On our arrival most of the birds had already left these regions, so inhospitable in winter, or were seen high up in the air in collected flocks, flying towards the south entrance of Behring's Straits. Still on the 19th October an endless procession of birds was seen drawing towards this region, but by the 3rd November it was noted, as something uncommon, that a gull settled on the refuse heaps in the neighbourhood of the vessel. It resembled the ivory gull, but had a black head. Perhaps it was the rare Larus Sabinii, of which a drawing has been given above.[257] All the birds which passed us came from the north-west, that is, from the north coast of Siberia, the New Siberian Islands or Wrangel Land. Only the mountain owl, a species of raven and the ptarmigan wintered in the region, the last named being occasionally snowed up.

The ptarmigan here is not indeed so plump and good as the Spitzbergen ptarmigan during winter, but in any case provided us with an always welcome, if scanty change from the tiresome preserved meat. When some ptarmigan were shot, they were therefore willingly saved up by the cook, along with the hares, for festivals. For in order to break the monotony on board an opportunity was seldom neglected that offered itself for holding festivities. Away there on the coast of the Chukch peninsula there were thus celebrated with great conscientiousness during the winter of 1878-9, not only our own birthdays but also those of King Oscar, King Christian and King Humbert, and of the Emperor Alexander. Every day a newspaper was distributed, for the day indeed, but for a past year. In addition we numbered among our diversions constant intercourse with the natives, and frequent visits to the neighbouring villages, driving in dog-sledges, a sport which would have been very enjoyable if the dogs of the natives had not been so exceedingly poor and bad, and finally industrious reading and zealous studies, for which I had provided the expedition with an extensive library, intended both for the scientific men and officers, and for the crew, numbering with the private stock of books nearly a thousand volumes.

All this time of course the purely scientific work was not neglected. In the first rank among these stood the meteorological and magnetical observations, which from the 1st November were made on land every hour. However fast the ice lay around the vessel it was impossible to get on it a sufficiently stable base for the magnetical variation instrument. The magnetical observatory was therefore erected on land of the finest building material any architect has had at his disposal, namely, large parallelopipeds of beautiful blue-coloured ice-blocks. The building was therefore called by the Chukches Tintinyaranga (the ice-house), a name which was soon adopted by the Vega men too. As mortar the builder, Palander, used snow mixed with water, and the whole was covered with a roof of boards. But as after a time it appeared that the storm made its way through the joints and that these were gradually growing larger in consequence of the evaporation of the ice so that the drifting snow could find an entrance, the whole house had a sail drawn over it. As supports of the three variation instruments large blocks of wood were used, whose lower ends were sunk in pits, which, with great trouble, were excavated in the frozen ground, and then, when the block supports were placed, were filled with sand mixed with water.

The ice-house was a spacious observatory, well-fitted for its purpose in every respect. It had but one defect, the temperature was always at an uncomfortably low point. As no iron could be used in the building, and we had no copper-stove with us, we could not have any fireplace there. We endeavoured, indeed, to use a copper fireplace, that had been intended for sledge journeys, for heating, but only with the result that the observatory was like to have gone to pieces. We succeeded little better when we discovered farther on in the winter, while trimming the hold, a forgotten cask of bear's oil. We considered this find a clear indication that instead of a stove fired with wood we should, according to the custom of the Polar races, use oil-lamps to mitigate the severe cold which deprived our stay in Tintinyaranga of part of its pleasure. But this mode of firing proved altogether impracticable. The fumes of the oil smelled worse than those of the charcoal, and the result of this experiment was none other than that the splendid crystals of ice, with which the roof and walls of the ice-house were gradually clothed, were covered with black soot. Firing with oil was abandoned, and the oil presented to our friends at Yinretlen, who just then were complaining loudly that they had no other fuel than wood.

Besides the nine scientific men and officers of the Vega, the engineer Nordstroem and the seaman Lundgren took part in the magnetical and meteorological observations. Every one had his watch of six hours, five of which were commonly passed in the ice-house. To walk from the vessel to the observatory, distant a kilometre and a half, with the temperature under the freezing point of mercury, or, what was much worse, during storm, with the temperature at -36 deg., remain in the observatory for five hours in a temperature of -17 deg., and then return to the vessel, commonly against the wind—for it came nearly always from the north or north-west—was dismal enough. None of us, however, suffered any harm from it. On the contrary, it struck me as if this compulsory interruption to our monotonous life on board and the long-continued stay in the open air had a refreshing influence both on body and soul.



In the neighbourhood of the ice-house the thermometer case was erected, and farther on in the winter there were built in the surrounding snowdrifts, two other observatories, not however of ice, but of snow, in the Greenland snow-building style. Our depot of provisions was also placed in the neighbourhood, and at a sufficient distance from the magnetical observatory there was a large wooden chest, in which the Remington guns, which were carried for safety in excursions from the vessel, and other iron articles which the observer had with him, were placed before he entered the observatory.

The building of Tintinyaranga was followed by the Chukches with great interest. When they saw that we did not intend to live there, but that rare, glancing metal instruments were set up in it, and that a wonderfully abundant flood of light in comparison with their tent illumination was constantly maintained inside with a kind of light quite unknown to them (stearine candles and photogen lamps) a curious uneasiness began to prevail among them, which we could not quiet with the language of signs mixed with a Chukch word or two, to which our communications with the natives were at that time confined. Even farther on in the year, when an efficient though word-poor international language had gradually been formed between us, they made inquiries on this point, yet with considerable indifference. All sensible people among them had evidently already come to the conclusion that it was profitless trouble to seek a reasonable explanation of all the follies which the strange foreigners, richly provided with many earthly gifts but by no means with practical sense, perpetrated. In any case it was with a certain amazement and awe that they, when they exceptionally obtained permission, entered one by one through the doors in order to see the lamps burn and to peep into the tubes. Many times even a dog-team that had come a long way stopped for a few moments at the ice-house to satisfy the owner's curiosity, and on two occasions in very bad drifting weather we were compelled to give shelter to a wanderer who had gone astray.

When this ice-house was ready and hourly observations began in it, life on board took the stamp which it afterwards retained in the course of the winter. In order to give the reader an idea of our every-day life, I shall reproduce here the spirited sketch of a day on the Vega, which Dr. Kjellman gave in one of his home letters:—

"It is about half-past eight in the morning. He whose watch has expired has returned after five hours' stay in the ice-house, where the temperature during the night has been about -16 deg.. His account of the weather is good enough. There are only thirty-two degrees of cold, it is half-clear, and, to be out of the ordinary, there is no wind. Breakfast is over. Cigars, cigarettes, and pipes are lighted, and the gunroom personnel go up on deck for a little exercise and fresh air, for below it is confined and close. The eye rests on the desolate, still faintly-lighted landscape, which is exactly the same as it was yesterday; a white plain in all directions, across which a low, likewise white, chain of hillocks or torosses here and there raises itself, and over which some ravens, with feeble wing-strokes, fly forward, searching for something to support life with. 'Metschinko Orpist,' 'metschinko Okerpist,' 'metschinko Kellman,' &c., now sounds everywhere on the vessel and from the ice in its neighbourhood. 'Orpist' represents Nordquist, 'Okerpist' again Stuxberg. It is the Chukches' morning salutation to us. To-day the comparatively fine weather has drawn out a larger crowd than usual, thirty to forty human beings, from tender sucking babes to grey old folks, men as well as women; the latter in the word of salutation replacing the tsch-sound with an exceedingly soft caressing ts-sound. That most of them have come driving is shown by the equipages standing in the neighbourhood of the vessel. They consist of small, low, narrow, light sledges, drawn by four to ten or twelve dogs. The sledges are made of small pieces of wood and bits of reindeer-horn, held together by sealskin straps. As runner-shoes thin plates of the ribs of the whale are used. The dogs, sharp-nosed, long-backed, and excessively dirty, have laid themselves to rest, curled together in the snow.

"The salutation is followed almost immediately to-day as on preceding days by some other words: 'Ouinga mouri kauka,' which may be translated thus: 'I am so hungry; I have no food; give me a little bread!' They suffer hunger now, the poor beings. Seal flesh, their main food, they cannot with the best will procure for the time. The only food they can get consists of fish (two kinds of cod), but this is quite too poor diet for them, they have fallen off since we first met with them.

"Soon we are all surrounded by our Chukch acquaintances. The daily market begins. They have various things to offer, which they know to be of value to us, as weapons, furs, ornaments, playthings, fish, bones of the whale, algae, vegetables, &c. For all this only 'kauka' is now asked. To-day the supply of whales' bones is large, in consequence of our desire, expressed on previous days, to obtain them. One has come with two vertebrae, one with a rib or some fragments of it, one with a shoulder-blade. They are not shy in laying heavy loads on their dogs.

"After the close of the promenade and the traffic with the natives, the gunroom personnel have begun their labours. Some keep in their cabins, others in the gunroom itself. The magnetical and meteorological observations made the day before are transcribed and subjected to a preliminary working-out, the natural history collections are examined and looked over, studies and authorship are prosecuted. The work is now and then interrupted by conversation partly serious, partly jocular. From the engine-room in the neighbourhood we hear the blows of hammers and the rasping of files. In the 'tweendecks, pretty well heated, but not very well lighted, some of the crew are employed at ordinary ship's work; and in the region of the kitchen the cook is just in the midst of his preparations for dinner. He is in good humour as usual, but perhaps grumbles a little at the 'mosucks' (a common name on board for the Chukches), who will not give him any peace by their continual cries for 'mimil' (water.)

"The forenoon passes in all quietness and stillness. Immediately after noon nearly all the gunroom people are again on deck, promenading backwards and forwards. It is now very lively. It is the crew's meal-time. The whole crowd of Chukches are collected at the descent to their apartment, the lower deck. One soup basin after the other comes up; they are immediately emptied of their contents by those who in the crowd and confusion are fortunate enough to get at them. Bread and pieces of meat and bits of sugar are distributed assiduously, and disappear with equal speed. Finally, the cook himself appears with a large kettle, containing a very large quantity of meat soup, which the Chukches like starving animals throw themselves upon, baling into them with spoons, empty preserve tins, and above all with the hands. Notwithstanding the exceedingly severe cold a woman here and there has uncovered one arm and half her breast in order not to be embarrassed by the wide reindeer-skin sleeve in her attempts to get at the contents of the kettle. The spectacle is by no means a pleasant one.



