The principal Vishnuite sects are described in the article on Bairagi, and the dissenting sects which have branched off from these in special articles. [404] The cult of Vishnu and his two main incarnations is the most prominent feature of modern Hinduism. The orthodox Vaishnava sects mainly differed on the point whether the human soul or spirit was a part of the divine soul or separate from it, and whether it would be reabsorbed into the divine soul, or have a separate existence after death. But they generally regarded all human souls as of one quality, and hence were opposed to distinctions of caste. Animals also have souls or spirits, and the Vishnuite doctrine is opposed to the destruction of animal life in any form. In the Bania caste the practices of Vaishnava Hindus and Jains present so little difference that they can take food together, and even intermarry. The creed is also opposed to suicide.

Faithful worshippers of Vishnu will after his death be transported to his heaven, Vaikuntha, or to Golaka, the heaven of Krishna. The sect-mark of the Vaishnavas usually consists of three lines down the forehead, meeting at the root of the nose or below it. All three lines may be white, or the centre one black or red, and the outside ones white. They are made with a kind of clay called Gopichandan, and are sometimes held to be the impress of Vishnu's foot. To put on the sect-mark in the morning is to secure the god's favour and protection during the day.



Vam-Margi, Bam-Margi, Vama-Chari Sect.

Vam-Margi, Bam-Margi, Vama-Chari Sect. [405]—A sect who follow the worship of the female principle in nature and indulge in sensuality at their rites according to the precepts of the Tantras. The name signifies 'the followers of the crooked or left-handed path.' Their principal sacred text is the Rudra-Yamal-Damru Tantra, which is said to have been promulgated by Rudra or Siva through his Damru or drum at the end of his dance in Kailas, his heaven in the Himalayas. The Tantras, according to Professor Monier-Williams, inculcate an exclusive worship of Siva's wife as the source of every kind of supernatural faculty and mystic craft. The principle of female energy is known as Sakti, and is personified in the female counterparts of all the Gods of the Hindu triad, but is practically concentrated in Devi or Kali. The five requisites for Tantra worship are said to be the five Makaras or words beginning with M: Madya, wine; Mansa, flesh; Matsya, fish; Mudra, parched grain and mystic gesticulation; and Maithuna, sexual indulgence. Among the Vam-Margis both men and women are said to assemble at a secret meeting-place, and their rite consists in the adoration of a naked woman who stands in the centre of the room with a drawn sword in her hand. The worshippers then eat fish, meat and grain, and drink liquor, and thereafter indulge in promiscuous debauchery. The followers of the sect are mainly Brahmans, though other castes may be admitted. The Vam-Margis usually keep their membership of the sect a secret, but their special mark is said to be a semicircular line or lines of red powder or vermilion on the forehead, with a red streak half-way up the centre, and a circular spot of red at the root of the nose. They use a rosary of rudraksha or of coral beads, but of no greater length than can be concealed in the hand, or they keep it in a small purse or bag of red cloth. During worship they wear a piece of red silk round the loins and decorate themselves with garlands of crimson flowers. In their houses they worship a figure of the double triangle drawn on the ground or on a metal plate and make offerings of liquor to it.

They practise various magical charms by which they think they can kill their enemies. Thus fire is brought from the pyre on which a corpse has been burnt, and on this the operator pours water, and with the charcoal so obtained he makes a figure of his enemy in a lonely place under a pipal tree or on the bank of a river. He then takes an iron bar, twelve finger-joints long, and after repeating his charms pierces the figure with it. When all the limbs have been pierced the man whose effigy has been so treated will die. Other methods will procure the death of an enemy in a certain number of months or cause him to lose a limb. Sometimes they make a rosary of 108 fruits of the dhatura [406] and pierce the figure of the enemy through the neck after repeating charms, and it is supposed that this will kill him at once.



Wahhabi Sect

Wahhabi Sect. [407]—A puritan sect of Muhammadans. The sect was not recorded at the census, but it is probable that it has a few adherents in the Central Provinces. The Wahhabi sect is named after its founder, Muhammad Abdul Wahhab, who was born in Arabia in A.D. 1691. He set his face against all developments of Islam not warranted by the Koran and the traditional utterances of the Companions of the Prophet, and against the belief in omens and worship at the shrines of saints, and condemned as well all display of wealth and luxury and the use of intoxicating drugs and tobacco. He denied any authority to Islamic doctrines other than the Koran itself and the utterances of the Companions of the Prophet who had received instruction from his lips, and held that in the interpretation and application of them Moslems must exercise the right of private judgment. The sect met with considerable military success in Arabia and Persia, and at one time threatened to spread over the Islamic world. The following is an account of the taking of Mecca by Saud, the grandson of the founder, in 1803: "The sanctity of the place subdued the barbarous spirit of the conquerors, and not the slightest excesses were committed against the people. The stern principles of the reformed doctrines were, however, strictly enforced. Piles of green huqqas and Persian pipes were collected, rosaries and amulets were forcibly taken from the devotees, silk and satin dresses were demanded from the wealthy and worldly, and the whole, piled up into a heterogeneous mass, were burnt by the infuriated reformers. So strong was the feeling against the pipes and so necessary did a public example seem to be, that a respectable lady, whose delinquency had well-nigh escaped the vigilant eye of the Muhtasib, was seized and placed on an ass, with a green pipe suspended from her neck, and paraded through the public streets—a terrible warning to all of her sex who might be inclined to indulge in forbidden luxuries. When the usual hour of prayer arrived the myrmidons of the law sallied forth, and with leathern whips drove all slothful Moslems to their devotions. The mosques were filled. Never since the days of the Prophet had the sacred city witnessed so much piety and devotion. Not one pipe, not a single tobacco-stopper, was to be seen in the streets or found in the houses, and the whole population of Mecca prostrated themselves at least five times a day in solemn adoration."

The apprehensions of the Sultan of Turkey were aroused and an army was despatched against the Wahhabis, which broke their political power, their leader, Saud's son, being executed in Constantinople in 1818. But the tenets of the sect continued to be maintained in Arabia, and in 1822 one Saiyad Ahmad, a freebooter and bandit from Rai Bareli, was converted to it on a pilgrimage to Mecca and returned to preach its doctrines in India. Being a Saiyad and thus a descendant of the Prophet, he was accepted by the Muhammadans of India as the true Khalifa or Mahdi, awaited by the Shiahs. Unheeded by the British Government, he traversed our provinces with a numerous retinue of devoted disciples and converted the populace to his reformed doctrine by thousands, Patna becoming a centre of the sect. In 1826 he declared a jihad or religious war against the Sikhs, but after a four years' struggle was defeated and killed. The sect gave some trouble in the Mutiny, but has not since taken any part in politics. Its reformed doctrines, however, have obtained a considerable vogue, and still exercise a powerful influence on Muhammadan thought. The Wahhabis deny the authority of Islamic tradition after the deaths of the Companions of the Prophet, do not illuminate or pay reverence to the shrines of departed saints, do not celebrate the birthday of Muhammad, count the ninety-nine names of God on their fingers and not on a rosary, and do not smoke.



PART I

Glossary of Minor Castes and Other Articles, Synonyms, Subcastes, Titles and Names of Exogamous Septs or Clans

Note.—In this Glossary the references under each heading are to the detailed articles on castes, religions and sects, in Part I. and Part II. of the work. The synonyms, subcastes and titles have been taken from the main articles and are arranged here in index form as an aid to identification. Section or clan names, however, will not usually be found in the main articles. They have been selected from an alphabetical list prepared separately, and are included as being of some interest, in addition to those contained in the articles. The Glossary also serves the purpose of indicating how subcaste and clan names are common to several castes and tribes.



GLOSSARY

Abhimanchkul.—A section of Komti in Chanda. They abstain from using a preparation of lead which is generally ground to powder and applied to wounds.

Abhira.—An immigrant nomad tribe from which the modern Ahir caste is believed to have originated. A division of Maratha and Gujarati Brahmans, so called because they are priests of the Abhiras or the modern Ahirs.

Abdhut.—Name for a religious mendicant. Applied to Gosains, q.v.

Acharya, Acharaj.—(Superintendent of ceremonies.) Title of the heads of the Swami-Narayan sect. A surname of Adi Gaur Brahmans in Saugor.

Adhia.—(Half.) A subcaste of Telis considered to be illegitimate in Betul.

Adhaighar, Arhaighar.—(2 1/2 houses.) A subdivision of Saraswat Brahmans.

Adhali.—A name given to Malyars by outsiders.

Adigaur.—A subdivision of Brahman, probably a branch of the Gaur Brahmans, though in Saugor they are considered to be Kanaujias.

Adkandh, Adikandh.—(Superior Khonds.) A subcaste of Khonds, being the most Hinduised section of this tribe. A title of Khond.

Adnath, Adinath.—A subdivision of Jogi. Adinath was the father of Matsyendranath and grandfather of Gorakhnath, the first great Jogi.

Agamudayan.—A large Tamil cultivating caste, of which a few members reside in the Central Provinces in Jubbulpore and Raipur. They are the families of Madras sepoys who have retired from regiments stationed in these places. The Agamudayans sometimes call themselves by the title of Pillai, which means 'Son of a god' and was formerly reserved to Brahmans.

Agarwala, Agarwal.—A subcaste of Bania. See Bania-Agarwala.

Agastya.—An eponymous section of Brahmans.

Aghorpanthi.—Synonym for Aghori.

Agnihotri.—A surname of Kanaujia and Jijhotia Brahmans in Saugor. (One who performs the sacrifice to Agni or the god of fire.)

Agnikula.—A name given to four clans of Rajputs said to have been born from the fire-pit on Mount Abu. See article Panwar Rajput.

Agrahari.—A subcaste of Bania found chiefly in Jubbulpore District and Raigarh State. Their name has been connected with the cities of Agra and Agroha.

Agrajanma.—(First-born.) A synonym for Brahmans.

Aharia.—Clan of Rajput. Synonym for Sesodia.

Ahir.—The professional caste of herdsmen. A clan of Maratha. A subcaste of Rawat and Salewar Koshti in Nimar. A subcaste of Bishnoi, Gurao, and Sunar.

Ahirwar.—A resident of the old town of Ahar in the Bulandshahr district. Subcaste of Kori.

Ahivasi, Ahiwasi.—(From Ahiwas, 'The abode of the dragon,' the hermitage of Sanbhari Rishi in Mathura.) A Brahmanical or pseudo-Brahmanical tribe. They are said to be sprung from a Brahman father and a Kshatriya mother, and were formerly pack-carriers. Found in Jubbulpore and the Nerbudda Valley.

Ahke.—(Seduced.) A sept of the Uika clan of Gonds in Betul. They are said to be so named because their priests once seduced a Dhurwa girl, and her son was given this name.

Aithana.—A subcaste of Kayasth.

Ajodhia.—Subcaste of Jadam.

Ajudhiabasi.—See Audhia.

Akali.—Order of Sikh devotees. See article Sikh.

Akhadewale.—A class of Bairagis who do not marry. Also known as Nihang.

Akhroti.—A subdivision of Pathans. (From akhrot, walnut.)

Akre.—A bastard Khatik. Title of a child a Khatik gets by a woman of another caste.

Alia.—A grower of the al plant. A subcaste of Bania and Kachhi, a synonym of Chasa.

Alia, Alkari.—These terms are derived from the al or Indian mulberry (Morinda citrifolia). The Alias are members of the Kachhi caste who formerly grew the al plant in Nimar for sale to the dyers. Its cultivation then yielded a large profit and the Alias devoted themselves solely to it, while they excommunicated any of their members who were guilty of selling or giving away the seed. The imported alizarin has now almost entirely superseded the indigenous dye, and al as a commercial product has been driven from the market. Alkari is a term applied to Banias and others in the Damoh District who were formerly engaged in the cultivation of the al plant. The members of each caste which took to the cultivation of this plant were somewhat looked down upon by the others and hence became a distinct group. The explanation generally given of the distaste for the crop is that in the process of boiling the roots to extract the dye a number of insects have to be killed. A further reason is that the red dye is considered to resemble or be equivalent to blood, the second idea being a necessary consequence of the first in primitive modes of thought, and hence to cause a certain degree of pollution to those who prepare it. A similar objection is held to the purveying of lac-dye as shown in the article on Lakhera. Notwithstanding this, clothes dyed red are considered lucky, and the al dye was far more commonly used by Hindus than any other, prior to the introduction of aniline dyes. Tents were also coloured red with this dye. The tents of the Mughal Emperors and royal princes were of red cloth dyed with the roots of the al plant. [408] Similarly Nadir Shah, the victor of Panipat, had his field headquarters and lived in one small red tent. In these cases the original reason for colouring the tents red may probably have been that it was a lucky colour for battles, and the same belief may have led to the adoption of red as a royal and imperial colour.

Alkari.—Synonym for Alia.

Alua.—A subcaste of Uriya Brahmans, so named because their forefathers grew the alu or potato.

Amal.—A section of Komti. The members of this section do not eat the plantain.

Ambadar.—(Mango-branch.) A section of Rawat (Ahir).

Ambashta.—A subcaste of Kayasth.

Amethia.—(From Amethi, a pargana in Lucknow District.) A sept of Rajputs, who are Chauhans according to Sir H.M. Elliott, but others say they are a branch of the Chamar Gaur.

Amisht.—A subcaste of Kayasth.

Amnait.—Subcaste of Bhatra.

Amrite.—(From Amrit nectar.) A section of Kirar.

Anapa.—(Leather-dealers.) Subcaste of Madgi.

Anavala.—A subdivision of Gujarati or Khedawal Brahmans. They derive their name from the village Anaval in Baroda. They are otherwise known as Bhatela, Desai or Mastan.

Andhra, Tailanga.—One of the five orders of the Panch Dravid Brahmans inhabiting the Telugu country.

Antarvedi.—A resident of Antarved or the Doab, the tract of land between the Ganges and the Jumna rivers. Subcaste of Chamar.

Apastambha.—A Sutra of the Vedas. A subdivision of Brahmans following that Sutra and forming a caste subdivision. But they marry with Rig-Vedis, though the Sutra belongs to the Black Yajur-Vedi.

Atharvarvedi, Antharwarvedi.—A subcaste of Brahmans who follow the Atharvar-Veda and are very rarely met with.

Arab.—This designation is sometimes returned by the descendants of the Arab mercenaries of the Bhonsla kings. These were at one time largely employed by the different rulers of southern India and made the best of soldiers. In the Maratha armies [409] their rate of pay was Rs. 12 a month, while the ordinary infantry received only Rs. 5. General Hislop stated their character as follows: [410]

"There are perhaps no troops in the world that will make a stouter or more determined stand at their posts than the Arabs. They are entirely unacquainted with military evolutions, and undisciplined; but every Arab has a pride and heart of his own that never forsakes him as long as he has legs to stand on. They are naturally brave and possess the greatest coolness and quickness of sight: hardy and fierce through habit, and bred to the use of the matchlock from their boyhood: and they attain a precision and skill in the use of it that would almost exceed belief, bringing down or wounding the smallest object at a considerable distance, and not unfrequently birds with a single bullet. They are generally armed with a matchlock, a couple of swords, with three or four small daggers stuck in front of their belts, and a shield. On common occasions of attack and defence they fire but one bullet, but when hard pressed at the breach they drop in two, three, and four at a time, from their mouths, always carrying in them from eight to ten bullets, which are of a small size. We may calculate the whole number of Arabs in the service of the Peshwa and the Berar Raja at 6000 men, a loose and undisciplined body, but every man of them a tough and hardy soldier. It was to the Arabs alone those Provinces looked, and placed their dependence on. Their own troops fled and abandoned them, seldom or never daring to meet our smallest detachment. Nothing can exceed the horror and atarm with which some of our native troops view the Arab. At Nagpur in November 1817 the Arabs alone attacked us on the defence and reduced us to the last extremity, when we were saved by Captain Fitzgerald's charge. The Arabs attacked us at Koregaon and would have certainly destroyed us had not the Peshwa withdrawn his troops on General Smith's approach. The Arabs kept General Doveton at bay with his whole army at Nagpur for several days, repulsing our attack at the breach, and they gained their fullest terms. The Arabs worsted us for a month at Malegaon and saved their credit. They terrified the Surat authorities by their fame alone. They gained their terms of money from Sir John Malcolm at Asirgarh. They maintained to the last for their prince their post at Alamner and nobly refused to be bought over there. They attacked us bravely, but unfortunately at Talner. They attacked Captain Spark's detachment on the defence and destroyed it. They attacked a battalion of the 14th Madras Infantry with 26-pounders and compelled them to seek shelter in a village; and they gave us a furious wind-up at Asirgarh. Yet the whole of these Arabs were not 6000."

There is no doubt that the Arabs are one of the finest fighting races of the world. Their ancestors were the Saracens who gained a great empire in Europe and Asia. Their hardihood and powers of endurance are brought to the highest pitch by the rigours of desert life, while owing to their lack of nervous sensibility the shock and pain of wounds affect them less than civilised troops. And in addition their religion teaches that all who die in battle against the infidel are transported straight to a paradise teeming with material and sensual delights. Arab troops are still employed in Hyderabad State. Mr. Stevens notices them as follows in his book In India: "A gang of half-a-dozen, brilliantly dishevelled, a faggot of daggers with an antique pistol or two in each belt, and a six-foot matchlock on each shoulder. They serve as irregular troops there, and it must be owned that if irregularity is what you want, no man on earth can supply it better. The Arab irregulars are brought over to serve their time and then sent back to Arabia; there is one at this moment, who is a subaltern in Hyderabad, but as soon as he crosses the British border gets a salute of nine guns; he is a Sheikh in his own country near Aden."

The Arabs who have been long resident here have adopted the ways and manners of other Musalmans. Their marriages are in the Nikah form and are marked by only one [411] dinner, following the example of the Prophet, who gave a dinner at the marriage of his daughter the Lady Fatimah and Ali. In obedience to the order of the Prophet a death is followed by no signs of mourning. Arabs marry freely with other Sunni Muhammadans and have no special social or religious organisation. The battle-cry of the Arabs at Sitabaldi and Nagpur was 'Din, Din, Muhammad.'

Arakh.—A caste. A subcaste of Dahait, Gond and Pasi.

Aranya.—Name of one of the ten orders of Gosains.

Are.—A cultivating caste of the Chanda District, where they numbered 2000 persons in 1911. The caste are also found in Madras and Bombay, where they commonly return themselves under the name of Marathi; this name is apparently used in the south as a generic term for immigrants from the north, just as in the Central Provinces people coming from northern India are called Pardeshi. Mr. (Sir H.) Stuart says [412] that Are is a synonym for Arya, and is used as an equivalent of a Maratha and sometimes in a still wider sense, apparently to designate an immigrant Aryan into the Dravidian country of the south. The Ares of the Central Provinces appear to be Kunbis who have migrated into the Telugu country. The names of their subcastes are those of the Kunbis, as Khaire, Tirelle, a form of Tirole, and Dhanoj for Dhanoje. Other subdivisions are called Kayat and Kattri, and these seem to be the descendants of Kayasth and Khatri ancestors. The caste admit Brahmans, Banias, and Komtis into the community and seem to be, as shown by Mr. Stuart, a mixed group of immigrants from Maharashtra into the Telugu country. Some of them wear the sacred thread and others do not. Some of their family names are taken from those of animals and plants, and they bury persons who die unmarried, placing their feet towards the north like the forest tribes.

Arka.—A sept of Gonds in Chanda who worship the saras crane.

Armachi.—(The dhaura tree.) A totemistic sept of Gonds.

Arora, Rora.—An important trading and mercantile caste of the Punjab, of which a few persons were returned from the Nimar District in 1901. Sir D. Ibbetson was of opinion that the Aroras were the Khatris of Aror, the ancient capital of Scinde, represented by the modern Rori. He described the Arora as follows: [413] "Like the Khatri and unlike the Bania he is no mere trader; but his social position is far inferior to theirs, partly no doubt because he is looked down upon simply as being a Hindu in the portions of the Province which are his special habitat. He is commonly known as a Kirar, a word almost synonymous with coward, and even more contemptuous than is the name Bania in the east of the province. The Arora is active and enterprising, industrious and thrifty.... 'When an Arora girds up his loins he makes it only two miles from Jhang to Lahore.' He will turn his hand to any work, he makes a most admirable cultivator, and a large proportion of the Aroras of the lower Chenab are purely agricultural in their avocations. He is found throughout Afghanistan and even Turkistan and is the Hindu trader of those countries; while in the western Punjab he will sew clothes, weave matting and baskets, make vessels of brass and copper and do goldsmith's work. But he is a terrible coward, and is so branded in the proverbs of the countryside: The thieves were four and we eighty-four; the thieves came on and we ran away; and again: To meet a Rathi armed with a hoe makes a company of nine Kirars (Aroras) feel alone. Yet the peasant has a wholesome dread of the Kirar when in his proper place: Vex not the Jat in his jungle, nor the Kirar at his shop, nor the boatman at his ferry; for if you do they will break your head. Again: Trust not a crow, a dog or a Kirar, even when asleep. So again: You can't make a friend of a Kirar any more than a sati of a prostitute."

Asathi.—A subcaste of Bania. They are both Jains and Hindus.

Ashram.—Name of one of the ten orders of Gosains.

Ashthana.—A subcaste of Kayasth.

Atharadesia.—(A man of eighteen districts.) Subcaste of Banjara.

Athbhaiya.—(Eight brothers.) A subdivision of Saraswat Brahman in Hoshangabad. An Athbhaiya cannot take a wife from the Chaubhaiya subdivision, to whom the former give their daughters in marriage.

Athia.—A subcaste of Chadar, so named because they worship their goddess Devi on the 8th day (Athain) of Kunwar (September), and correspond to the Brahmanical Sakta sect, as opposed to the other Chadar subcaste Parmasuria, who correspond to the Vaishnavas.

Audhalia.—Synonym for Audhelia.

Audhia, Ajudhiabasi.—A resident of Oudh. Subcaste of Bania and of Kasar and Sunar.

Audichya.—A subcaste of Brahmans coming from Oudh.

Aughad.—A subdivision of Jogi. They resemble the Aghoris with the difference that they may not eat human flesh.

Aughar.—A subdivision of Jogi.

Aukule.—A subcaste of Koshtis. They are also called Vidurs, being of mixed descent from Koshtas and other castes.

Aulia.—(A favourite of God.) Title of Muhammadan saints.

Baba.—Synonym of Gosain.

Babhan.—Synonym for Bhuinhar, being the name of a landholding caste in Bengal. Used as a title by Bhuiyas.

Babuan.—Title for the descendants of the former ruling families of the Chero tribe.

Bachhalya, Bachhap, Bachhilia.—(From bachha, a calf.) A section of Bania, Chadar and Khangar. A section of Patwa in Raipur. They do not castrate bullocks.

Bad.—(High or great.) Subcaste of Agharia and Sudh.

Bad or Bhand.—A caste. Title of Khatik.

Bad.—(Banyan tree.) A section of Joshi.

Badaria.—(From badar, cloud.) A section of Kandera.

Badgainya.—(From Badgaon (bara gaon), a large village.) A surname of Sarwaria Brahmans. A section of Basdewa, Gadaria and Kurmi.

Badgujar.—(From bada, great.) One of the thirty-six royal races of Rajputs. A subcaste of Gujar, also of Gaur Brahman. A section of Mehtar.

Badhaiya.—(Barhai, carpenter.) A subcaste of Lohar and Kol. A sept of Savar.

Badharia.—A resident of Badhas in Mirzapur. Subcaste of Bahna and Dhuri.

Badi.—(A rope-walker.) Synonym of Nat.

Badkur.—Title used in the Dhobi caste.

Badwaik.—(The great ones.) A subcaste of Mana. A title of Dhobi and Pan or Ganda.

Bagaria.—(A young buffalo.) A sept of Dhanwar and Sonkar.

Bagh, Baghwa.—(Tiger.) A totemistic sept of Ahir, Bhatra, Kawar, Munda, Oraon, Sonkar, Teli and Turi.

Baghel, Baghela.—(A tiger or tiger-cub.) A clan of Rajputs which has given its name to Baghelkhand. A subcaste of Audhia Sunar and Chamar. A section of Bhilala, Dhanwar, Gond, Lodhi, Mali, and Panwar Rajput.

Baghmar, Baghmarya, Bagmar.—(A tiger-slayer.) A section of Oswal Bania, Basor, Chamar, Dhimar, Koilabhuti Gond, and Teli. A subsept of Nika Gonds in Betul, who abstain from killing tigers.

Bagri.—A clan of Rajputs. A subcaste of Jat. One of the 72 1/2 sections of Maheshri Banias. People belonging to the Badhak or Bawaria, and Pardhi castes are sometimes known by this name.

Bahargainyan.—(From Bahar gaon, outside the village.) A subcaste of Kurmi.

Baharketu.—(Bush-cutter.) A subcaste of Korwa.

Bahelia.—The caste of fowlers and hunters in northern India. In the Central Provinces the Bahelias are not to be distinguished from the Pardhis, as they have the same set of exogamous groups named after the Rajput clans, and resemble them in all other respects. The word Bahelia is derived from the Sanskrit Vyadha, 'one who pierces or wounds,' hence a hunter. Pardhi is derived from the Marathi paradh, hunting. The latter term is more commonly used in the Central Provinces, and has therefore been chosen as the title of the article on the caste.

Bahre.—(Outside the walls.) A subdivision of Khedawal Brahmans.

Bahrup.—Subcaste of Banjara.

Bahrupia.—A small class of mendicant actors and quick-change artists. They are recruited from all classes of the population, and though a distinct caste of Bahrupias appears to exist, people of various castes also call themselves Bahrupia when they take to this occupation. In Berar the Mahar, Mang and Maratha divisions of the Bahrupias are the most common: [414] the former two begging only from the castes from which they take their name. In Gujarat they appear to be principally Muhammadans. Sir D. Ibbetson says of them: [415] "The name is derived from the Sanskrit bahu, many, and rupa, form, and denotes an actor, a mimic or one who assumes many forms or characters. One of their favourite devices is to ask for money, and when it is refused to ask that it may be given if the Bahrupia succeeds in deceiving the person who refused it. Some days later the Bahrupia will again visit the house in the disguise of a pedlar, a milkman or what not, sell his goods without being detected, throw off his disguise and claim the stipulated reward." In Gujarat "they are ventriloquists and actors with a special skill of dressing one side of their face like a man and the other side like a woman, and moving their head about so sharply that they seem to be two persons." [416] Mr. Kitts states that "the men are by profession story-tellers and mimics, imitating the voices of men and the notes of animals; their male children are also trained to dance. In payment for their entertainment they are frequently content with cast-off clothes, which will of course be of use to them in assuming other characters." [417] Occasionally also they dress up in European clothes and can successfully assume the character of a Eurasian.

Baid.—(Physician.) A surname of Sanadhia and Maratha Brahmans in Saugor. A section of Oswal Bania, and Darzi.

Bairagi.—A caste or religious order. Subcaste of Bhat.

Bais.—A clan of Rajputs.

Bajania.—(One who plays on musical instruments.) Subcaste of Panka.

Bajanya.—(Drummer.) A subcaste of Panka in Balaghat.

Bajarha.—(Bazar.) A section of Daraiha in Bilaspur.

Bajna, Bajgari.—(Musicians at feasts and marriages.) Subcaste of Ganda.

Bajpai.—(A priest officiating at the horse sacrifice.) A surname of Kanaujia Brahmans. A section of Brahmans. Title of some old families whose ancestors were sacrificial priests.

Bakar Kasai.—(Goat-butcher.) A subcaste of Khatik.

Bakra.—(Goat.) A totemistic sept of Bhatra and Halba.

Baksaria.—From Buxar in Bengal. A clan of Rajputs. A section of Daraiha and Lodhi.

Balla.—One of the 36 Rajkuls or royal clans of Rajputs noted in Tod's Rajasthan.

Balnik.—Subcaste of Kayasth.

Balusudia.—(Shaven.) Title of Khond.

Balutedar.—Name for a village menial in Berar. Title of Dhobi.

Balwanda.—(Quarrelsome.) A section of Teli.

Bam-Margi.—Synonym for the Vam-Margi sect.

Baman or Brahman. Subcaste of Bishnoi, Darzi and Gondhali.

Bamania.—(From Brahman.) A section of Ahir. They do not touch the pipal tree. A section of Mahar and of Rajjhar in Hoshangabad.

Bamhan Gour or Brahman Gour.—A clan of Rajputs in Saugor and Narsinghpur.

Bamhania.—A subcaste of Kasar, from Bamhan or Brahman. A section of Katia.

Bamnaiha.—(Belonging to a Brahman.) A section of Basor.

Banaphar, Banafar.—A clan of Rajputs. A section of Daharia.

Banbhainsa.—(Wild buffalo.) A section of Rawat (Ahir).

Banda.—(Tailless.) A section of Kirar.

Banda Bagh.—(Tailless tiger.) A section of Teli.

Bandar.—(A rocket-thrower.) Synonym of Kadera.

Bandarwale.—(One who catches monkeys.)—Subcaste of Pardhi.

Bandesia.—(A man of 52 districts.) Subcaste of Banjara.

Bandhaiya.—A subcaste of Nunia who confine themselves to the excavation of tanks and wells. Also a subcaste of Dhimar.

Bandhaiya.—(From Bandhogarh.) Subcaste of Nai.

Bandhia—(From bandh, an embankment.) A subcaste of Darzi and Dhimar. A section of Chamar.

Bandrele.—(Monkey.) A section of Basor, and Barai.

Banghore.—(Wild horses.) A section of Dom (Mehtar).

Bania.—A caste. Subcaste of Bishnoi. A synonym of Sunar in Sambalpur. A subcaste of Banjara. A section of Nandvansi Gauli.

Banka.—A small caste found principally in the Kalahandi State which now forms part of Bengal. The caste was formed from military service like the Khandaits, Paiks and Marathas, and some families bear the names of different castes, as Brahman Banka, Kumhar Banka, and so on. They were formerly notorious freebooters, but have now settled down to cultivation. Each man, however, still carries a sword or knife on his person, and in Kalahandi they are permitted to do this without taking out a licence.

Banku.—(One who frequents sequestered parts of forests.) A sept of Korku.

Bansberia.—(One who performs acrobatic feats on a stick or bamboo.) Synonym of Kolhati.

Bansia.—(Angler.) From bansi, a fishing-hook. Subcaste of Dhimar.

Bansphor.—(A breaker of bamboos.) Synonym of Basor. Subcaste of Mehtar and Mahli.

Banstalai.—(A tank with bamboo trees on its bank.) A section of Teli.

Bant.—Subcaste of Dhimar.

Bantia.—(From banat, a red woollen blanket.) A section of Oswal Bania.

Baone or Baonia.—From the phrase Bawan Berar, a term applied to the Province by the Mughals, because it paid fifty-two lakhs of revenue, as against only eight lakhs realised from the adjoining Jhadi or hilly country in the Central Provinces. Subcaste of Kunbi, Mahar and Mali.

Baoria.—Synonym of Badhak.

Bara-hazar.—(Twelve thousand.) Subcaste of Chero.

Barade, Berari.—A resident of Berar. Subcaste of Bahna, Barhai, Chamar, Dhangar, Dhobi, Khatik, Mang and Nai.

Baram or Birm.—Subcaste of Bhat.

Barapatre.—(A large leaf-plate.) A section of Koshti.

Baraua.—(A fisherman.) Synonym of Dhimar; title of Dhimar.

Bardhia.—(From bardh, a term for the edge of a weapon.) Synonym of Sikligar.

Bardia.—One who uses bullocks for transport. Subcaste of Kumhar.

Baretha.—(A washerman.) Synonym for Dhobi.

Barga.—Subcaste of Oraon.

Bargah, [418] Bargaha, Barghat.—A small caste of cultivators belonging principally to the Bilaspur District. They appear to be immigrants from Rewah, where the caste is numerically strong, and they are also found in the adjacent Districts of the United Provinces and Bengal. In the United Provinces they are employed as higher domestic servants and make leaf-plates, while their women act as midwives. [419] Here they claim kinship with the Goala Ahirs, but in the Central Provinces and Bengal they advance pretensions to be Rajputs. They have a story, however, which shows their connection with the Ahirs, to the effect that on one occasion Brahma stole Krishna's cows and cowherds. Krishna created new ones to replace them, exactly similar to those lost, but Brahma subsequently returned the originals, and the Bargahas are the descendants of the artificial cowherds created by Krishna. In Sarguja, Bargaha is used as a title by Ahirs, while in Rewah the Bargahs are looked on as the bastard offspring of Baghel Rajputs. Dr. Buchanan writes of them as follows: [420] "In Gorakhpur the Rajput chiefs have certain families of Ahirs, the women of which act as wet-nurses to their children, while the men attend to their persons. These families are called Bargaha; they have received, of course, great favours and many of them are very rich, but others look down upon them as having admitted their women to too great familiarity with their chiefs." In the United Provinces they also claim to be Rajputs, as they returned themselves as a clan of Rajputs in 1881. [421] Their position as described by Buchanan is precisely the same as that of the Dauwa Ahirs, who are the household servants of Bundela Rajputs in Bundelkhand, and the facts set forth above leave little or no doubt that the Bargahs are a mixed caste, arising from the connection of Rajputs with the Ahir women who were their personal servants. In the Central Provinces no subdivisions of the caste exist at present, but a separate and inferior subcaste is in process of formation from those who have been turned out of caste. They are divided for the purpose of marriage into exogamous gotras or clans, the names of which correspond to those of Rajputs, as Kaunsil, Chandel, Rana, Bundela, Rathor, Baghel, Chauhan and others. Marriage between members of the same clan and also between first cousins is prohibited. The custom of guranwat or exchanging girls in marriage between families is very prevalent, and as there is a scarcity of girls in the caste, a man who has not got a daughter must pay Rs. 100 to Rs. 200 to obtain a bride for his son. On the arrival of the marriage procession the bridegroom touches with a dagger a grass mat hung in front of the marriage-shed. During the marriage the bridegroom's father presents him with a grass ring, which he places on his wrist. The hands of the bridegroom and bride are tied one over the other with a piece of thread, and the bride's parents catching the hands say to the bridegroom, 'We have given you our daughter; protect her.' The couple then walk seven times round a sacrificial fire and a pestle and slab containing seven pieces of turmeric, nuts and heaps of coloured rice, the bride leading and kicking over a heap of rice from the slab at each turn. The other common ceremonies are also performed. The Bargahs do not tolerate sexual offences and expel a girl or married woman who goes wrong. The Bargahs are usually cultivators in the Central Provinces, but they consider it beneath their dignity to touch the plough with their own hands. Many of them are mlguzrs or village proprietors. They take food cooked without water from a Brahman, and water only from a Rajput. Rajputs take water from their hands, and their social position is fairly high.

Bargandi,—Synonym for Kaikari.

Barghat.—Synonym of Bargah.

Barki.—High. Subcaste of Rautia.

Barkia.—(A spinner of fine thread.) Subcaste of Mahar.

Barmaiyan, Barmian, Malaiya.—Subcaste of Basor, Dhimar and Gadaria.

Baroni.—Title of a female Dhimar.

Barora or Warkara.—(Wild cat.) A subsept of the Uika clan of Gonds in Betul.

Barpaihi.—(Bar, banyan tree.) A sept of the Uika clan of Gonds in Betul, so named because their priest offered food to their gods on the leaves of a banyan tree.

Barwa.—Synonym for Garpagari. One who wards off hailstones from the standing crops. Subcaste of Jogi.

Bashishta.—See Vasishta. A section of Vidur.

Bastarha.—A resident of Bastar State. Subcaste of Halba.

Bathri.—(From batkur, a vegetable.) A subcaste of Dhobi and Teli.

Bathudia.—Subcaste of Bhuiya.

Batri.—A grower of batar, a kind of pea. Subcaste of Teli.

Batti.—(A ball.) A subsept of the Uika clan of Gonds in Betul, so named because their priest stole balls of cooked mahua. They do not kill or eat goats or sheep, and throw away anything smelt by them.

Bawan, Bawanjaye.—(Bawan-52.) A subcaste of Saraswat Brahmans.

Bawaria.—A dweller of Bhanwargarh tract in Betul district. Subcaste of Korku.

Bawisa.—(Twenty-two.) A subcaste of Gujarati Brahmans in Hoshangabad and Makrai State.

Bayar, Biyar, Biar.—A small caste of labourers belonging to the eastern Districts of the United Provinces, of whom about 200 persons were returned from Bilaspur in 1891. They are found in the Korba zamindari, and are professional diggers or navvies, like the Murhas. They are apparently a mixed caste derived from the primitive tribes with some Hindu blood. They eat fowls and pork, but will not take food from any other caste. They work by contract on the dangri system of measurement, a dangri being a piece of bamboo five cubits long. For one rupee they dig a patch 8 dangris long by one broad and a cubit in depth, or 675 cubic feet. But this rate does not allow for lift or lead.

Bazigar.—(An acrobat.) Synonym of Nat.

Behar.—(Cat.) A totemistic sept of Kawar.

Behera.—A subcaste of Taonla. A section of Tiyar. A title of Khadal.

Belwar, Bilwar.—A small caste of carriers and cattle-dealers belonging to Oudh, whose members occasionally visit the northern Districts of the Central Provinces. They say that their ancestors were Sanadhya Brahmans, who employed bullocks as pack-animals, and hence, being looked down on by the rest of the caste, became a separate body, marrying among themselves.

Benaika, Binaika.—A subcaste of Parwar Bania, consisting of the offspring of remarried widows or illegitimate unions. Probably also found among other subcastes of Bania.

Benatia.—A subcaste of Sansia in Sambalpur.

Bendiwala.—Name of a minor Vishnuite order. See Bairagi.

Benetiya, Benatia.—Subcaste of Chasa and Sansia.

Bengali.—Bengali immigrants are usually Brahmans or Kayasths.

Bengani.—(Brinjal.) One of the 1444 sections of Oswal Bania.

Benglah.—An immigrant from Bengal. Subcaste of Bharbhunja.

Beora Basia.—(Hawk.) A totemistic sept of Bhatra.

Beraria, Beradia.—(Belonging to Berar.) A subcaste of Bahna, Barai, Barhai, Chamar, Dhangar, Dhimar, Kasar and Kunbi.

Beria.—A caste of gipsies and vagrants, whose women are prostitutes. Hence sometimes used generally to signify a prostitute. A subcaste of Nat.

Besra.—(Hawk.) A totemistic sept of Bhatra and Rawat (Ahir).

Besta.—A Telugu caste of fishermen. They are also called Bhoi and Machchnaik, and correspond to the Dhimars. They are found only in the Chanda District, where they numbered 700 persons in 1911, and their proper home is Mysore. They are a low caste and rear pigs and eat pork, crocodiles, rats and fowls. They are stout and strong and dark in colour. Like the Dhimars they also act as palanquin-bearers, and hence has arisen a saying about them, 'The Besta is a great man when he carries shoes,' because the head of a gang of palanquin-bearers carries the shoes of the person who sits in it. At their marriages the couple place a mixture of cummin and jaggery on each other's heads, and then gently press their feet on those of the other seven times. Drums are beaten, and the bridegroom places rings on the toes of the bride and ties the mangal-sutram or necklace of black beads round her neck. They are seated side by side on a plough-yoke, and the ends of their cloths are tied together. They are then taken outside and shown the Great Bear, the stars of which are considered to be the spirits of the seven principal Hindu Saints, and the pole-star, Arundhati, who represents the wife of Vasishtha and is the pattern of feminine virtue. On the following two days the couple throw flowers at each other for some time in the morning and evening. Before the marriage the bridegroom's toe-nails are cut by the barber as an act of purification. This custom, Mr. Thurston [422] states, corresponds among the Sudras to the shaving of the head among the Brahmans. The Bestas usually take as their principal deity the nearest large river and call it by the generic term of Ganga. On the fifth day after a death they offer cooked food, water and sesamum to the crows, in whose bodies the souls of the dead are believed to reside. The food and water are given to satisfy the hunger and thirst of the soul, while the sesamum is supposed to give it coolness and quench its heat. On the tenth day the ashes are thrown into a river. The beard of a boy whose father is alive is shaved for the first time before his marriage. Children are tattooed with a mark on the forehead within three months of birth, and this serves as a sect mark. A child is named on the eleventh day after birth, and if it is subsequently found to be continually ailing and sickly, the name is changed under the belief that it exercises an evil influence on the child.

Betala.—(Goblin.) One of the 1444 sections of Oswal Bania.

Bhadauria.—(From Bhadawar in Gwalior State.) A clan of Rajputs. A clan of Dangi in Saugor from whom Rajputs take daughters in marriage, but do not give daughters to them. A surname of Sanadhia Brahman.

Bhadonia.—Subcaste of Dangi.

Bhadoria.—(A drum-beater.) Subcaste of Chamar.

Bhadri, Bhaddari.—A synonym for Joshi, having a derogatory sense, as of one who begs with deceit or fraud.

Bhadune.—(From the month Bhadon.) A section of Kalar.

Bhagat.—(Devotee.) A section of Ahir or Gaoli, Barai and Panwar Rajput.

Bhains-Mara.—(Killer of the buffalo.) A section of Kanjar.

Bhainsa.—(Buffalo.) A section of Chamar, Dhanwar, Ganda, Kawar, Kanjar, Mali, Panka and Rawat (Ahir).

Bhairon.—(The god Bhairon.) A section of Panwar Rajput.

Bhaiya.—(Brother.) One of the 72 1/2 sections of Maheshri Bania.

Bhala.—(Spear.) One of the 72 1/2 sections of Maheshri Bania.

Bhaldar.—(A spear-man.) A class of Dahaits, who have commonly been employed as village watchmen.

Bhale Sultan.—(Lords of the spear.) A clan of Rajputs.

Bhamti, Bhamtia.—Synonyms of Bhamta.

Bhanare.—Named after the town of Bhandara in the Central Provinces. Subcaste of Dhimar.

Bhand, Bhanr. [423]—A small caste of story-tellers and buffoons. The name is derived from the Sanskrit Bhanda, a jester, and the caste are also known as Naqqal or actor. Only a trifling number of Bhands are shown by the census as belonging to the Central Provinces. Mr. Crooke remarks: "The Bhand is sometimes employed in the courts of Rajas and native gentlemen of rank, where he amuses the company at entertainments with buffoonery and a burlesque of European and native manners, much of which is of a very coarse nature. The Bhand is quite separate from and of a lower professional rank than the Bahrupia. The bulk of the caste are Muhammadans, but they have exogamous sections, some of which, as Kaithela (Kayasth), Bamhaniya (Brahman), Gujartha (Gujar), Nonela (Lunia), and so on, are derived from those of Hindu castes, and indicate that the caste is a heterogeneous community recruited from different sources. There are two recognised endogamous subcastes—the Chenr, which seems to mean little (Hindi, Chenra), and the Kashmiri. The former trace their origin to the time of Tamarlane, who, on the death of his son, gave himself over to mourning for twelve years. Then one Sayyid Hasan, a courtier of the Emperor, composed a humorous poem in Arabic, which gained him the title of Bhanr. Sayyid Hasan is regarded as the founder of the caste. Though he was a Sayyid the present Bhanrs are either Shaikhs or Mughals; and the difference of faith, Sunni and Shiah, is a bar to intermarriage. The Kashmiri Bhanrs are said to be of quite recent origin, having been invited from Kashmir by Nasir-ud-Din Haidar, king of Oudh." The Bhands perform their marriages by the Nikah form, in which a Kazi officiates. In virtue of being Muhammadans they abstain from pork and liquor. Dr. Buchanan [424] quaintly described them as "Impudent fellows, who make long faces, squeak like pigs, bark like dogs, and perform many other ludicrous feats. They also dance and sing, mimicking and turning into ridicule the dancing boys and girls, on whom they likewise pass many jokes, and are employed on great occasions." The Bhand, in fact, seems to correspond very nearly to the court jester of the Middle Ages.

Bhandari.—(A barber, also a cook in the Uriya country.) A synonym for Nai. A subcaste of Gondhali. A section of Oswal Bania and Halba. Title of the deputies of the chief guru of the Satnami sect.

Bhangi.—(Hemp-smoker.) Synonym of Mehtar.

Bhanr.—Synonym of Bhand, a story-teller.

Bhanwar.—(A bee, also honey.) A section of Gadaria and Kawar.

Bhaosar.—Synonym of Chhipa.

Bharadwaj.—(A skylark. Name of a great Brahman Rishi or saint.) One of the common eponymous sections of Brahmans. Also a section of Joshi, Lohar, Prabhu, Sunar, and of several clans of Rajputs.

Bharewa.—(From bharat, a mixture of copper and lead.) A group of brass or bell-metal workers classed with the Kasar caste, but of lower social standing than the Kasars. A subcaste of Sunar in Raipur.

Bhargava.—(Born of Bhrigu Rishi.) A subcaste of Kanaujia Brahmans. A section of Maratha Brahmans. Bhargava Dhusar is a subcaste of Bania. See Bania-Dhusar.

Bharia.—(From the Bhar tribe.) A tribe. A subcaste of Baiga in Mandla, and of Kol.

Bharia-Bhumia.—Synonym of Bharia.

Bharotia or Mudia.—(Shaven.) Subcaste of Baiga, also of Ahir.

Bharthi.—Name of one of the ten orders of Gosains.

Bhatia.—A commercial caste of Sind and Gujarat, a few of whom settle temporarily in the Central Provinces. Sir D. Ibbetson writes of them: [425] "The Bhatias are a class of Rajputs, originally coming from Bhatner, Jaisalmer and the Rajputana desert, who have taken to domestic pursuits. The name would seem to show that they were Bhatis (called Bhatti in the Punjab); but be that as it may, their Rajput origin seems to be unquestioned. They stand distinctly below the Khatri, and perhaps below the Arora, and are for the most part engaged in petty shopkeeping, though the Bhatias of Dera Ismail Khan are described as belonging to a widely-spread and enterprising mercantile community. They are very strict Hindus, far more so than the other trading classes of the western Punjab; and eschew meat and liquor. They do not practise widow-marriage."

Mr. Crooke's account [426] leaves little doubt that the Bhatias are a branch of the Bhatti or Yaduvansi Rajputs of Jaisalmer who have gone into trade; and Colonel Tod expresses the same view: "The Bhattiah is also one of the equestrian order converted into the commercial, and the exchange has been to his advantage. His habits are like those of the Arora, next to whom he ranks as to activity and wealth." [427] "The chief occupation of the Bhatias," Mr. Crooke states, "is moneylending, and to this they add trade of all kinds, agriculture, landholding and Government service. Many of them go on expeditions to Arabia, Kabul, Bokhara and other distant places of business. Many in Bombay carry on trade with Zanzibar, Java and the Malay Peninsula."

Bhatnagar.—A subcaste of Kayasth.

Bhatpagar.—(Wage of rice.) A section of Katia.

Bhikshakunti.—(Bhiksha, begging; kunti, lame.) A subcaste of Kapewar who are the Bhats or bards of the caste.

Bhil.—A tribe. A subcaste of Pardhi.

Bhilaophod.—(Those who extract oil from the bhilawa nut, Semecarpus anacardium.) Subcaste of Kol.

Bhilsaiyan, Bhilsia, Bhilasia.—(From Bhilsa, a town in Gwalior State.) A section and surname of Jijhotia Brahmans. A section of Purania Sunar and of Rathor Teli and Teli.

Bhima.—A small caste belonging to the Mandla and Seoni Districts. They are musicians of the Gond tribe and dance and beg at their weddings. The caste are an offshoot of the Gonds, their exogamous septs having Gond names, as Marabi, Markam, Dhurwa, Parteti, Tekam and so on; but they now marry among themselves. They worship the Gond god, Bura Deo, their own elders serving as priests. At their performances the men play and dance, wearing hollow anklets of metal with little balls of iron inside to make them tinkle. The women are dressed like Hindu women and dance without ornaments. Their instrument is called Tuma or gourd. It consists of a hollow piece of bamboo fixed horizontally over a gourd. Over the bamboo a string is stretched secured to a peg at one end and passing over a bridge at the other. Little knobs of wax are made on the bamboo so that the string touches them during its vibrations. The gourd acts as a sounding-board.

Bhogta.—Subcaste of Khairwar.

Bhoi.—(One who carries litters or palanquins.) Synonym of Dhimar and Kahar. A title or honorific name for Gonds and one by which they are often known. See article Kahar. A section of Binjhal.

Bhoir.—Synonym for Bhoyar.

Bhojni.—Subcaste of Chitrakathi. They serve the food at marriage and other ceremonies.

Bholia.—(From bhulna, to forget.) Synonym of Bhulia.

Bhona.—A small caste of labourers in the Mandla District. They are practically all employed by the local Pansaris (Barai) or pan-growers in tending their barejas or betel-vine gardens. There is some ground for supposing that the Bhonas are an offshoot of the Bharia or Bharia-Bhumia tribe of Jubbulpore, which is itself derived from the Bhars. One of the sections of the Bhonas is named after the vulture, and at their weddings a man of this section catches a young chicken and bites off the head in imitation of a vulture.

Bhondih.—(From bhond, dung-beetle.) A section of Ahir.

Bhonsla.—A clan of Marathas to which the Rajas of Nagpur belong.

Bhope or Bhoall.—Subcaste of Manbhao.

Bhoriya.—Synonym of Bhulia.

Bhoyar.—A caste. A subcaste of Koshti and Marar.

Bhudes.—(The gods on earth.) Title of Brahmans.

Bhuinhar.—Name of a landholding caste in Benares and Bengal who claim to be Brahmans or Rajputs. They are also known as Babhan. A title of the Bhuiya tribe. See article Bhuiya. A title of the Bhaina tribe.

Bhumia.—(Born from the land, or aboriginal.) A title of the Bharia tribe in Jubbulpore, also a title of Baiga and Korku. A synonym of Bhuiya. A subdivision of Gond. A section of Kurmi.

Bhura.—(Grey.) One of the sections of Oswal Bania. A proper name.

Bhusar.—(Lord of the earth.) A title of Brahman.

Bhusarjin.—(From bhusa, the chaff of wheat.) Subcaste of Banjara.

Bhuskate.—(From bhusa, fodder, one who supplies fodder.) A family name.

Bhuta.—A subtribe of Gond in Betul, the same as Koilabhuta. They are said to be of immoral character.

Biar.—Synonym of Bayar.

Bichhuwa, Bichhi.—(From bichhu, scorpion.) A section of Dhobi and Kawar.

Bidur.—Synonym of the Vidur caste.

Biloria.—(From bilori, marble stone.) A section of Chhipa.

Bilwar.—Synonym of Belwar, a carrier and cattle-dealer.

Bind.—A large non-Aryan caste of Bihar and the United Provinces, of which 380 persons were returned in 1911. Sir H. Risley says of them: [428] "They are a tribe employed in agriculture, earthwork, fishing, hunting, making saltpetre and collecting indigenous drugs. Traditions current among the caste profess to trace their origin to the Vindhya hills, and one of these legends tells how a traveller, passing by the foot of the hills, heard a strange flute-like sound coming out of a clump of bamboos. He cut a shoot and took from it a fleshy substance which afterwards grew into a man, the supposed ancestor of the Binds. Another story says that the Binds and Nunias were formerly all Binds and that the present Nunias are the descendants of a Bind who consented to dig a grave for a Muhammadan king and was outcasted for doing so." A third legend tells how in the beginning of all things Mahadeo made a lump of earth and endowed it with life. The creature thus produced asked Mahadeo what he should eat. The god pointed to a tank and told him to eat the fish in it and the wild rice which grew near the banks. Mr. Crooke [429] says that they use fish largely except in the fortnight (Pitripaksh) sacred to the dead in the month of Kunwar, and Sir H. Risley notes that after the rice harvest the Binds wander about the country digging up the stores of rice accumulated by field rats in their burrows. From four to six pounds of grain are usually found, but even this quantity is sometimes exceeded. The Binds also feast on the rats, but they deny this, saying that to do so would be to their own injury, as a reduction of the next year's find of grain would thus be caused.

Binjhal.—Synonym of Binjhwar.

Binjhwar.—A caste derived from the Baiga tribe. A subtribe of Baiga and Gond. A subcaste of Gowari.

Birchheya.—(A dweller in the forest.) Subcaste of Ghosi.

Birchkia.—(From birchka, a tree.) A subcaste of Ghosi.

Birhor.—A small Kolarian tribe of whom about 150 persons were returned in 1911 from the Chota Nagpur States. The name means a dweller in the forest. Sir H. Risley states that the Birhors live in tiny huts made of branches of trees and leaves, and eke out a miserable living by snaring hares and monkeys, and collecting jungle products, especially the bark of the chob creeper, [430] from which a coarse kind of rope is made. They are great adepts at ensnaring monkeys and other small animals, and sell them alive or eat them. Colonel Dalton described them as, [431] "A small, dirty, miserable-looking race, who have the credit of devouring their parents, and when I taxed them with it they did not deny that such a custom had once obtained among them. But they declared they never shortened lives to provide such feasts and shrank with horror from the idea of any bodies but those of their own blood-relatives being served up to them." It would appear that this custom may be partly ceremonial, and have some object, such as ensuring that the dead person should be born again in the family or that the survivors should not be haunted by his ghost. It has been recorded of the Bhunjias that they ate a small part of the flesh of their dead parents. [432] Colonel Dalton considered the Birhors to be a branch of the Kharia tribe, and this is borne out by Dr. Grierson's statement that the specimen of the Birhor dialect returned from the Jashpur State was really Kharia. [433] Elsewhere the Birhor dialect resembles Mundari.

Birjhia, Birjia. (One who practises bewar or shifting cultivation in a forest.) Subcaste of Binjhwar, Baiga and Korwa.

Birkhandia.—From Birkhand (Sand of heroes), a name for Rajputana. A section of Teli.

Birtiya. Title of Nai or barber.

Bisen, Bisan.—A clan of Rajput. A section of Daharia and of Panwar Rajput. A section of Marar.

Bobaiaya.—(From Bobbili, a town in Madras.) A section of Teli in Chanda.

Bogam.—A name for Madrasi prostitutes, perhaps a separate caste. Their honorific title is Sani.

Bohra.—A Muhammadan caste. A section of Oswal Bania.

Bombay.—A subdivision of Valmiki Kayasth.

Bondoya—A resident of Jitgarh and the Pachmarhi tract of the Central Provinces. Subcaste of Korku.

Bopchi.—A section of Panwar Rajput.

Bopchi—A small caste in the Wardha District numbering a few hundred persons. They are in reality Korkus, the name being a corruption of that of the Bendoya subtribe, but they have discarded their proper tribal name and formed a separate caste. They retain some of the Korku sept names, while others are derived from the Marathi words or from the names of other castes, and these facts indicate that the Bopchis are of mixed descent from Korkus and other low Maratha castes with which unions have taken place. As might be expected, they are very tolerant of sexual and social offences, and do not expel a woman who has a liaison with a man of another caste or takes food from him. She is readmitted to caste intercourse, but has to undergo the penalty of washing her body with cowdung and having a lock of her hair cut off. A man committing a similar offence has his upper lip shaved. They employ Gosains for their gurus and their social position is very low.

Borakar.(A mat-maker.) Synonym of Gopal.

Borjharia.—(Bor-plum.) A sept of Halba.

Brahmachare.—(A celibate.) Subcaste of Manbhao.

Brahman Gaur, or Bamhan Gaur.—A branch of the Gaur clan of Rajputs. A subcaste of Bhat.

Brid-dhari.—Begging Bhats. Subcaste of Bhat.

Brihaspati, Brahaspati.—An eponymous section of Brahmans.

Buchar.—A corruption of the English word 'butcher.' Subcaste of Khatik in Agra.

Budalgir.—(From budla, a leathern bag made for the transport and storage of oil and ghi (butter).) