositions of this kind is essentially of the same nature as that which is derived from pursuits which are commonly regarded as purely intellectual. I mean, that the source of pleasure is exactly the same as in most of my problems in morphology—that you have the theme in one of the old masters' works followed out in all its endless variations, always appearing and always reminding you of unity in variety."
He had a hot temper, and did not readily brook opposition, especially when that seemed to him to be the result of stupidity or of prejudice rather than of reason, and his own reason was of a very clear, decided, and exact order. He had little sympathy with vacillation of any kind, whether it arose from mere infirmity of purpose or from the temperament which delights in balancing opposing considerations. He said on one occasion:
"A great lawyer-statesman and philosopher of a former age—I mean Francis Bacon—said that truth came out of error much more rapidly than out of confusion. There is a wonderful truth in that saying. Next to being right in this world, the best of all things is to be clearly and definitely wrong, because you will come out somewhere. If you go buzzing about between right and wrong, vibrating and fluctuating, you come out nowhere; but if you are absolutely and thoroughly and persistently wrong, you must, some of these days, have the extreme good fortune of knocking your head against a fact, and that sets you all straight again. So I will not trouble myself as to whether I may be right or wrong in what I am about to say, but at any rate I hope to be clear and definite; and then you will be able to judge for yourselves whether, in following out the train of thought I have to introduce, you knock your heads against facts or not."
The particular suggestions to which these remarks were the characteristic introduction related to definite problems of education, that is to say, to questions upon which some action was urgent. It was in all cases of life, in science or affairs, that Huxley was resolute for clear ideas and definite courses of conduct. As a matter of fact, no one ever took greater care to satisfy himself as best he could as to what was right and what was wrong; but where action rather than reflection was needed, then his principle was to act, and to know definitely and clearly why you acted and for what you acted. In matters of opinion, on the other hand, he was all for not coming to a definite opinion when the facts obtainable did not justify such an opinion. In thought, agnosticism, the refusal to accept any ideas or principles except on sufficient evidence; in action, positivism, to act promptly in definite and known directions for definite and known objects: these were his principles.
Another aspect of the same trait of character, he shewed in an address to medical students at a distribution of prizes. After congratulating the victors he confessed to "an undercurrent of sympathy for those who have not been successful, for those valiant knights who have been overthrown in their tourney, and have not made their appearance in public." After recounting an early failure of his own, he proceeded:
"I said to myself, 'Never mind; what's the next thing to be done?' And I found that policy of 'never minding' and going on to the next thing to be done, to be the most important of all policies in the conduct of practical life. It does not matter how many tumbles you have in this life, so long as you do not get dirty when you tumble; it is only the people who have to stop to be washed and made clean, who must necessarily lose the race. You learn that which is of inestimable importance—that there are a great many people in the world who are just as clever as you are. You learn to put your trust, by and by, in an economy and frugality of the exercise of your powers both moral and intellectual; and you very soon find out, if you have not found it out before, that patience and tenacity of purpose are worth more than twice their weight of cleverness."
All Huxley's work was marked by a quality which may be called conscientiousness or thoroughness. Looking through his memoirs, written many years ago, the subjects of which have since been handled and rehandled by other writers with new knowledge and with new methods at their disposal, one is struck that all the observations he made have stood their ground. With new facts new generalisations have often been reached, and some of the positions occupied by Huxley have been turned. But what he saw and described had not to be redescribed; the citations he made from the older authorities were always so chosen as to contain the exact gist of the writers. These qualities, admirable in scientific work, became at once admirable and terrible in his controversial writings. His own exactness made him ruthless in exposing any inexactness in his adversaries, and there were few disputants who left an argument with Huxley in an undamaged condition. The consciousness which he had of his own careful methods, added to a natural pugnacity, gave him an intellectual courage of a very high order. As he knew himself to have made sure of his premisses, he did not care whither his conclusions might lead him, against whatsoever established doctrine or accepted axiom.
There was, however, a strong spice of natural combativeness in his nature, the direct result of his native and highly trained critical faculty. He tells us that in the pre-Darwinian days he was accustomed to defend the fixity of species in the company of evolutionists and in the presence of the orthodox to attack the same doctrine. Later in life, when evolution had become fashionable, and the principles of Darwinism were being elevated into a new dogmatism, he was as ready to criticise the loose adherents of his own views as he had been to expose the weakness of the conventional dogmatists.
Perhaps the most striking feature of Huxley's work as a whole was its infectious nature. His vigorous and decided personality was reflected on all the subjects to which he gave attention, and in the same fashion as his presence infected persons with a personal enthusiasm so his writings stimulated readers to efforts along the same lines. His great influence is clear in the number and distinction of the biologists who came under his personal care, and in the great army of writers and thinkers who have been inspired by his views and methods on general questions. His position as an actual contributor to science has to a certain extent been lost sight of for two reasons. In the first place, his effect on the world as an expositor of the scientific method in its general application to life has overshadowed his exact work; in the second place, his exact work itself has been partly lost sight of in the new discoveries and advances to which it gave rise. It is therefore necessary to reiterate that, apart from all his other successes, he had made for himself an extremely distinguished position in the annals of exact science. Sir Michael Foster and Prof. Ray Lankester, in their preface to the collected edition of his scientific memoirs, make a just claim for him. These memoirs, they wrote, show that, "apart from the influence exerted by his popular writings, the progress of biology during the present century was largely due to labours of his of which the general public knew nothing, and that he was in some respects the most original and most fertile in discovery of all his fellow workers in the same branch of science."
There can be little question that it was no accident that determined the direction of Huxley's career. He was a naturalist by inborn vocation. The contrast between a natural bent and an acquired habit of life was well seen in the case of Huxley and Macgillivray, his companion on the Rattlesnake. The former was appointed as a surgeon, and it was no part of his duties to busy himself with the creatures of the sea; and yet his observations on them made a series of real contributions to biological science and laid the sure foundation of a world-wide and enduring reputation. The latter was the son of a naturalist, a naturalist by profession, and appointed to the expedition as its official naturalist; and yet he made only a few observations and a limited collection of curiosities, and even his exiguous place in the annals of zooelogy is the accidental result of his companionship with Huxley. The special natural endowments which Huxley brought to the study of zooelogy were, in the first place, a faculty for the patient and assiduous observation of facts; in the second, a swift power of discriminating between the essential and the accessory among facts; in the third, the constructive ability to arrange these essentials in wide generalisations which we call laws or principles and which, within the limits necessarily set by inductive principles, are the starting-point for new deductions. These were the faculties which he brought to his science, but there were added to them two personal characteristics without which they would not have taken him far. They were impelled by a driving force which distinguishes the successful man from the muddler and without which the finest mental powers are as useless as a complicated machine disconnected from its driving-wheel. They were directed by a lofty and disinterested enthusiasm, without which the most talented man is a mere self-seeker, useless or dangerous to society. The faculties and qualities which made Huxley great as a zooelogist were practically those which he applied to the general questions of biological theory, to the problems of education and of society, and to philosophy and metaphysics. A comparison between his sane and forcible handling of questions that lay outside the special province to which the greater part of his life was devoted, with the dubious and involved treatment given such questions by the professional politicians to whom the English races tend to entrust their destinies, is a useful comment on that value of science as discipline to which Huxley so strenuously called attention.
There can be no better way of ending this sketch of Huxley's life and work than by quoting his own account of the objects to which he had devoted himself consciously. These were:
"To promote the increase of natural knowledge and to forward the application of scientific methods of investigation to all the problems of life to the best of my ability, in the conviction which has grown with my growth and strengthened with my strength, that there is no alleviation for the sufferings of mankind except veracity of thought and of action, and the resolute facing of the world as it is when the garment of make-believe by which pious hands have hidden its uglier features is stripped off.
"It is with this intent that I have subordinated any reasonable or unreasonable ambition for scientific fame which I may have permitted myself to entertain to other ends; to the popularisation of science; to the development and organisation of scientific education; to the endless series of battles and skirmishes over evolution; and to untiring opposition to that ecclesiastical spirit, that clericalism, which in England, as everywhere else, and to whatever denomination it may belong, is the deadly enemy of science.
"In striving for the attainment of these objects, I have been but one among many, and I shall be well content to be remembered, or even not remembered, as such. Circumstances, among which I am proud to reckon the devoted kindness of many friends, have led to my occupation of various prominent positions, among which the presidency of the Royal Society is the highest. It would be mock modesty on my part, with these and other scientific honours which have been bestowed upon me, to pretend that I have not succeeded in the career which I have followed, rather because I was driven into it than of my own free will; but I am afraid I should not count even these things as marks of success if I could not hope that I had not somewhat helped that movement of opinion which has been called the New Reformation."
INDEX
A
Adams, 209
Admiralty, 14, 48, 49
Agassiz, 68, 91, 99
Age of the earth, 84, 85
Agnosticism, 239, 241-243, 279
Ahriman, 265
Alchemists, 256, 257
Alternation of generations, 53, 54
Ameghino, 141
America, 70
American addresses, 71
American fossils, 75
American monkeys, 163
Amphibia, 143
Amphioxus, 22, 134
Anatomy of man and ape, 161
Anchitherium, 70, 74, 76
Animal kingdom, old views of, 35
Animals and plants, 97
Anthracosaurus, 69
Anthropomorphism, 250
Anthropoid apes, 149-153
"Ape and Tiger" methods, 265
Appendicularia, 56, 57
Apprenticeship in medicine, 183
Archaeopteryx, 136
Archetype of molluscs, 58, 59, 61
Archetype of Vertebrata, Articulata, and Radiata, 62
Arctogoea, 140
Argyll, Duke of, 248
Aristotle, 100, 259
Arnold, Matthew, 185
Articulata of Cuvier, 38
Ascaris, egg of, 176
Ascidians, 55-57, 96
Australia and South America, land connection, 141
Authority, 175, 231, 232, 241
Authority and investigation, 179
Authority and knowledge, 104, 105
Axioms, 240
B
Bach, Sebastian, 278
Balfour, F.M., 135
Barrier Reef of Australia, 20
Basi-cranium of vertebrates, 132
Beagle, voyage of, 28
Beelzebub, 238
Belief, duty of, 238, 239
Belief, nature of scientific, 228
Beneden, van, 59, 176
Berkeley, Bishop, 218, 221, 224
Berkeley, quotation from, 221
Bible, 189, 192, 194, 213, 235, 237, 244, 245, 247, 248, 250, 253, 254, 259
Bible and geology, 80
Bibliolatry, 235, 246
Bimana, 164
Biology and medical education, 184
Birds, ancestry of, 69
Birds, classification of, 135
Birmingham, 185
Bishop, 175
Bishop Berkeley, 218, 221, 224
Bishop of Norwich, 33
Bishop of Oxford, see Wilberforce
Boards for elementary education, 188
Bojanus, 173
Bones of horse, 71, 72
Bones, cartilage, and membrane, 134
Books, value of, 175
Booth, "General," 213
Bourbon, 246
Brahma, 272
Brain of man and apes, 120, 145, 146, 162, 163
Brain and mind, 220, 221
Brain-weights, 164
Breathing, 168
Breeding, selective, 127
Brehm, 153
British Association, 68, 120, 125, 274
Brooks, Professor W.K., 94
Buckland, Professor, 80, 234
Buddhists, 1, 272
Buffon, 15, 90
Burnett, Sir William, 11, 46
Busk, George, 49
C
Cabanis, 228
Caesar, 265
Cana, miracle at, 257
Cape York, 25
Carinates, 137
Carlyle, Thomas, 111
Cartesian axiom, 222
Cartilage bones, 134
Cartilaginous skulls, 134
Catastrophism in geology, 80, 249
Catholicism, 123, 214, 247
Cells, 52, 53
Cephalous molluscs, 58, 59
Chalk, 266
Challenger expedition, 15
Chalmers, Dr. Thomas, 80
Chambers, R., 62
Chamisso, 53, 56
Chance, 229
Change in universe, 249
Charing Cross Hospital, 8, 9
Chaucer, 213
Chemistry and alchemy, 257
Chess, life compared with, 169
Children, education of, 189
Chimpanzees, 149, 163
Chondrocranium, 134
Christianity and evolution, 122
Christian civilisation and authority, 232
Chronology of the Bible, 247
Church of England, 111, 112
Church, the, and science, 236
Classical education, 185, 210
Classification of birds, 135
Classification by Cuvier, 38
Classification by Linnaeus, 38
Classification of mammals, 142
Classification of man, 146
Classification by old authors, 37
Classification of vertebrates, 143
Clergy as critics of science, 236
Clericalism, 239, 284
Clodd, E., 90, 127
Coelenterata, 42, 96
Coelomata, 43, 44
Commissions, royal, 195, 204
Common sense and metaphysics, 218
Common sense and science, 209
Conduct and religion, 261
Congo, 149
Conscience, 269
Conscientiousness, 280
Consciousness, 220, 224
Contemporaneity, geological, 79
Continuity of nature, 255
Cookery in schools, 190
Cope, Professor, 69, 94
Corals of Barrier Reef, 20
"Corybantic Christianity," 215
Cosmic process, 268, 270, 271
Cosmogony of the Hebrews, 244, 246
Cosmos, 229, 263, 265, 267, 272
Cowper-Temple Clause, 188
Crayfish, 158, 173, 277
Creation, 139, 246, 252
Creator, the, 250
Credibility of authority, 232
Criticism, Biblical, 194
Criticism of life, 185
Croonian lectures, 65, 129
Ctenophora, 42
Culture and science, 185, 186
Curriculum of medical education, 184
Cuttle-fish, 58
Cuvier, 6, 38, 115, 132, 133, 136, 209, 211
D
Darwin, Charles, 27-29, 60, 61, 68, chapters viii. and ix., 138, 147, 166, 229, 242
Darwin medal, 108
Darwin, voyage of, 27, 28
Darwin, Erasmus, 90
Darwinism, 103, 104, 106, 123
Darwinism, Huxley's late and early opinions on, 106-109
Darwinism and Lamarckism, 94
"Days" of creation, 251, 252
De la Beche, Sir Henry, 63, 64
Deluge, the, 235
Descartes, 219, 240, 243
Design, argument from, 230
Despotism and the Bible, 245
Devonian fishes, 68
Deuteronomy, 245
Dinosaurs and the ancestry of birds, 69
Diprotodonts, 142
Dissection in laboratories, 181
Divine will and science, 233
Doctrine of the Deluge, 235
Dogma and literature in the Bible, 254
Doliolum, 56
Domestic economy, 190
Doubt, duty of, 232, 239, 269
Drawing for children, 193
Dredging, 22
Drill for children, 189
Durckheim, Strauss, 173
E
Earth, age of, 84, 85
Eastbourne, 277
Ecclesiasticism, 235, 239
Echidna, 156
Economy, domestic, 190
Edinburgh, 174
Edinburgh Review, 115, 116
Education, classical, 185, 210
Education of children, 170
Education, elementary, 187, 188
Education, general, 184
Education, liberal, 169, 186, 210
Education, medical, 181
Education and religion, 188
Education, scientific, 168
Education of teachers, 195
Education, university, 195
Eggs of Mammalia, 156
Egypt, 276
Ejects, 221
Elementary education, 188
Elementary lessons in physiology, 172
Embryology and zooelogy, 177
Embryology of brain and skull, 130-133 Embryology of Mammals, 156, 157
Embryology of man, 159
Embryos, marine, 176
Embryos of vertebrates, 157
Endostyle of Ascidians, 56
England in eighteenth century, 239
English Bible, 245
English men of letters, 218
English philosophers, 218
Eohippus, 78
Erdkunde, 170, 171
Error, 243
Established church and Education, 189
Ether, 219
Ethics and evolution, 263
Ethical process, 265
Eutheria, 142
Evidence, limitations of, 231
Evidence for miraculous, 258
Evil, 268, 269, 271
Evolution, 60, 62, 63, 108, 110, 122, 168, 248
Evolution and Christianity, 122
Evolution of Cosmos, 250-253
Evolution not an explanation of Cosmos, 229
Evolution and Darwinism, 94
Evolution before Darwin, 91, 93, 100
Evolution, Darwin's contribution to, 93, 104
Evolution and ethics, 263
Evolution of horse, 73
Evolution and natural selection, 124-127
Evolution and pain, 268
Evolution, philosophy of, 272
Evolution and palaeontology, 86, 87
Evolution and Theism, 244
Evolutionist, 281
Exposition, Huxley's method of, 208
F
Faith, agnostic, 243
Falkenstein, 153
Fayrer, Sir Joseph, 10, 11
Feet of anthropoids, 164
Fertility of artificial breeds, 127
Fiddle, 278
Fisgard, H.M.S., 46
Fish, fossil, 68
Fisheries, Inspector of, 277
Flower, Sir William, 146
Forbes, Edward, 47, 63
Foreign languages, 196, 213
Forms of Animal Life, 178
Fossils, 67, 68
Fossils, chronological arrangement of, 87
Fossils and evolution, 87
Foundation membranes of Medusae, 40-43
Foster, Sir Michael, 47, 64, 180, 283
Freedom of the Press, 240
Freedom of thought, 231, 233
French, 213
French Revolution, 111
French translations, 216
Fullerian Professor, 64
Function, changes in, 230
G
Galileo, 247
Gallinaceous birds, 139
Gambit, 169
Game of life, 170
Garden, as an instance of interference with cosmic process, 267
Garnier, 151
Gasteropoda, 58
Gegenbauer, 59
Genesis, 234, 248, 250, 251, 252
Geographical distribution, 137-141
Geological addresses, 79, 80
Geological club, 234 Geological contemporaneity, 79
Geological history, 249
Geological Society of London, 70, 78, 80, 86
Geological time, 84, 85
Geology and the Bible, 80
Geology and catastrophism, 80, 81
Geology compared with biology, 82
Geology, history of, 234
German, 213
Gibbons, 149
Girls, education of, 190
Glacial acetic acid, 176
Gladstone, W.E., 248, 250, 251, 263
Goethe, 99, 130, 132
Goethe, quotations from, 130
Gold, transmutation of, 256
Goodness, 269, 273
Gorilla, 87, 149, 161
Gospels, 254
Gosse, P.H., 118
Government, 239
Greek, 213; in education, 186
Greek ethics, 269
Groos, Prof., 154
H
Haeckel, Prof. E., 91, 136
Hands of Anthropoids, 164
Haslar Hospital, 11, 12
Heathorn, Miss H.A., 19
Hebrew Cosmogony, 246
Hebrew Morality, 259
Hebrew Scriptures, 250
Heine, 261
Henle and Meissner, reports of, 182
Hercules, 246
Hertwig, 134
Hindustan, 269
Hipparion, 74-76
Hippocampus minor, 162, 163
Histological methods, 177
Hobbes, 218
Home office, 277
Homo, classification of, 160
Homology in organs of Medusae, 123
Homotaxis in geology, 80
Hooker, Sir Joseph Dalton, 47, 98, 101
Horse, 68-78, 174
Hospitals in London, 181
Howes, Professor G.B., 173, 174, 207, 277
Humboldt, 92
Hume, David, 217, 218, 223, 240, 255, 256
Hume, David, quotations from, 223, 241, 256
Humour, 209
Hunterian Professor, 129
Hutton, James, 81, 249
Huxley, birth, 2; parents, 2, 3; school, 4; apprenticed to medicine, 5; enters Charing Cross Hospital, 8; first original paper, 9; graduates at London University, 10; becomes M.R.C.S., 11; appointed to Haslar Hospital, 11; appointed to Rattlesnake, 12; meets his future wife at Sydney, 19; first paper to Royal Society, 33; Royal medals, 34; becomes F.R.S., 47; leaves naval service, 48; appointed to Geological Survey and School of Mines, 63; becomes Fullerian Professor, 64; marriage, 64; examiner, 65; Croonian lecturer, 66; visits America, 70; becomes Secretary and President of Geological Society, 78; accepts Darwinism, 101; receives Darwin medal, 108; becomes Hunterian Professor,129; starts laboratory courses at South Kensington, 180; becomes candidate for London School Board, 189; serves on Royal Commissions,196, 204; becomes member of Her Majesty's Privy Council, 205; marriage, 274; ill-health and retirement, 276; death, 277; personal appearance, 277
Huxley's layer in root-sheath of hairs, 10
Hydra, 50
Hypothesis as to History of Nature, 248, 249
I
Ichthyopsida, 143
Idealism, 220, 224
Ideals and culture, 186
Indian speculation, 269
Individuality of animals, 49, 50, 51, 52, 55
Infallibility, 123, 236
Inspiration, 246, 247, 253, 254
Instincts, 154
Intellect, 243
Intermediate and linear types, 87
International Scientific Series, 173
Invertebrata, Manual of, 175
Ionia, 169
Israel, 245
J
Jermyn Street lectures to working men, 207
Johnson, Samuel, 219
Judaism and science, 246
Justice, 265, 269, 271, 273
K
Kant, 84, 242, 262
Karma, 269
Kelvin, Lord, 84
Knowledge and authority, 104, 105
Koelliker, 49, 59
Kowalevsky, 57
L
Laboratory work, 177, 179, 180
Labyrinthodonts, 69
Lamarck, 90, 91, 97
Lamarckism and Darwinism, 94, 97
Languages, modern, 6, 7
Lankester, Professor E. Ray, 57, 60, 94, 180, 277, 282
Larvae, 158
Latin, 186, 213
Law-courts and evidence, 231
Lawrence, Sir W., 144
Lectures at the School of Mines, 180
Lemurs, 163
Leutemann, 153
Leverrier, 209
Leviticus, 245
Liberal education, 228
Life, origin of, 227, 228
Limbs of Man and Gorilla, 162
Linear and intermediate types, 87
Linnaean Society of London, 33, 49, 115, 138, 145
Linnaeus, 38, 234
Literary culture, 186
Literary Gazette, 48
Literary style, 211, 212, 213, 214, 215
Literature, the Bible as, 254
Liverpool, 169
Living bodies, nature of, 228
Locke, 224
Lockyer, Sir Norman, 211
London, medical education in, 181
London, school board of, 189
Loyola, 262
Loxomma, 69
Lucas, Mr., 113
Luther, 262
Lyell, Sir Charles, 81, 91, 98, 144, 234, 249
Lyonet, 173
M
MacGillivray, John, 16, 17, 282
MacGillivray, William, 16, 100
Macmillan and Co., 171
Magna Charta, the Bible as, 245
Mammalia, classification of, 142
Man and the Apes, 155
Man, classification of, 146
Man and Gorilla, 161
Man, origin of, 144
Man and the Apes, 165
Man's Place in Nature, 147, 148
Manes and Manicheism, 265
Mantle of molluscs, 58
Manual of the Anatomy of Invertebrated Animals, 175
Manual of the Anatomy of Vertebrated Animals, 175
Marine embryos, 176
Marmosets, 163
Marriage, 19, 274
Marsh, Professor, 70-78
Marsupials, 141
Mason, Sir Josiah, 185
Materialism, 217, 220, 222, 225, 227
Matter and ideas, 224
Matter, nature of, 219-221
Matthew, Patrick, 100
Mauritius, 18
Medical education, 167, 181, 184
Medical students, 181, 279
Medusae, 33, 39, 40, 41, 42, 96, 123
Membrane bones, 134
Mental capacity of apes, 152
Mercy, 265
Mertens, 56
Mesohippus, 77
Metals, transmutation of, 257
Metaphysics, 241
Metaphysics and science, 217
Metatheria, 142
Methods in histology, 177
Microscope, 32, 176
Microtomes, 177
Milton, 213
Mind and body, 220
Mind, growth of, 210
Miohippus, 76
Miracles, 246, 254-259
Missionary spirit, 262
Mitral valve, 175
Mivart, Dr. St. George, 246-248
Modern spirit, 241
Modification of species, 92
Mollusca, 56, 58, 59, 60, 61, 96
Morality and religion, 237, 238
Morality of Stoics, 238
Morley, John, 217, 260
Mosaic Deluge, 235
Moseley, Professor H.N., 15
Mucous layer of germ, 43
Mueller, Johannes, 6, 37, 56
Music, 278
N
Naples, International Zooelogical Station at, 176
Naturalism, 226
Natural selection, 94, 99, 100, 103, 105, 124-127
Nature, continuity of, 255
Nature, history of, 248
Nature, state of, 266
Nature, 211
Naval Architecture and Timber, 100
Nebular hypothesis, 230
Newman, Cardinal, 240
New Testament, 253, 254
Nirvana, 272
Noah's Deluge, 235
Notochord, 134
Notogoea, 140
O
Oken, 130, 132, 133
Old Testament, 90
Omar, 272
Optimism, 270
Orangs, 149
Order of nature, 255, 258
Organic versus Inorganic, 229
Organon, 242
Origin of species, 89, 95, 101, 102, 110
Origin of Species, reviews of, 113, 114, 115, 146
Ormuzd, 265
Ornithology, 136
Ornithorhynchus, 156
Ornithoscelida, 69
Orohippus, 77
Orthodoxy, 246
Owen, Sir Richard, 65, 66, 115, 118-121, 131, 133, 136, 145, 146, 162
Oxford, 120, 125, 263, 264
Oxford, Bishop of, see Wilberforce
P
Pain, 268, 270, 271
Palaeontology and evolution, 68, 86
Palaeotherium, 74
Paley, 230
Pascal, 122
Payment of teachers by results, 195
Pelagic life, 30, 31
Pelvis of man and gorilla, 161
Pentateuch, 234, 244
Pessimism, 270
Phillips, Professor, 69
Philosophic Zooelogique, 97, 98
Philosophy, Huxley's advice on, 218
Phosphorescence, 55
Physical education, 189
Physical geography, 170
Physics of Aristotle, 100
Physiography, 171
Physiology, 172
Pigafetta, 149
Pigmies, 149
Pioneers of Evolution, 127
Plankton, 30, 31
Plato's Archetypes, 59
Plato's philosophy, 224
Pliohippus, 76
"Portuguese man-of-war," 41, 50
Possibilities in logic, 258
Poulton, Professor E.B., 109, 127
Prayer, efficacy of, 258
Priestley, Joseph, 239
Primers of science, 171
Primitive groove, 135
Principles of Geology, 234
Professional education, 183
Protestantism, 123, 233, 235, 236
Protestant churches and knowledge, 247
Protestants and the Bible, 247
Protohippus, 74
Protoplasm, 52, 228
Prototheria, 142
Psychology, 227
Pterodactyls, 69
Pteropods, 56
Pyrosoma, 55
Q
Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science, 49
Quarterly Review, 115, 116, 117
R
Rabbinical maxim of inspiration, 247
Radiata of Cuvier, 38
Rathke, 65
Ratites, 137
Rattlesnake, H.M.S., 13, 20, 21, 46, 282
Reade lecture, 146
Reason, age of, 239
Reformation, New, 284
Reformation, Protestant, 122, 233
Religion in education, 188, 191
Religion and morality, 237, 238
Religion and science, 120, 259
Religion, teaching, 191
Results, payment by, 195
Retina and light, 219
Revelation, 260
Revolution, French, 111
Richardson, Sir John, 12
Rights of man, 245
Robertson, Charles, 179
Rolleston, Professor, 152, 153, 266
Romanes, Professor, 152, 153, 263
Romanes lecture, 263
Rome, 247
Roscoe, Professor, 171
Rosse, Earl of, 34
Royal College of Science, 176, 180, 204, 274, 277
Royal College of Surgeons, 11, 129, 132
Royal Commissions, 204, 274
Royal Institution, 49, 52, 62, 64
Royal Society, 33, 34, 47, 49, 53, 58, 108, 129, 276
Rutherford, Professor, 180
S
Salisbury, Marquis of, 125
"Sally," the chimpanzee, 153
Salps, 50, 53, 54, 55, 96
Salt, Dr., 5
Sauropsida, 143
Saururae, 136
Savages, 23, 24, 165
Sawyer, Bob, 184
Scepticism, 240
Schematic mollusc, 60
School boards, 188, 189
School of Mines, 180
Schwann, 52
Science and Art Department, 195
Science and culture, 185
Science and Judaism, 246
Science and medical education, 184
Science and metaphysics, 217
Science and religion, 259
Science and the Christian Tradition, 248
Science and the Hebrew Tradition, 248
Science primers, 171
Scientific education, 168
Sclater, P.L., 138, 139, 142
Scottish universities, 167
Scriptures, 246
Section-cutting, 177
Secular education, 191, 194
Sedgwick, Professor Adam, 80, 115
Segmentation of eggs, 157
Segmentation of skull, 133
Selection and education, 190
Selective breeding, 103
Semite, ethics of, 269
Septuagint, 251
Serous layer of germ, 43
Sheldonian theatre, 264
Singing for children, 193
Skepsis, thaetige, of Goethe, 99
Skull of vertebrates, 65, 129, 130, 131, 132
Socrates, 243
Southern hemisphere, former land in, 141
Speaking, public, 208
Species, 92, 98, 106, 107, 108, 125, 126, 127
Specialists as teachers, 182
Spencer, Herbert, 91, 94, 123
Sponges, 42
Spontaneity of living matter, 228
Stanley, Captain Owen, 12, 13
State of nature, 266
Stevenson, R.L., quotation from, 174
Stewart, Professor Balfour, 171
Stoic morality, 192, 238
Stoics, 238, 269, 272
Struggle for existence, 93, 94, 95, 104, 266, 267, 271
Style, analysis of, 211, 212
Suarez, Father, 214
Substance of mind and matter, 223
Supernaturalism, 226
Superstition, 242
Survival of the fittest, 93, 94, 104
Suspensoria of jaws, 133
Switzerland, 275
Sydney, 19, 32
Synoptic Gospels, 254
T
Tapirs, 78
Teachers, education of, 195
Teeth of anthropoids, 149
Teeth of the horse, 73
Teleology, 230
Temper, 278
Theism and evolution, 244
Theology, 259
Theology in education, 191
Theoretical work in medical education, 184
Thomas, Oldfield, 142
Thomson, Sir W., now Lord Kelvin, q.v.
Thread-cells of Medusae, 41
Time required for evolution, 84, 85
Times, the London, 66, 108, 113
Todd and Bowman's Cyclopaedia of Anatomy, 49
Toronto, University of, 48
Tow-net material, 31
Transmigration, 269
Transmutation of species, 99
Treatise on Human Nature, 240
Tree of evolution, 35
Tyndall, Professor John, 47, 48, 275
Types, 36, 96, 166
Types for laboratory dissection, 178, 180, 181
Types, intermediate and linear, 165
U
Uniformitarianism in geology, 81, 240
University education, 195
University of London, 65
University of Toronto, 48
V
Variation in anatomy, 166
Verification, method of, 179
Vertebrae, structure of, 131
Vertebral theory of the skull, 129-132
Vertebrata, 128
Vertebrata, ancestors of, 57
Vertebrata, classification of, 43
Vertebrata, embryos of, 157
Vestiges of Creation, 63, 97
Vivisection, 205
Voltaire, 260
Von Baer, 37, 43, 62, 96
Voyage of Beagle, 28
Voyage of Challenger, 15
Voyage of Rattlesnake, 20, 21
W
Wallace, Alfred Russel, 95, 101, 271
Weight of brains, 164
Weismann, Professor A., 94
Wells, W.C., 100
Westminster Review, 107, 114
Wharton Jones, Dr., 9, 37
Whewell, 115
Wilberforce, Samuel, Bishop of Oxford, 115, 116, 117, 118, 120, 121
Willey, Arthur, 57
Wine miracle at Cana, 257
Wollaston, 98
Words, use of, 213, 214
Workmen, lectures to, 207
Y
York, Archbishop of, 234
Z
Zooelogical Society, 138
Zooelogical science and laboratories, 177
Zooelogist, Huxley as a, 283
Zooelogy, 173
Zooephytes, 40
The Story of the Nations.
Messrs. G.P. Putnam's Sons take pleasure in announcing that they have in course of publication, in co-operation with Mr. T. Fisher Unwin, of London, a series of historical studies, intended to present in a graphic manner the stories of the different nations that have attained prominence in history.
In the story form the current of each national life is distinctly indicated, and its picturesque and noteworthy periods and episodes are presented for the reader in their philosophical relation to each other as well as to universal history.
It is the plan of the writers of the different volumes to enter into the real life of the peoples, and to bring them before the reader as they actually lived, labored, and struggled—as they studied and wrote, and as they amused themselves. In carrying out this plan, the myths, with which the history of all lands begins, will not be overlooked, though these will be carefully distinguished from the actual history, so far as the labors of the accepted historical authorities have resulted in definite conclusions.
The subjects of the different volumes have been planned to cover connecting and, as far as possible, consecutive epochs or periods, so that the set when completed will present in a comprehensive narrative the chief events in the great STORY OF THE NATIONS; but it is, of course, not always practicable to issue the several volumes in their chronological order.
THE STORY OF THE NATIONS.
The "Stories" are printed in good readable type, and in handsome 12mo form. They are adequately illustrated and furnished with maps and indexes. Price per vol., cloth, $1.50; half morocco, gilt top, $1.75.
The following are now ready:
GREECE. Prof. Jas. A. Harrison. ROME. Arthur Gilman. THE JEWS. Prof. James K. Hosmer. CHALDEA. Z.A. Ragozin. GERMANY. S. Baring-Gould. NORWAY. Hjalmar H. Boyesen. SPAIN. Rev. E.E. and Susan Hale. HUNGARY. Prof. A. Vambery. CARTHAGE. Prof. Alfred J. Church. THE SARACENS. Arthur Gilman. THE MOORS IN SPAIN. Stanley Lane-Poole. THE NORMANS. Sarah Orne Jewett. PERSIA. S.G.W. Benjamin. ANCIENT EGYPT. Prof. Geo. Rawlinson. ALEXANDER'S EMPIRE. Prof. J.P. Mahaffy. ASSYRIA. Z.A. Ragozin. THE GOTHS. Henry Bradley. IRELAND. Hon. Emily Lawless. TURKEY. Stanley Lane-Poole. MEDIA, BABYLON, AND PERSIA. Z.A. Ragozin. MEDIAEVAL FRANCE. Prof. Gustave Masson. HOLLAND. Prof. J. Thorold Rogers. MEXICO. Susan Hale. PHOENICIA. Geo. Rawlinson. THE HANSA TOWNS. Helen Zimmern. EARLY BRITAIN. Prof. Alfred J. Church. THE BARBARY CORSAIRS. Stanley Lane-Pool. RUSSIA. W.R. Morfill. THE JEWS UNDER ROME. W.D. Morrison. SCOTLAND. John Mackintosh. SWITZERLAND. R. Stead and Mrs. A. Hug. PORTUGAL. H. Morse-Stephens. THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE. C.W.C. Oman. SICILY. E.A. Freeman. THE TUSCAN REPUBLICS. Bella Duffy. POLAND. W.R. Morfill. PARTHIA. Geo. Rawlinson. JAPAN. David Murray. THE CHRISTIAN RECOVERY OF SPAIN. H.E. Watts. AUSTRALASIA. Greville Tregarthen. SOUTHERN AFRICA. Geo. M. Theal. VENICE. Alethea Wiel. THE CRUSADES. T.S. Archer and C.L. Kingsford. VEDIC INDIA. Z.A. Ragozin. BOHEMIA. C.E. Maurice. CANADA. J.G. Bourinot. THE BALKAN STATES. William Miller. BRITISH RULE IN INDIA. R.W. Frazer. MODERN FRANCE. Andre Le Bon. THE BUILDING OF THE BRITISH EMPIRE. Alfred T. Story. Two vols. THE FRANKS. Lewis Sergeant. THE WEST INDIES. Amos K. Fiske. THE PEOPLE OF ENGLAND IN THE 19TH CENTURY. Justin McCarthy, M.P. Two vols. AUSTRIA, THE HOME OF THE HAPSBURG DYNASTY, FROM 1282 TO THE PRESENT DAY. Sidney Whitman. CHINA. Robt. K. Douglass. MODERN SPAIN. Major Martin A.S. Hume. MODERN ITALY. Pietro Orsi. THE THIRTEEN COLONIES. Helen A. Smith. Two vols.
Other volumes in preparation are:
THE UNITED STATES, 1775-1897. Prof. A.C. McLaughlin. Two vols. BUDDHIST INDIA. Prof. T.W. Rhys-Davids. MOHAMMEDAN INDIA. Stanley Lane-Poole. WALES AND CORNWALL. Owen M. Edwards
Heroes of the Nations.
EDITED BY
EVELYN ABBOTT, M.A.,
FELLOW OF BALLIOL COLLEGE, OXFORD.
A series of biographical studies of the lives and work of a number of representative historical characters about whom have gathered the great traditions of the Nations to which they belonged, and who have been accepted, in many instances, as types of the several National ideals. With the life of each typical character will be presented a picture of the National conditions surrounding him during his career.
The narratives are the work of writers who are recognized authorities on their several subjects, and, while thoroughly trustworthy as history, will present picturesque and dramatic "stories" of the Men and of the events connected with them.
To the Life of each "Hero" will be given one duodecimo volume, handsomely printed in large type, provided with maps and adequately illustrated according to the special requirements of the several subjects. The volumes will be sold separately as follows:
Large 12^o, cloth extra $1 50 Half morocco, uncut edges, gilt top 1 75
HEROES OF THE NATIONS.
A series of biographical studies of the lives and work of certain representative historical characters, about whom have gathered the great traditions of the Nations to which they belonged, and who have been accepted, in many instances, as types of the several National ideals.
The volumes will be sold separately as follows: cloth extra, $1.50; half leather, uncut edges, gilt top, $1.75.
The following are now ready:
NELSON. By W. Clark Russell. GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS. By C.R.L. Fletcher. PERICLES. By Evelyn Abbott. THEODORIC THE GOTH. By Thomas Hodgkin. SIR PHILIP SIDNEY. By. H.R. Fox-Bourne. JULIUS CAESAR. By W. Warde Fowler. WYCLIF. By Lewis Sergeant. NAPOLEON. By W. O'Connor Morris. HENRY OF NAVARRE. By P.F. Willert. CICERO. By J.L. Strachan-Davidson. ABRAHAM LINCOLN. By Noah Brooks. PRINCE HENRY (OF PORTUGAL) THE NAVIGATOR. By C.R. Beazley. JULIAN THE PHILOSOPHER. By Alice Gardner. LOUIS XIV. By Arthur Hassall. CHARLES XII. By R. Nisbet Bain. LORENZO DE' MEDICI. By Edward Armstrong. JEANNE D'ARC. By Mrs. Oliphant. CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS. By Washington Irving. ROBERT THE BRUCE. By Sir Herbert Maxwell. HANNIBAL. By W. O'Connor Morris. ULYSSES S. GRANT. By William Conant Church. ROBERT E. LEE. By Henry Alexander White. THE CID CAMPEADOR. By H. Butler Clarke. SALADIN. By Stanley Lane-Poole. BISMARCK. By J.W. Headlam. ALEXANDER THE GREAT. By Benjamin I. Wheeler. CHARLEMAGNE. By H.W.C. Davis. OLIVER CROMWELL. By Charles Firth. RICHELIEU. By James B. Perkins. DANIEL O'CONNELL. By Robert Dunlop. SAINT LOUIS (Louis IX., of France). By Frederick Perry. LORD CHATHAM. By Walford Davis Green.
Other volumes in preparation are:
MOLTKE. By Spencer Wilkinson. JUDAS MACCABAEUS. By Israel Abrahams. HENRY V. By Charles L. Kingsford. SOBIESKI. By F.A. Pollard. ALFRED THE TRUTHTELLER. By Frederick Perry. FREDERICK II. By A.L. Smith. MARLBOROUGH. By C.W.C. Oman. RICHARD THE LION-HEARTED. By T.A. Archer. WILLIAM THE SILENT. By Ruth Putnam. JUSTINIAN. By Edward Jenks.
G.P. PUTNAM'S SONS, PUBLISHERS, NEW YORK AND LONDON.
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