"By three o'clock it begins to grow dark, and one after the other of our guests depart, to return, the most of them, in the morning. Now it is quiet and still. About six the crew have finished their labours and dispose of the rest of the day as they please. Most of them are occupied with reading during the evening hours. When supper has been served at half-past seven in the gunroom, he who has the watch in the ice-house from nine to two next morning prepares for the performance of his disagreeable duty; the rest of the gunroom personnel are assembled there, and pass the evening in conversation, play, light reading, &c. At ten every one retires, and the lamps are extinguished. In many cabins, however, lights burn till after midnight.

"Such was in general our life on the Vega. One day was very like another. When the storm howled, the snow drifted, and the cold became too severe, we kept more below deck; when the weather was finer we lived more in the open air, often paying visits to the observatory in the ice-house, and among the Chukches living in the neighbourhood, or wandering about to come upon, if possible, some game."

The snow which fell during winter consisted more generally of small simple snow-crystals or ice-needles, than of the beautiful snow-flakes whose grand kaleidoscopic forms the inhabitants of the north so often have an opportunity of admiring. Already with a gentle wind and with a pretty clear atmosphere the lower strata of the atmosphere were full of these regular ice-needles, which refracted the rays of the sun, so as to produce parhelia and halos. Unfortunately however these were never so completely developed as the halos which I saw in 1873 during the sledge-journey round North-east Land on Spitzbergen; but I believed that even now I could confirm the correctness of the observation I then made, that the representation which is generally given of this beautiful phenomenon, in which the halo is delineated as a collection of regular circles, is not correct, but that it forms a very involved system of lines, extended over the whole vault of heaven, for the most part coloured on the sun-side and uncoloured on the opposite side, of the sort shown in the accompanying drawings taken from the account of the Spitzbergen Expedition of 1872-73.



Another very beautiful phenomenon, produced by the refraction of the solar rays by the ice-needles, which during winter were constantly mixed with the atmospheric strata lying nearest the surface of the earth, was that the mountain heights to the south of the Vega in a certain light appeared as if feathered with fire-clouds. In clear sunshine and a high wind we frequently saw, as it were, a glowing pillar of vapour arise obliquely from the summits of the mountains, giving them the appearance of volcanos, which throw out enormous columns of smoke, flame-coloured by the reflection from the glowing lava streams in the depths of the crater.

A blue water-sky was still visible out to sea, indicating that open water was to be found there. I therefore sent Johnsen the hunter over the ice on the 18th December to see how it was. In three-quarters of an hour's walking from the vessel he found an extensive opening, recently covered with thin, blue, newly frozen ice. A fresh northerly breeze blew at the time, and by it the drift-ice fields were forced together with such speed, that Johnsen supposed that in a couple of hours the whole lead would be completely closed.



In such openings in Greenland white whales and other small whales are often enclosed by hundreds, the natives thus having an opportunity of making in a few hours a catch which would be sufficient for their support during the whole winter, indeed for years, if the idea of saving ever entered into the imagination of the savage. But here in a region where the pursuit of the whale is more productive than in any other sea, no such occurrence has happened. During the whole of our stay on the coast of the Chukch country we did not see a single whale. On the other hand, masses of whales' bones were found thrown up on the beach. At first I did not bestow much attention upon them, thinking they were the bones of whales that had been killed during the recent whale-fishing period. I soon found however that this could not have been the case. For the bones had evidently been washed out of the sandy dune running along the beach, which had been deposited at a time when the present coast lay ten to twenty metres below the surface of the sea, thus hundreds or thousands of years ago, undoubtedly before the time when the north coast of Asia was first inhabited by man. The dune sand is, as recently exposed profiles show, quite free from other kitchen-midden remains than those which occur upon its surface. The whales' bones in question were thus subfossil. Their number was so great, that in the systematic examination of the beach in the immediate neighbourhood of the vessel, which I undertook during spring with the assistance of Dr. Kjellman and half a dozen of the sailors, thirty neck-bones and innumerable other bones of the whale were found in a stretch of from four to five kilometres. Of course masses of bones are still concealed in the sand; and a large number of lower jaw-bones, ribs, shoulder-blades, and vertebrae had been used for runner-shoes, tent-frames, spades, picks and other implements. A portion, after being exposed for several years to the action of the air, had undergone decay. The bones are therefore found in greatest number at those places where the sand of the dune has been recently carried away by the spring floods or by the furious winds which prevail here, and which easily gain the ascendency over the dry sand, bound together only by widely scattered Elymus-stalks. The largest crania belonged to a species nearly allied to the Balaena mysticetus. Crania of a species of Rachianectes are also found along with some bones of smaller varieties of the whale. No complete skeleton however has been found, but we brought home with us so large a quantity of the loose bones that the collection of whales' bones alone would have formed a full cargo for a small vessel. These bones will be delineated and described by Professor. A.W. MALM in The Scientific Work of the Vega Expedition. Special attention was drawn to a skeleton, belonging to the Balaena mysticetus, by its being still partially covered with skin, and by deep red, almost fresh, flesh adhering to those parts of it which were frozen fast in the ground. This skeleton lay at a place where the dune sand had recently been washed away and the coarse underlying sand uncovered, the whale-mummy also I suppose coming to light at the same time. That the whale in question had not stranded in the memory of man the Chukches assured me unanimously. In such a case we have here a proof that even portions of the flesh of gigantic sea-animals have been protected against putrefaction in the frozen soil of Siberia—a parallel to the mammoth-mummies, though from a considerably more recent period.



Christmas Eve was celebrated in the usual northern fashion. We had indeed neglected, as in the Expedition of 1872-73, to take with us any Christmas tree. But instead of it Dr. Kjellman prevailed on our Chukch friends to bring with dog-sledges willow-bushes from the valleys lying beyond the mountains to the south. By means of these a bare driftwood stem was converted into a luxuriant, branchy tree which, to replace the verdure, was clothed with variegated strips of paper, and planted in the 'tweendecks, which after our enclosure in the ice had been arranged as a working room, and was now set in order for the Christmas festivities, and richly and tastefully ornamented with flags. A large number of small wax-lights, which we had brought with us for the special purpose, were fixed in the Christmas tree, together with about two hundred Christmas boxes purchased or presented to us before our departure. At six o'clock in the afternoon all the officers and crew assembled in the 'tweendecks, and the drawing of lots began, now and then interrupted by a thundering polka round the peculiar Christmas tree. At supper neither Christmas ale nor ham was wanting. And later in the evening there made their appearance in the 'tweendecks five punchbowls, which were emptied with songs and toasts for King and Fatherland, for the objects of the Expedition, for its officers and men, for the families at home, for relatives and friends, and finally for those who decked and arranged the Christmas tree, who were the sailors C. Lundgren and O. Hansson, and the firemen O. Ingelsson and C. Carlstroem.

The other festivals were also celebrated in the best way, and at midnight before New Year's Day the new year was shot in with sharp explosive-shell firing from the rifled cannon of the Vega, and a number of rockets thrown up from the deck.

[Footnote 249: Equal to 6.64 English miles. ]

[Footnote 250: When it had become evident that we could make no further advance before next year, Lieut Brusewitz occasionally measured the thickness of the newly formed ice, with the following results:—

THICKNESS OF THE ICE. 1 December, 56 centimetres. 1 May. 154 centimetres 1 January, 92 ,, 15 ,, 162 ,, 1 February, 108 ,, 1 June, 154 ,, 15 ,, 120 ,, 15 ,, 151 ,, 1 March, 123 ,, 1 July, 104 ,, 1 April, 128 ,, 15 67 ,, (full of holes). 15 ,, 139 ,, 18 ,, The ice broke up. ]

[Footnote 251: Low brush is probably to be met with in the interior of the Chukch peninsula at places which are protected from the cold north winds. ]

[Footnote 252: According to H. Wild's newly-published large work, "Die Temperatur Verhaeltnisse des Russischen Reiches, 2e Halfte, St. Petersburg, 1881," the Old World's cold-pole lies in the neighbourhood of the town Werchojansk (67 deg. 34' N.L. 133 deg. 51' E.L. from Greenwich). The mean temperature of the different months and of the whole year is given in the note at page 411. If the data on which these figures rest are correct, the winter at Werchojansk is immensely colder than at the Vega's winter station. ]

[Footnote 253: 1 lb.=100 ort=425.05 gram. 1 kanna=100 cubic inches=2.617 litres. ]

[Footnote 254: To carry animals for slaughter on vessels during Polar expeditions cannot be sufficiently recommended. Their flesh acts beneficially by forming a change from the preserved provisions, which in course of time become exceedingly disagreeable, and their care a not less important interruption to the monotony of the winter life. ]

[Footnote 255: I give here an extract from the Vocabulary, that the reader may form some idea of the language of the north-east point of Asia:—

Tnaergin, heaven. Tirkir, the sun. Yedlin, the moon. Angatlingan, a star. Nutatschka, land. Angka, sea. Ljedljenki, winter. Edljek, summer. Edljongat, day. Nekita, night. Ayguon, yesterday. Ietkin, to-day. Ergatti, to-morrow. Gnunian, north. Emnungku, south. Nikayan, east. Kayradljgin, west. Tintin, ice. Atljatlj, snow. Yeetedli, the aurora. Yengeen, mist. Tedljgio, storm. Eek, fire. Kljautlj, a man, a human being. Oraedlja, men. Neairen, a woman. Nenena, a child. Empenatschyo, father. Empengau, mother. Ljeut, head. Ljeutljka, face. Dljedljadlin, eye. Liljaptkourgin, to see. Huedljodlin, ear. Huedljokodljaurgin, to hear. Huadljomerkin, to understand. Huedljountakurgin, not to understand. Yeka, nose. Yekergin, mouth. Kametkuaurgin, to eat. Yedlinedljourgin, to speak. Mammah, a woman's breast. Mammatkourgin, to give suck. Yeet, foot. Retschaurgin, to stand. Yetkatjergin, to lie. Tschipiska, to sleep. Kadljetschetuetjakurgin, to learn. Pintekatkourgin, to be born. Kaertraljirgin, to die. Kamakatan, to be sick. Kamak, the Deity, a guardian Spirit. Yaranga, tent. Etschengeratlin, lamp. Orguor, sledge. Atkuat, boat. Anetljkatlj, fishing-hook. Anedljourgin, to angle. Uadlin, knife. Tschupak, Kameak, dog. Umku, Polar bear. Rerka, walrus. Memetlj, seal. Korang, reindeer. Gatlje, bird. Enne, fish. Gurgur, dwarf-birch. Kukatkokongadlin, willow-bush. Gem, I. Gemnin, mine. Get, you. Genin, yours. Enkan, he. Muri, we. Turi, you. Mayngin, much. Pljukin, little. Konjpong, all. I, yes. Etlje, no. Metschinka, thanks. Ennen, one. Nirak, two. Nrok, three. Nrak, four. Metljingan, five. ]

[Footnote 256: The King of Sweden has since ordered a gold medal to be given to Wassili Menka in recognition of the fidelity with which he executed the commission of carrying our letters to a Russian post station. ]

[Footnote 257: See page 119. ]



END OF VOL. I.



THE VOYAGE OF THE VEGA ROUND ASIA AND EUROPE. VOL II



THE VOYAGE OF THE VEGA ROUND ASIA AND EUROPE WITH A HISTORICAL REVIEW OF PREVIOUS JOURNEYS ALONG THE NORTH COAST OF THE OLD WORLD

BY A.E. NORDENSKIOeLD

TRANSLATED BY ALEXANDER LESLIE

WITH FIVE STEEL PORTRAITS, NUMEROUS MAPS, AND ILLUSTRATIONS

IN TWO VOLUMES—VOL II

London MACMILLAN AND CO. 1881



CONTENTS OF VOL II

CHAPTER XI.

Hope of release at the new year—Bove's excursion to the open water—Mild weather and renewed severe cold—Mercury frozen—Popular lectures—Brusewitz's excursion to Najtskaj—Another despatch of letters home—The natives' accounts of the state of the ice on the coast of Chukch Land—The Chukches carry on traffic between Arctic America and Siberia—Excursions in the neighborhood of winter quarters—The weather during spring—The melting of the snow—The aurora—The arrival of the migratory birds—The animal world of Chukch Land—Noah Elisej's relief expedition—A remarkable fish—The country clean of snow—Release—The North-East Passage achieved.

CHAPTER XII

The history, physique, disposition, and manners of the Chukches.

CHAPTER XIII

The development of our knowledge of the north coast of Asia—Herodotus—Strabo—Pliny—Marco Polo—Herbertstein's map—The conquest of Siberia by the Russians—Deschnev's voyages—Coast navigation between the Lena and the Kolyma—Accounts of islands in the Polar Sea and old voyages to them—The discovery of Kamchatka—The navigation of the Sea of Okotsk is opened by Swedish prisoners of war—The Great Northern Expedition—Behring—Schalaurov—Andrejev's Land—The New Siberian islands—Hedenstroem's expeditions—Anjou and Wrangel—Voyages from Behring's Straits westward—Fictitious Polar voyages.

CHAPTER XIV

Passage through Behring's Straits—Arrival at Nunamo—Scarce species of seal—Rich vegetation—Passage to America—State of the ice—Port Clarence—The Eskimo—Return to Asia—Konyam Bay—Natural conditions there—The ice breaks up in the interior of Konyam Bay—St. Lawrence Island—Preceding visits to the Island—Departure to Behring Island

CHAPTER XV

The position of Behring Island—Its inhabitants—The discovery of the Island by Behring—Behring's death—Steller—The former and present fauna of the Island: foxes, sea otters, sea cows, sea lions, and sea bears—Collection of bones of the Rhytina—Visit to a "rookery"—Torporkoff Island—Alexander Dubovski—Voyage to Yokohama—Lightning stroke

CHAPTER XVI

Arrival at Yokohama—A Telegram sent to Europe—The stranding of the Steamer A.E. Nordenskioeld—Fetes in Japan—The Minister of Marine, Kawamura—Prince Kito-Shira Kava—Audience of the Mikado—Graves of the Shoguns—Imperial Garden at Tokio—The Exhibition there—Visit to Enoshima—Japanese Manners and Customs—Thunberg and Kaempfer.

CHAPTER XVII

Excursion to Asamayama—The Nakasendo road—Takasaki—Difficulty of obtaining Quarters for the Night—The Baths at Ikaho—Massage in Japan—Swedish matches—Traveling in Kago—Savavatari—Criminals—Kusatsu—The Hot Springs and their healing power—Rest at Rokurigahara—The Summit of Asamayama—The Descent—Journey over Usui-toge—Japanese Actors—Pictures of Japanese Folk life—Return to Yokohama

CHAPTER XVIII

Farewell dinner at Yokohama—The Chinese in Japan—Voyage to Kobe—Purchase of Japanese Books—Journey by sail to Kioto—Biwa Lake and the Legend of its Origin—Dredging there—Japanese Dancing Girls—Kioto—The Imperial Palace—Temples—Swords and Sword bearers—Shintoism and Buddhism—The Porcelain Manufacture—Japanese Poetry—Feast in a Buddhist Temple—Sailing across the Inland Sea of Japan—Landing at Hirosami and Shimonoseki—Nagasaki—Excursion to Mogi—Collection of Fossil Plants—Departure from Japan

CHAPTER XIX

Hong Kong and Canton—Stone polishing Establishments at Canton—Political Relations in an English Colony—Treatment of the Natives—Voyage to Labuan—Coal Mines there—Excursion to the shore of Borneo—Malay Villages—Singapore—Voyage to Ceylon—Point de Galle—The Gem Mines at Ratnapoora—Visit to a Temple—Purchase of Manuscripts—The Population of Ceylon—Dr. Almquist's Excursion to the Interior of the Island

CHAPTER XX

The Journey Home—Christmas, 1879—Aden—Suez—Cairo—Excursion to the Pyramids and the Mokattam Mountains—Petrified Tree stems—The Suez Canal—Landing on Sicily by night—Naples—Rome—The Members of the Expedition separate—Lisbon—England—Paris—Copenhagen—Festive Entry into Stockholm—Fetes there—Conclusion



PORTRAITS

Engraved on Steel by G.J. Stodart, of London.

Adolf Erik Nordenskioeld To face Title page Louis Palander ,, Page 68



LITHOGRAPHED MAPS

9. Herbertstern's Map of Russia, 1550 (photo-lithographic facsimile)

10. Map of the North Coast of the Old World from Norway to Behring's Straits, with the track of the Vega, constructed from old and recent sources, and from observations made during the Voyage of the Vega, by N. Selander, Captain in the General Staff



LIST OF WOOD-CUTS IN VOL II

The Wood-cuts, when not otherwise stated below, were engraved at Herr Wilhelm Meyer's Xylographic Institute, in Stockholm

1. Chukches

2. The Encampment Pitlekaj abandoned by its Inhabitants on the 18th February, 1879

3. Notti and Wife Aitanga

4. Map of the Region round the Vega's Winter Quarters

5. The Sleeping Chamber in a Chukch Tent

6. Chukch Lamps

7. Section of a Chukch Lamp

8. Chukch Shaman Drum

9. The Coast between Padljonna and Enjurmi

10. Bracelet of Copper

11. The North End of Idlidlja Island

12. The Common Aurora Arc at the Vega's Winter Quarters

13. Aurora at the Vega's Winter Quarters, 3rd March, 1879, at 9 PM

14. Double Aurora-Arcs seen 20th March, 1879, at 9 30 PM

15. Elliptic Aurora, seen 21st March, 1879, at 2 15 AM

16. Elliptic Aurora seen 21st March, 1879, at 3 AM

17. Song Birds in the Rigging of the Vega, June, 1879

18. Spoon-billed Sand piper from Chukch Land (Eurynorhynchus pygmaeus, L.)

19. Marmots from Chukch Land

20. Stegocephalus Kessleri Stuxb

21. Sabinea septemcarinata, Sabine

22. Acanthostephia Malmgreni, Goes

23. Ophioglypha nodosa, Luetken

24. Noah Elisej

25. Beetles from Pitlekaj

26. Phosphorescent Crustacea from Mussel Bay

27. Reitinacka

28. Dog Fish from the Chukch Peninsula (Dallia delicatissima, Smith)

29. Crab from the Sea North of Behring's Straits (Chionoecetes opilio, Kroeyer)

30. Tree from Pitlekaj (Salix Arctica, Pallas)

31. Typical Chukch Faces

32. ,, ,,

33. Plan of a Chukch Grave

34. Tent Frame at Pitlekaj

35. Chukch Oar

36. Dog Shoe

37. Chukch Face Tattooing

38. Chukch Children

39. Snow Shoes

40. An Aino Man skating after a Reindeer

41. Hunting Cup and Snow scraper

42. Chukch Weapons and Hunting Implements

43. Chukch Bow and Quiver

44. Chukch Arrows

45. Stone Hammers and Anvil for Crushing Bones

46. Chukch Implements

47. Fire Drill

48. Ice Mattocks

49. Human Figures

50. Musical Instruments

51. Drawings made by the Chukches—

52. Chukch Buckles and Hooks of Ivory

53. Chukch Bone Carvings

54. Chukch Doll

55. Chukch Bone Carvings—

56. Chukch Bone Carvings of Birds

57. Map of the World, said to be of the Tenth Century

58. Map of the World showing Asia to be continuous with Africa

59. Map of the World after Fra Mauro, from the middle of the Fifteenth Century

60. Map of Asia from an Atlas published by the Russian Academy of Sciences in 1737

61. Peter Feodorovitsch Anjou

62. Ferdinand von Wrangel

63. Seal from the Behring Sea, Histriophoca fasciata, Zimm

64. Draba Alpina, L., from St. Lawrence Bay

65. Hunting Implements at Port Clarence

66. Eskimo Family at Port Clarence

67. Eskimo from Port Clarence

68. Eskimo from Port Clarence

69. Eskimo Fishing Implements, &c.

70. Eskimo Bone Carvings &c.

71. Eskimo Grave

72. Animal Figure from an Eskimo Grave

73. Ethnographical Objects from Port Clarence

74. Shell from Behring's Straits, Fusus deformis, Reeve

75. Diagram showing the temperature and depth of the water at Behring's Straits between Port Clarence and Senjavin Sound, by G. Bove

76. Konyam Bay

77. Tattooing Patterns from St. Lawrence Island

78. Tattooed Woman from St. Lawrence Island

79. The Colony on Behring Island

80. The Colony on Copper Island

81. Natives of Behring Island

82. Skeleton of Rhytina, shown at the Vega Exhibition at the Royal Palace, Stockholm

83. Original Drawings of the Rhytina

84. Reconstructed Form of the Sea-Cow

85. Sea Bears, Male, Female, and Young

86. "Seal Rookery" on St. Paul's Island, one of the Pribylov Islands

87. Slaughter of Sea-Bears

88. Sea-Bears on their way to "the Rookeries"

89. Alga from the shore of Behring Island, Thalassiophyllum Clathrus, Post. and Rupr.

90. Fusugama

91. The steamer A.E. Nordenskioeld stranded on the East Coast of Yezo

92. Kawamura Sumiyashi, Japanese Minister of Marine

93. The First Medal which was struck as a Memorial of the Voyage of the Vega

94. The First Medal which was struck as a Memorial of the Voyage of the Vega

95. Stone Lantern and Stone Monument in a Japanese Temple Court

96. Japanese House in Tokio

97. Japanese Lady at her Toilet

98. A Jinrikisha

99. Japanese Bedroom

100. Tobacco-Smokers, Japanese Drawing

101. Ito-Keske, a Japanese Editor of Thunberg's Writings

102. Monument to Thunberg and Kaempfer at Nagasaki

103. Japanese Kago

104. Japanese Wrestlers

105. Japanese Bridge, after a Japanese drawing

106. Japanese Mountain Landscape, drawn by Prof. P.D. Holm

107. Inn at Kusatsu, drawn by R. Haglund

108. Bath at Kusatsu, Japanese drawing, drawn by O. Soerling

109. Japanese Landscape, drawn by Prof. P.D. Holm

110. Burden-bearers on a Japanese Road, Japanese drawing, drawn by O. Soerling

111. Japanese Shop, drawn by V. Andren

112. Japanese Court Dress, drawn by ditto

113. Noble in Antique Dress, drawn by ditto

114. Buddhist Priest, drawn by ditto

115. A Samurai, drawn by ditto

116. Gate across the Road to a Shinto Temple, drawn by Prof. P.D. Holm

117. Buddhist Temple at Kobe, drawn by ditto

118. Rio-San's Seal

119. Burying-Place at Kioto, drawn by Prof. P.D. Holm

120. Entrance to Nagasaki, drawn by R. Haglund

121. Fossil Plants from Mogi—1, 2, Beech Leaves (Fagus ferruginea, Ait., var. pliocena, Nath.), drawn by M. Westergren

122. Fossil Plant from Mogi—3, Maple Leaf (Acer Mono, Max., var. pliocena, Nath.)

123. Fossil Plant from Mogi—Leaf of Zelkova Keakii, Sieb., var. pliocena, Nath., drawn by M. Westergren

124. Gem Diggings at Ratnapoora, drawn by R. Haglund

125. Statues in a Temple in Ceylon, drawn by ditto

126. A Country Place in Ceylon, drawn by V. Andren

127. Highland View from the Interior of Ceylon, drawn by R. Haglund

128. The Scientific Men of the Vega

129. The Officers of the Vega

130. The Crew of the Vega, drawn by R. Widing

131. The Entrance of the Vega into Stockholm on the 24th April, 1880, drawn by R. Haglund

132. The Vega moored off the Royal Palace, Stockholm, drawn by ditto



ERRATA [ Transcriber's note: these have been applied to the text ]

Page 22, under wood-cut, for "a. Of wood b. Of stone," read "a. Wooden cup to place under the lamp b. Lamp of burned clay." Page 41, line 6 from foot, for "beginning of May" read "middle of June." Page 41, under wood-cut, for "May," read "June." Page 44, line 19 for "mountain," read "Arctic." Page 54, last line for "contracteta" read "contracta." Page 63, last line for "Natural size," read "Half the natural size." Page 98, lines 9 and 12 from foot, for "moccassin" read "moccasin." Page 100, line 2 from foot, for "moccassin" read "moccasin." Page 227, line 11 from foot, for "American," read "Asiatic."



THE VOYAGE OF THE VEGA ROUND ASIA AND EUROPE, VOL II



CHAPTER XI.

Hope of release at the new year—Bove's excursion to the open water—Mild weather and renewed severe cold—Mercury frozen—Popular lectures—Brusewitz's excursion to Najtskaj —Another despatch of letters home—The natives' accounts of the state of the ice on the coast of Chukch Land— The Chukches carry on traffic between Arctic America and Siberia—Excursions in the neighbourhood of winter quarters —The weather during spring—The melting of the snow— The aurora—The arrival of the migratory birds—The animal world of Chukch Land—Noah Elisej's relief expedition— A remarkable fish—The country clear of snow—Release— The North-East Passage achieved.

The new year came in with a faint hope of release. For since the north and north-west winds that had prevailed almost constantly towards the close of December had given place to winds from the east and south, considerable "clearings" were again formed out at sea, and the Chukches again began to say that the ice would drift away, so that the vessel would be able to continue her voyage; a prediction which they always ended with a declaration, expressed both by words and gestures, that they would then bitterly lament, which they would also have had sufficient reason to do, considering the very friendly way in which they were treated by all on board the Vega, both officers and men.

On New Year's Day, in order to see the state of the ice farther out to sea, Lieut Bove, accompanied by the hunter Johnsen, again made an excursion to the open water. Of this he gave the following account:—

"I left the vessel on the forenoon of 1st January and reached the open water after four hours' steady walking. The deep loose snow made walking very fatiguing, and three rows of torosses also contributed to this, mainly in consequence of the often snow-covered cracks, which crossed the ice-sheet in their neighbourhood. One of the torosses was ten metres high. The size of the blocks of ice, which were here heaped on each other, showed how powerful the forces were which had caused the formation of the torosses. These ice ramparts now afford a much needed protection to the Vegas winter haven. About halfway between the open water and the vessel the way was crossed by cracks running from east to west, and clearly indicating that the opening in the ice would have extended to the distance of a kilometre from the vessel, if the violent storm in December had lasted twelve hours longer. The Vega would thereby have been in great danger. The edge of the ice towards the open water was evenly cut, as with an immense knife, and was so strong that one could walk along it as on a rock. Even from the top of a five-metre-high ice-rampart no boundary of the open water could be seen to the north-east or north. Partly from this, partly from the extension of the water-sky in this direction, I draw the conclusion that the breadth of the open water was at least thirty-five kilometres. The "clearing" was bounded on the east by an ice-rampart running north, which at a distance of nine or ten kilometres appeared to bend to the east. Possibly farther to the east beyond this ice-rampart there was another open water basin. The depth at the edge of the ice was twenty-one metres, the temperature of the water 2 deg. C. The water ran at a considerable speed right out from the coast (i.e. from S.S.E.) As it ran here nearly in a straight line, the current may have been a tidal one. The open water swarmed with seals, according to Johnsen both bearded and rough. Neither Polar bears, walrusses, nor birds were seen."

Lieut. Bove's report confirmed me in my supposition that the open water, as towards the end of January 1873 at Mussel Bay, might possibly extend as far as our anchorage and open for us the way to Behring's Straits, in which case we could not refrain from continuing our voyage, however unpleasant and dangerous it might be at this season of the year. The Chukches also declared repeatedly that the open water in January would continue for a considerable time, and in expectation of this got their simple fishing implements ready. But both they and we were disappointed in our expectation. The Vega's ice-fetters remained undisturbed, and the blue border at the horizon grew less and again disappeared. This caused so great a want of food, and above all of train oil, among the natives, that all the inhabitants of Pitlekaj, the village nearest to us, were compelled to remove to the eastward, notwithstanding that in order to mitigate the scarcity a considerable quantity of food was served out daily at the vessel.

It appeals, however, as if an actual experience from the preceding year had been the ground of the Chukches' weather prediction. For on the 6th February a south-east wind began to blow, and the severe cold at once ceased. The temperature rose for a few hours to and even above the freezing-point. A water-sky was again formed along the horizon of the ice from north-east to north, and from the heights at the coast there was seen an extensive opening in the ice-fields, which a little east of Irgunnuk nearly reached the shore. Some kilometres farther east even the shore itself was free of ice, and from the hills our sailors thought they saw a heavy sea in the blue water border which bounded the circle of vision. If this was not an illusion, caused by the unequal heating and oscillatory motion of the lower stratum of the atmosphere, the open water may have been of great extent. Perhaps the statement of the natives was correct, that it extended as far as Behring's Straits. But we could not now place complete reliance on their statements, since we had rewarded with extra treating some predictions, relating to ice and weather, that were favourable to us. Even between the vessel's anchorage and the land various cracks had been formed, through which the sea water had forced its way under the snow, and in which some of us got cold feet or leg baths during our walks to and from the land.



The Chukches at Irgunnuk were now successful in killing a Polar bear and seventy seals, of which some were ostentatiously set up in rows, along with frozen slices of blubber, along the outer walls of the tents, and others were laid down in the blubber cellars, which were soon filled to overflowing. At Yinretlen, the encampment nearer us, the hunters on the other hand had obtained only eight seals. Gladness and want of care for the morrow at all events prevailed here also, and our skin-clad friends availed themselves of the opportunity to exhibit a self-satisfied disdain of the simple provisions from the Vega which the day before they had begged for with gestures so pitiful, and on which they must, in a day or two, again depend. The children, who had fallen off during recent weeks, if not in comparison with European children, at least with well-fed Chukch ones, began speedily to regain their former condition, and likewise the older people. Begging ceased for some days, but the vessel's deck still formed a favourite rendezvous for crowds of men, women, and children. Many passed here the greater part of the day, cheerful and gay in a temperature of -40 deg. C, gossiped, helped a little, but always only a little, at the work on board and so on. The mild weather, the prospect of our getting free, and of an abundant fishing for the Chukches, however, soon ceased. The temperature again sank below the freezing-point, that is of mercury, and the sea froze so far out from the shore that the Chukches could no longer carry on any fishing. Instead we saw them one morning come marching, like prisoners on an Egyptian or Assyrian monument, in goose-march over the ice toward the vessel, each with a burden on his shoulder, of whose true nature, while they were at a distance, we endeavoured in vain to form a guess. It was pieces of ice, not particularly large, which they, self-satisfied, cheerful and happy at their new bit, handed over to the cook to get from him in return some of the kauka (food) they some days before had despised.

The first time the temperature of the air sank under the freezing-point of mercury, was in January. It now became necessary to use instead of the mercury the spirit thermometers, which in expectation of the severe cold had been long ago hung up in the thermometer case. When mercury freezes in a common thermometer, it contracts so much that the column of mercury suddenly sinks in the tube; or if it is short, goes wholly into the ball. The position of the column is therefore no measure of the actual degree of cold when the freezing takes place. The reading of -89 deg., or even of -150 deg., which at a time when it was not yet known that mercury could at a low temperature assume the solid form, was made on a mercurial thermometer in the north of Sweden,[258] and which at the time occasioned various discussions and doubts as to the trustworthiness of the observer, was certainly quite correct, and may be repeated at any time by cooling mercury under its freezing-point in a thermometer of sufficient length divided into degrees under 0 deg.. The freezing of mercury[259] takes place from below upwards, the frozen metal as being heavier sinking down in that portion which is still fluid. If when it is half frozen the fluid be poured away from the frozen portion, we obtain groups of crystals, composed of small octohedrons, grouped together by the edges of the cube. None of our mercurial thermometers suffered any damage, nor was there any alteration of the position of the freezing-point in them from the mercury having frozen in them and again become fluid.

During the severe cold the ice naturally became thicker and thicker, and by the continual northerly winds still higher torosses were heaped up round the vessel, and larger and larger snow masses were collected between it and the land, and on the heights along the coast. All hopes or fears of an early release were again given up, and a perceptible dullness began to make itself felt after the bustle and festrvities of the Christmas holidays. Instead there was now arranged a series of popular lectures which were held in the lower deck, and treated of the history of the North-East Passage, the first circumnavigations of the globe, the Austrian-Hungarian Expedition, the changes of the earth's surface, the origin of man, the importance of the leaf to the plants, &c. It became both for the officers and scientific men and the crew a little interruption to the monotony of the Arctic winter life, and the lecturer could always be certain of finding his little auditory all present and highly interested. Some slight attempts at musical evening entertainments were also made, but these failed for want of musical instruments and musical gifts among the Vega men. We had among us no suitable director of theatrical representations after the English-Arctic pattern, and even if we had had, I fear that the director would have found it very difficult to gather together the dramatic talents requisite for his entertainment.

On the 17th February Lieutenant Brusewitz made an excursion to Najtskaj, of which he gives the following account:—

"I and Notti left the vessel in the afternoon, and after two hours came to Rirajtinop, Notti's home, where we passed the night, together with his three younger brothers and an invalid sister, who all lived in the same tent-chamber. Immediately after our arrival one of the brothers began to get the dog-harness and sleigh ready for the following day's journey, while the rest of us went into the interior of the tent, where the invalid sister lay with her clothes off, but wrapt in reindeer skins. She took charge of two train-oil lumps over which hung two cooking vessels, one formerly a preserve tin, and the other a bucket of tinned iron. One of the brothers came in with a tray, on which was placed a piece of seal blubber, together with frozen vegetables, principally willow leaves. The blubber was cut into small square pieces about the size of the thumb, after which one of the brothers gave the sister a large portion both of the blubber and vegetables. The food was thus served out to the others. Every piece of blubber was carefully imbedded in vegetable before it was eaten. When the vegetables were finished there was still some blubber, which was given to the dogs that lay in the outer tent. After this the boiled spare-rib of a seal were partaken of, and finally a sort of soup, probably made from seal's blood. The sister had a first and special helping of these dishes. I also got an offer of every dish, and it did not appear to cause any offence that I did not accept the offer. After the close of the meal the cooking vessels were set down, the "pesks" taken off, and some reindeer skins taken down from the roof and spread out. The older brothers lighted their pipes, and the younger lay down to sleep. I was shown to one of the side places in the tent, evidently Notti's own. One of the lamps was extinguished, after which all slept. During the night the girl complained several times, when one of the brothers always rose and attended to her. At six in the morning I wakened the party and reminded them of our journey. All rose immediately. Dressing proceeded slowly, because much attention was given to the foot covering. No food was produced, but all appeared quite pleased when I gave them of my stock, which consisted of bread and some preserved beef-steaks. Immediately after breakfast four dogs were harnessed to the sleigh, with which Notti and I continued our journey to Najtskaj, I riding and he running alongside the sleigh. At Irgunnuk, a Chukch village about an English mile east of Rirajtinop, a short stay was made in order to try to borrow some dogs, but without success. We continued our journey along the shore, and at 10 o'clock A.M. arrived at Najtskaj, which is from fifteen to eighteen kilometres E.S.E. from Irgunnuk. Here we were received by most of our former neighbours, the inhabitants of Pitlekaj. Of the thirteen tents of the village the five westernmost were occupied by the former population of Pitlekaj, while the eight lying more to the eastward were inhabited by other Chukches. The Pitlekaj people had not pitched their common large tents, but such as were of inconsiderable size or small ones fastened close together. In all the tents here, as at Rirajtinop and Irgunnuk, there was much blubber laid up, we saw pieces of seal and whole seals piled up before the tents, and on the way to Najtskaj we met several sledges loaded with seals, on their way to Pidlin. At Najtskaj I went out hunting accompanied by a Chukch. We started eight hares, but did not succeed in getting within range of them. A red fox was seen at a great distance but neither ptarmigan nor traces of them could be discovered. At two in the afternoon I returned to Irgunnuk and there got another sleigh drawn by ten dogs, with which I soon reached the vessel."



On the 20th February three large Chukch sledges laden with goods and drawn by sixteen to twenty dogs stopped at the Vega. They said they came from the eastward, and were on their way to the market in the neighbourhood of Nischni Kolymsk. I again by way of experiment sent with them home-letters, for which, as they declined to take money, I gave them as postage three bottles of rum and abundant entertainment for men and dogs. In consideration of this payment they bound themselves faithfully to execute their commission and promised to return in May. And they kept then word. For on the 8th and 9th May a large number of sledges heavily laden with reindeer skins and drawn by many dogs, passed along the coast from west to east. Of course all rested at the Vega, the only house of entertainment on the coast of the Asiatic Polar Sea, considering it as a matter of indisputable right, that they should in return for a little talk and gossip obtain food and "ram." Very eagerly they now informed us that a letter would come with another dog train that might be expected in a few hours. This was for us a very great piece of news, the importance of which none can understand who has never hungered for months for news from home, from the home-land and the home-world. Eager to know if we had actually to expect a post from Europe, we asked them how large the packet was "Very large" was the answer, and the "ram" was of course measured accordingly. But when at last the letter came it was found to be only an exceedingly short note from some of the Russian officials at Kolyma, informing me that our letters had reached him on the 4th April/23rd March and had been immediately sent by express to Yakutsk. Thence they were sent on by post, reaching Irkutsk on the 20th/14th May, and Sweden on the 2nd August.

During autumn and midwinter the sunshine was not of course strong and continuous enough to be painful to the eyes, but in February the light from the snow-clouds and the snow-drifts began to be troublesome enough. On the 22nd February accordingly snow-spectacles were distributed to all the men, an indispensable precaution, as I have before stated, in Arctic journeys. Many of the Chukches were also attacked with snow-blindness somewhat later in the season, and were very desirous of obtaining from us blue-coloured spectacles. Johnsen even stated that one of the hares he shot was evidently snow-blind.

On the evening of the 22th February there burst upon us a storm with drifting snow and a cold of -36 deg.. To be out in such weather is not good even for a Chukch dog. Of this we had confirmation the next day, when a Chukch who had lost his way came on board, carrying a dog, frozen stiff, by the backbone, like a dead hare. He had with his dog gone astray on the ice and lain out, without eating anything, in a snow-drift for the night. The master himself had suffered nothing, he was only hungry, the dog on the other hand scarcely showed any sign of life. Both were naturally treated on board the Vega with great commiseration and kindness. They were taken to the 'tweendecks, where neither Chukches nor Chukch dogs were otherwise admitted, for the man an abundant meal was served of what we believed he would relish best, and he was then allowed, probably for the first time in his life, to sleep if not under a sooty, at least under a wooden roof. The dog was for hours carefully subjected to massage, with the result that he came to life again, which struck us, and, as it appeared, not least the Chukch himself, as something wonderful.

In the beginning of March there passed us a large number of sledges laden with reindeer skins, and drawn by eight to ten dogs each. Every sledge had a driver, and as usual the women took no part in the journey. These trains were on a commercial journey from Irkaipij to Paek at Behring's Straits. We found among the foremen many of our acquaintances from the preceding autumn, and I need not say that this gave occasion to a special entertainment, for the people, bread, a little spirits, soup, some sugar, and tobacco, for the dogs, pemmican. Conversation during such visits became very lively, and went on with little hindrance, since two of us were now somewhat at home in the Chukch language. For if I except two men, Menka and Noah Elisej, who could talk exceedingly defective Russian, there was not one of the reindeer or dog-foremen travelling past who could speak any European language, and notwithstanding this they all carry on an active commerce with the Russians. But the Chukch is proud enough to require that his own language shall prevail in all international commerce in the north-east of Asia, and his neighbours find their advantage in this.

During the course of the winter, Lieutenant Nordquist collected from the Chukch foremen coming from a distance who travelled past, information regarding the state of the ice between Chaun Bay and Behring's Straits at different seasons of the year. Considering the immense importance of the question, even in a purely practical point of view, I shall quote verbatim the statements which he thus collected.

Statements regarding the state of the ice on the coast between Cape Yakan and Behring's Straits by Chukches living there.

"1. A Chukch from Yekanenmitschikan, near Cape Yakan, said that it is usual for open water to be there the whole summer.

"2. A Chukch from Kinmankau, which lies a little to the west of Cape Yakan, said the same.

"3. A Chukch from Yakan stated that the sea there becomes free of ice in the end of May or beginning of June. On the other hand it is never open in winter.

"4. Tatan from Yakan stated that the sea there is open from the end of May or beginning of June to the latter part of September or beginning of October, when the ice begins to drift towards the land.

"5. Rikkion from Vankarema said that the sea there is covered with ice in winter, but open in summer.

"6. A reindeer Chukch, Rotschitlen, who lives about twelve English miles from the Vega's winter quarters, said that Kolyutschin Bay, by the Chukches called Pidlin, is clear of ice the whole summer.

"7. Urtridlin from Kolyutschin said that neither at that island nor in Kolyutschin Bay is there any ice in summer.

"8. Ranau, from Yinretlen, also said that Kolyutschin Bay is always open in summer.

"9. Ettiu, from the village Nettej, between Irgunnuk and Behring's Straits, stated that the sea at Nettej is open in summer, independently of the wind, in winter only when the wind is southerly.

"10. Vankatte, from Nettej, stated that the sea there becomes open during the month "Tautinyadlin," that is, the latter part of May and the beginning of June, and is again covered with ice during the month "Kutscshkau," or October and November.

"11. Kepljeplja, from the village Irgunnuk, lying five English miles east of the Vega's winter quarters at Pitlekaj, said that the sea off these villages is open all summer, except when northerly winds prevail. On the other hand, he said that farther westward, as at Irkaipij, ice could nearly always be seen from the land.

"12. Kapatljin, from Kingetschkun, a village between Irgunnuk and Behring's Straits, stated on the 11th January that there was then open water at that village. He said further, that Behring's Straits in winter are filled with ice when the wind is southerly, but open when the wind is northerly. The same day a Chukch from Nettej-Kengitschkau, also between Irgunnuk and Behring's Straits, stated that ice then lay off that village. He confirmed Kapatljin's statement regarding Behring's Straits.

"13. Kvano, from Uedlje, near Behring's Straits, said that there the sea is always open from May to the end of September."

On the 13th March we came to know that spirits, too, form an article of commerce here. For, without having obtained any liquor from the Vega, the Chukches at Yinretlen had the means of indulging in a general fuddle, and that even their friendly disposition gives way under the effects of the intoxication we had a manifest proof, when the day after they came on board with blue and yellow eyes, not a little seedy and ashamed. In autumn a tall and stout Chukch giantess, who then paid us a visit, informed us that her husband had been murdered in a drunken quarrel.

Sledges of considerable size, drawn by reindeer, began after the middle of March to pass the Vega in pretty large numbers. They were laden with reindeer skins and goods bought at the Russian market-places, and intended for barter at Behring's Straits.

The reindeer Chukches are better clothed, and appear to be in better circumstances and more independent than the coast Chukches, or, as they ought to be called in correspondence with the former name, the dog Chukches. As every one owns a reindeer herd, all must follow the nomad mode of living, but at the same time they carry on traffic between the savages in the northernmost parts of America and the Russian fur-dealers in Siberia, and many pass their whole lives in commercial journeys. The principal market is held annually during the mouth of March, on an island in the river Little Anjui, 250 versts from Nischni Kolymsk. The barter goes on in accordance with a normal price-list, mutually agreed upon by the Russian merchants and the oldest of the Chukches. The market is inaugurated on the part of the Russians by a mass performed by the priest,[260] who always accompanies the Russian crown commissioner, and in the Chukches' camp with buffoonery by one of the Chukch Shamans. At such a market there is said to be considerable confusion, to judge by the spirited description which Wrangel gives of it (Reise, i. p. 269). We ought, however, to remember that this description refers to the customs that prevailed sixty years ago. Now, perhaps, there is a great change there. In the commercial relations in north-eastern Asia in the beginning of this century, we have probably a faithful picture of the commerce of the Beormas in former days in north-eastern Europe. Even the goods were probably of the same sort at both places, perhaps, also, the stand-points of the culture of the two races.

Besides the traders, a large number of Chukches from Kolyutschin Island and other villages to the west, travelled past us with empty sledges, to which were harnessed only a few dogs. They returned in the course of a few days with their sledges fully laden with fish which they said they had caught in a lagoon situated to the eastward. They also sometimes sold a delicious variety of the Coregonus taken in a lake in the interior some distance from the coast.

Further on in winter a number of excursions were undertaken in different directions, partly to find out these fishing places, partly to get an idea of the mode of life of the reindeer Chukches. I, however, never ventured to give permission for any long absence from the vessel, because I was quite convinced that the sea round the Vega after a few days' constant southerly storm might become open under circumstances which would not permit us to remain in the open road where we lay moored, my comrades' desire to penetrate far into the Chukch peninsula could not on that account be satisfied. But short as these excursions were, they give us, however, much information regarding our winter life, and our contact with the little-known tribe, on the coast of whose homeland the Vega had been beset, and on that account, perhaps, there may be reasons for making extracts from some of the reports given in to me with reference to these journeys.

Palander's and Kjellman's excursion to a reindeer Chukch camp south-west of Pitlekaj, is sketched by the former thus:—

"On the 17th March, 1879, accompanied by Dr. Kjellman, I went out with a sledge and five men, among them a native as guide, to the reindeer Chukch camp in the neighbourhood of Taffelberg (Table Mountain), with a view to obtain fresh reindeer flesh. The expedition was fitted out with two days' provisions, tent, mattrasses, and pesks. The reindeer Chukches were met with eleven English miles from the vessel. On an eminence here were found two tents, of which one at the time was uninhabited. The other was occupied by the Chukch, Rotschitlen, his young wife, and another young pair, the latter, if I understood them right, being on a visit, and properly having their home at Irgunnuk.



"Round the tent, which was considerably smaller than those we daily saw at the coast, lay a number of sledges piled up on one another. These sledges differed from the common dog-sledges in being considerably larger and wider in the gauge. The runners were clumsy and axed from large wood.

"Our proposal to purchase reindeer was immediately declined, although we offered in exchange bread, tobacco, rum, and even guns. As a reason for this refusal they stated that the reindeer at this season of the year are too lean to be slaughtered. We saw about fifty reindeer pasturing on an eminence at a distance of several thousand feet from us.

"In the afternoon Kjellman and I were invited into the tent, where we passed an hour in their sleeping chamber. On our entrance the lamp, which was filled with seal oil, was lighted, a sort of moss (sphagnum) was used as a wick. Our hostess endeavoured to make our stay in the tent as agreeable as possible, she rolled together reindeer skins for pillows and made ready for us a place where, stretched at full length, we might enjoy much needed repose. In the outer tent the other women prepared supper, which consisted of boiled seal's-flesh. We received a friendly invitation to share their meal, but as we had no taste for seal's-flesh, we declined their offer under the pretext that we had just had dinner. They took their meal lying with the body in the inner tent, but with the head under the reindeer-skin curtain in the outer, where the food was. After the meal was partaken of, their heads were drawn within the curtain, our host divested himself of all his clothes, the trousers excepted, which were allowed to remain. Our hostess let her pesk fall down from her shoulders, so that the whole upper part of the body thus became bare. The reindeer-skin boots were taken off, and turned outside in, they were carefully dried and hung up in the roof over the lamp to dry during the night. We treated the women to some sugar, which, in consequence of their want of acquaintance with it, they at first examined with a certain caution, finding afterwards that it tasted exceeding well. After the meal our host appeared to become sleepy, we accordingly said good-night, and went to our own tent, where it was quite otherwise than warm, the temperature during the night being about -11 deg. C.

"After for the most part a sleepless night, we rose at half-past six next morning. When we came out of the tent we saw all the reindeer advancing in a compact troop. At the head was an old reindeer with large horns, that went forward to his master, who had in the meantime gone to meet the herd, and bade him good-morning by gently rubbing his nose against his master's hands. While this was going on the other reindeer stood drawn up in well-ordered ranks, like the crew in divisions on board a man-of-war. The owner then went forward and saluted every reindeer, they were allowed to stroke his hands with their noses. He on his part took every reindeer by the horn and examined it in the most careful way. After the inspection was ended at a sign given by the master the whole herd wheeled round and returned in closed ranks, with the old reindeer in front, to the previous day's pasture.

"The whole scene made a very favourable impression on us, it was not the grim hard savage showing in a coarse and barbarous way his superiority over the animals, but the good master treating his inferiors kindly, and having a friendly word for each of them. Here good relations prevailed between man and the animals. Rotschitlen himself was a stately young man, with an intelligent appearance and a supple handsome figure. His dress, of exceedingly good cut and of uncommonly fine reindeer skin, sat close to his well-grown frame, and gave us an opportunity of seeing his graceful and noble bearing, which was most observable when he was in motion.

"On our repeating our proposal to purchase reindeer we again met with a refusal, on which we struck our tent and commenced our return journey. We came on board on the 18th March at 3 o'clock P.M., after a march of four hours and three-quarters.

"The way to the reindeer camp rose and fell gently. The snow was hard and even, so that we could go forward rapidly. On the way out four foxes and some ravens were seen. At one place we found a large number of lemming passages excavated through the snow in an oblique direction towards the ground. Most of them were scratched up by foxes. The descent to an untouched lemming nest was cylindrical, and four and a half centimetres in diameter. During both days we had snow, and a thick and foggy atmosphere, so that we could see only a short distance before us, we did not however go astray, thanks to the good eyes and strongly developed sense of locality of our guide, the native."

Brusewitz's and Nordquist's Excursion to Nutschoitjin

Of this Nordquist gives the following account:—

"On the 20th March, at 9 o'clock A.M. Lieut Brusewitz, boatswain Lustig, the Norwegian hunters Johnsen and Sievertsen, the Chukch Notti, and I, left the Vega. Our equipment, which consisted of provisions for eight days, cooking apparatus, canvas tent, india-rubber mattrasses, reindeer-skin pesks, &c., we drew after us on a sledge. At 2.45 P.M. we came to Nutschoitjin (Coregonus Lake). During our journey we passed a river which flows between Nutschoitjin and the mountain Hotschkeanranga, about ten English miles south of this lake and falls into the great lagoon south of Prtlekaj. Farther into the interior this river, according to Notti's statement, flows through several lakes: he also informed us that in summer it abounds very much in salmon (lienne). Some sandy hills formed the watershed between it and Nutschoitjin. The only animal we saw during our outward journey was a fox. On the other hand we found traces of hares, ptarmigan, and a couple of lemmings. After we had found a suitable camping-place, we began to build a snow-house, which, however, we could not get ready till next day.

"On the 21st Brusewitz and I went out to view our nearest surroundings. On a hill north of the lake, where Potentilla, Carex, and Poa stuck up through the snow-covering, we saw a large number of traces of the fox, the hare, and the ptarmigan. We employed the 22nd in cutting some holes in the ice, which was about one and a half metres thick, and in setting a net. For I wished to ascertain what species of Coregonus it is which, according to Notti's statement, occurs in abundance in this lake. At the place where the net was set there was something more than a metre of water under the ice The bottom consisted of mud. When we cut a hole in the middle of the lake in order to get deeper water we found that the ice, one and a half metres thick there, reached to the bottom.

"Next morning we got in the net eleven Coregoni, of which the largest were about thirty-five centimetres long. Although the weather was grey and we could not see very far, we went the same day to the hill Hotschkeanranga; partly to determine its height, and partly from its summit, which is visible for a great distance, to get a view of the appearance of the surrounding country. After crossing the river which flows between Nutschoitjin and Hotchkeanranga, we began to ascend the long slope on whose summit Hotchkanrakenljeut (Hotchkeanranga's head) rises with steep sides above the surrounding country. Over the slope were scattered loose blocks of stone of an eruptive rock. The crest of "the head" was also closely covered with loose stones. On the north of wind side these stones were covered with a hard beaten crust of snow nearly two feet thick, on the south side most of them were bare. According to Brusewitz the southern slopes are still steeper than the northern. South of the hill he saw a large valley—probably a lake—through which flows the river which we crossed.

"As on the outward journey I went with Notti, he advised me to offer a little food and brandy to the Spirit of the Lake, itjaken kamak, in order to get good net fishing. On my inquiring what appearance he had, Notti replied "uinga lilapen," "I have never seen him." Besides this spirit there are in his view others also in streams, in the earth, and in some mountains. The Chukches also sacrifice to the sun and moon. On the other hand they do not appear, as some other races, to pay any sort of worship to their departed friends. When I gave him a biscuit and bade him offer it, he made with the heel a little depression in the snow on Nutschoitjin, crumbled a little bit of the biscuit in pieces, and threw the crumbs into the hollow. The rest of the biscuit he gave back, declaring that kamak did not require more, and that we should now have more fish in the net than the first time. Notti said also that the Chukches are wont to sacrifice something for every catch. Thus have probably arisen all the collections of bear and seal skulls and reindeer horns, which we often saw on the Chukch coast, especially on eminences.

"After we had read off the aneroid, we speedily made our way to the snow-house, because during the interval a violent storm of drifting snow had arisen, so that we could not see more than half a score of paces before us. On the slope below "the head" we had already on our way thither seen traces of two wild reindeer. Notti said that there are a few of them on the hill the whole winter. The greater number, however, draw farther southward, and approach the coast only during summer. Johnson had wounded an owl (Strix nyctea), which however made its escape. On the 24th snow fell and drifted during the whole day, so that we could not go out to shoot. On the 25th we came on board again.

"According to the aneroid observations made during the journey, the highest summit we visited had a height of 197 metres."

Lieutenant Bove's Account of an Excursion to Najtskaj and Tjapka.

"On the 19th April, at 4 o'clock A.M. the hunter Johnsen and I started on a short excursion eastward along the coast, with a view to pay a visit to the much frequented fishing station Najtskaj, where our old friends from Pitlekaj had settled. We had a little sledge which we ourselves drew, and which was laden with provisions for three days and some meteorological and hydrographical instruments.

"At 6 o'clock A.M. we reached Rirajtinop, where we found Notti, a serviceable, talented, and agreeable youth. The village Rirajtinop, which formerly consisted of a great many tents, now had only one tent, Notti's, and it was poor enough. It gave the inhabitants only a slight protection against wind and cold. Among household articles in the tent I noticed a face-mask of wood, less shapeless than those which according to Whymper's drawings are found among the natives along the river Youcon, in the territory of Alaska, and according to Dr. Simpson among the West-Eskimo. I learned afterwards that this mask came from Paek, Behring's Straits, whither it was probably carried from the opposite American shore.



"The village Irgunnuk lies from three to four hundred metres from Rirajtinop, and consists of five tents, one of which two days before had been removed from Yinretlen. The tents are as usual placed on earthy eminences, and have if possible the entrance a couple of paces from some steep escarpment, manifestly in order that the door opening may not be too much obstructed with snow. I reckon the population of Irgunnuk at forty persons.

"Off this village the ice is broken up even close to the land into torosses, five to six metres high, which form a chain which closely follows the shore for a distance of five to six hundred metres to the eastward. The coast from Irgunnuk to Najtskaj runs in a straight line, is low, and only now and then interrupted by small earthy eminences, which all bear traces of old dwellings. Each of these heights has its special name: first Uelkantinop, then Tiumgatti, and lastly Tiungo, two miles west of Najtskaj. In the neighbourhood of Uelkantinop we were overtaken by a reindeer-Chukch, who accompanied us to Najtskaj in order there to purchase fish and seal-blubber. At noon we reached Najtskaj, where our arrival had been announced by a native, who, with his dog-team, had driven past us on the way. Accordingly on our entrance we were surrounded by the youth of the village, who deafened us with then unceasing cries for bread (kauka), tobacco, ram, &c. After some moments the begging urchins were joined both by women and full-grown men. We entered a tent, which belonged to a friend or perhaps relation of Notti. There we were very well received. In the same tent the reindeer-Chukch also lodged who had given us his company on the way. He went into the sleeping chamber, threw himself down there, took part in the family's evening meal, all almost without uttering a word to the hostess, and the next morning he started without having saluted the host. Hospitality is here of a peculiar kind. It may perhaps be expressed thus To-day I eat and sleep in your tent, to-morrow you eat and sleep in mine; and accordingly, as far as I saw, all, both rich and poor, both those who travelled with large sledges, and those who walked on foot, were received in the same way. All are sure to find a corner in the tent-chamber.



"The tent-chamber, or yaranga, as this part of the tent is called by the natives, takes up fully a third-part of the whole tent, and is at the same time work-room, dining-room, and sleeping chamber. Its form is that of a parallelepiped; and a moderately large sleeping chamber has a height of 1.80 metre, a length of 3.50, and a breadth of 2.20 metres. The walls are formed of reindeer skin with the hair inwards, which are supported by a framework of posts and cross-bars. The floor consists of a layer of grass undermost, on which a walrus skin is spread. The grass and the skin do not form a very soft bed, yet one on which even a tried European wanderer may find rest. The interior of the sleeping-chamber is lighted and warmed by lamps, whose number varies according to the size of the room. A moderately large chamber has three lamps, the largest right opposite the entrance, the two others on the cross walls. The lamps are often made of a sort of stone, which is called by the natives ukulschi. They have the form of a large ladle. The fuel consists of train-oil, and moss is used for the wick. These lamps besides require constant attention, because half-an-hour's neglect is sufficient to make them smoke or go out. The flame is at one corner of the lamp, whose moss wick is trimmed with a piece of wood of the shape shown in the drawing. The lamp rests on a foot, and it in its turn in a basin. In this way every drop of oil that may be possibly spilled is collected. If there is anything that this people ought to save, it is certainly oil, for this signifies to them both light and heat. In the roof of the bedchamber some bars are fixed over the lamps on which clothes and shoes are hung to dry. The lamps are kept alight the whole day, during night they are commonly extinguished, as otherwise they would require continual attention. Some clothes and fishing implements, two or three reindeer skins to rest upon—these are the whole furniture of a Chukch tent.



"Every tent is besides provided with some drums (yarar). These are made of a wooden ring, about seventy centimetres in diameter, on which is stretched a skin of seal or walrus gut. The drum is beaten with a light stick of whalebone. The sound thus produced is melancholy, and is so in a yet higher degree when it is accompanied by the natives' monotonous, commonly rhythmical songs, which appear to me to have a strong resemblance to those we hear in Japan and China. A still greater resemblance I thought I observed in the dances of these peoples. Notti is a splendid yarar-player. After some pressing he played several of their songs with a feeling for which I had not given him credit. The auditors were numerous, and by their smiles and merry eyes one could see that they were transported by the sounds which Notti knew how to call from the drum. Notti was also listened to in deep silence, with an admiration like that with which in a large room we listen to a distinguished pianist. I saw in the tent no other musical instrument than that just mentioned.



"The day we arrived at Najtskaj we employed in viewing the neighbourhood of the village. We accordingly ascended a hill about thirty metres high to the south of the village in order to get a clear idea of the region. From the summit of the hill we had a view of the two lagoons west and east of Najtskaj. The western appeared, with the exception of some earthy heights, to embrace the whole stretch of coast between Najtskaj, the hill at Yinretlen, and the mountains which are visible in the south from the Observatory. The lagoon east of Najtskaj is separated from the sea by a high rampart of sand, and extends about thirty kilometres into the interior, to the foot of the chain of hills which runs along there. To the eastward the lagoon extends along the coast to the neighbourhood of Serdze Kamen. This cape was clearly seen and, according to an estimate which I do not think was far from the truth, was situated at a distance of from twenty-five to twenty-six kilometres from Najtskaj. It sinks terracewise towards the sea, and its sides are covered with stone pillars, like those we saw in the neighbourhood of Cape Great Baranoff. Serdze Kamen to the south is connected with mountain heights which are the higher the farther they are from the sea. Some of these have a conical form, others are table-shaped, reminding us of the Ambas of Abyssinia. Ten or twelve miles into the interior they appear to reach a height of six hundred to nine hundred metres.

"The fishing in the eastern lagoon takes place mainly in the neighbourhood of Najtskaj, at a distance of about five kilometres from the village. Hooks are exclusively used, and no nets or other fishing implements. In a few minutes I saw twenty cod (urokadlin) caught, and about as many small fish, called by the natives nukionukio. For the fishing the natives make a hole in the ice, a decimetre in diameter. Round the hole they build, as a protection against wind and drifting snow, a snow wall eighty centimetres high, forming a circle with an inner diameter of a metre and a half. The fish-hooks are of iron and are not barbed. The line is about five metres long, and is fixed to a rod nearly a metre in length. At the end of the angling line hangs a weight of bone, and beside it the hook. It is generally the women who fish, yet there are generally two or three men about to open the holes, build the walls, and keep the fishing-places clear. All the holes with their shelter-walls lie in an arc, about a kilometre in length, whose convex side is turned to the east. The ice in the lagoon was 1.7 metre thick, the water 3.2 metres deep, and the thickness of snow on the ice 0.3 metre.



"The day after our arrival at Najtskaj we visited the village Tjapka, which lies at a distance of six kilometres. This village contains thirteen tents, some of which are more roomy and better built than any Chukch tent I have previously seen. We lodged in a tent which belonged to Erere, a friendly man with a face that was always cheerful. His sleeping-chamber was so large that it could hold more than one family. We found the inmates there completely naked, Erere's wife, Kedlanga, not excepted. Kedlanga was well formed, her bosom full, her stomach somewhat projecting, the thighs poor, the legs slender, the feet small. The men appeared to have a greater disposition to stoutness than the women. Some of the children had disproportionately large stomachs. Both men and women wore copper rings on the legs, the wrists, and the upper arms. On festivals they decorate themselves with iron rings, with which some reminiscence appears to be connected, to judge by the fact that they will not part with them.

"Erere's family was very numerous, according to the prevailing state of matters here. He had five children, whose names, according to their age, were, Hatanga, Etughi, Vedlat, Uai, and Umonga. In all the tents which I visited I have inquired the number of children. Only two or three wives had more than three; the average may be estimated at two.



"The children are from their tenderest years set apart for each other, thus Etughi, Erere's second son, who was little more than eight, was set apart for Keipteka, a girl of six or seven. Etughi and Keipteka slept under the same roof, though apart. "When they grow bigger," said Erere to me, "then sleeping-places will be put alongside each other". At what age this takes place I have not ascertained, but I suppose that it is very early, as is common with all Oriental races.

"Right opposite Tjapka lies a small island, by the natives called Idlidlja, which is about 800 metres in circumference. Its shores rise perpendicularly on all sides except that which is opposite Tjapka, in which direction it sinks with a steep slope. On the north end of it we found three or four whales' bones and some pieces of driftwood, but nothing to indicate that there had been any Onkilon dwellings there. The island swarmed with hares, which the inhabitants of Tjapka hunt with the bow. For this hunting they are accustomed to build circular walls of snow, pierced with loopholes, through which they shoot the unsuspecting animals.

"Regarding life in the tent I have still the following notes. The most troublesome work is given to the older women. They rise early to light and attend to the lamps, yoke the dogs, and go fishing. The young women, on the other hand, sleep far into the day. The housewives return at noon, then work is then finished, if we do not consider as work the constant motion of the tongue in talk and gossip. The younger people have it assigned to them to sew clothes, arrange the fishing-lines and nets, prepare skins, &c. Sewing-thread is made from the back sinews of the reindeer, which they procure by barter from the reindeer-Chukches, giving for them fish and seal-blubber.



"One cannot, without having seen it, form any idea of the large quantity of food they can consume. One evening I saw eight persons, including one child, eat about 30 lbs. of food. The bill of fare was: 1, raw fish; 2, soup; 3, boiled fish; 4, seal-blubber; 5, seal-flesh. The raw fish commonly consists of frozen cod. The soup is made partly of vegetables, partly of seal-blood; I saw both kinds. Vegetable soup was prepared by boiling equal quantities of water and vegetables, till the mixture formed a thick pap. The blood soup is cooked by boiling the blood together with water, fish, and fat. They are very fond of this soup. The seal-blubber they eat by stuffing into the mouth the piece which has been served to them, and then cutting a suitable mouthful with the knife, which they bring close to the lips. In the same way they do with the flesh.

"With the exception of the old women's gossip the greatest quietness prevails in the sleeping-chamber. It is not uncommon for men to visit each other. Thus the first night we spent at Najtskaj the tent where we lodged was full of people, but without the least disturbance arising. If one had anything to say he talked in quite a low tone, as if he were shy. He was listened to attentively, without any interruption. First when he had finished another began.

"Affection between spouses and parents and children is particularly strong. I have seen fathers kiss and caress their children before they went to rest, and what I found most remarkable was that the children never abused this tender treatment. Whatever one gave them, it was their first thought to divide it with their parents. In this respect and in many others they were far in advance of a large number of European children."

Lieutenant Bove's Report on an Excursion along with Dr. Almquist to the Interior of the Chukch Peninsula, from the 13th to the 17th June, 1879.

"We started from the vessel on the morning of the 13th June with a view to penetrate as far as possible into the interior of the Chukch peninsula. For the journey we had hired, for a liberal payment, two sledges drawn by dogs from Rotschitlen, a Chukch at Irgunnuk. The dogs and sledges surpassed our expectation. In fourteen hours we traversed a distance of nearly forty minutes, including bends, which corresponds to a speed of three, perhaps four, English miles an hour, if we deduct the rests which were caused by the objects of the journey—scientific researches. This speed strikes me as not inconsiderable, if we consider the weight which the dogs must draw, and the badness and unevenness of the way. For the ground was undulating, like a sea agitated by a storm. But pleased as we were with our sledges and dogs, we were as dissatisfied with Rotschitlen, a faint-hearted youth, without activity or experience. With another driver we might have been able in a few days to penetrate as far as the bottom of Kolyutschin Bay, which differs greatly in its form, from that which Russian, English, and German maps give to it. It is not improbable that it is almost connected by lakes, lagoons, and rivers with St. Lawrence Bay or Metschigme Bay, whose inner parts are not yet investigated.

"After we left the lagoons at Pitlekaj and Yinretlen, the coast began gradually to rise by escarpments, each about five metres in height. The plains between the escarpments are full of lagoons or marshes. Such a terrain continued until, about five hours' way from the vessel, we came to a height of twenty-seven metres. From this point the terrace-formations cease, and the terrain then consists of a large number of ranges of heights, intersected by rivulets, which during the snow-melting season must be very much flooded. Seven or eight hours' way from the vessel we met with such a rivulet, which farther to the S.S.E. unites with another which runs between two rocky escarpments twenty metres high. On one of these we pitched our tent, in order to draw and examine some hills which were already divested of the winter dress they had worn for nine long months. On the top of one of the hills we found marks of two recently-struck tents, which probably belonged to a reindeer Chukch, who had now settled halfway between Pitlekaj and Table Mount upon a chain of heights which appears to separate the Irgunnuk lagoon from the rocky eastern shore of Kolyutschin Bay. At our resting place we found a large number of reindeer horns and a heap of broken bones.

"After resuming our journey we came in a short time to the foot of Table Mount, whose height I reckoned at 180 meters. It slopes gently to the west and south (about 10 deg.), but more steeply to the east and north (about 15 deg.). The animal world there showed great activity. In less than an hour we saw more than a dozen foxes that ran up and down the hills and circled round us, as if they ran with a line. Fortunately for them they kept at a respectful distance from our doctor's sure gun.

"On the other side of Table Mount the ground sinks regularly towards Kolyutschin Bay. Here for a while we sought in vain for Yettugin's tent, in which we intended to pass the night, and which had been fixed upon as the starting-point of future excursions, till at last reindeer traces and afterwards the sight of some of these friendly animals brought us to the right way, so that about 9 o'clock P.M. we got sight of the longed-for dwelling in the middle of a snow-desert. At the word yaranga (tent) the dogs pointed their ears, uttered a bark of joy, and ran at full speed towards the goal. We arrived at 10.30 P.M. In the tent we were hospitably received by its mistress, who immediately made the necessary preparations for our obtaining food and rest. Yettugin himself was not at home, but he soon returned with a sledge drawn by reindeer. These animals had scarcely been unharnessed when they ran back to the herd, which according to Yettugin's statement was six kilometres east of the tent.

"I have never seen a family so afflicted with ailments as Yettugin's. The sexagenarian father united in himself almost all the bodily ailments which could fall to the lot of a mortal. He was blind, leprous (?), and had no use of the left hand, the right side of the face, and probably of the legs. His body was nearly everywhere covered with the scars of old sores from four to five centimetres in diameter. As Dr. Almquist and I were compelled to pass the night in the same confined sleeping-chamber with him, it was therefore not to be wondered at that we drew ourselves as much as possible into our corner. The sleeping-chamber or inner tent of a reindeer-Chukch is besides much more habitable than that of a coast-Chukch, the air, if not exactly pure, may at least be breathed, and the thick layer of reindeer skins which covers the tent floor may well compare in softness with our beds on board. Yettugin, his wife Tengaech, and his brother Keuto, slept out of doors in order to give us more room and not to disturb us when rising. Keuto had inherited no small portion of his father's calamity. He was deaf, half idiotic, and on his body there were already traces of such spots as on the old man's. Keuto was however an obliging youth, who during our stay in the tent did all that he could to be of use to us, and constantly wandered about to get buds and plants for us. He was a skilful archer; I saw him at a distance of twenty or twenty-five paces kill a small bird with a blunt arrow, and when I placed myself as a target he hit me right in the middle of the breast at a distance of perhaps thirty metres.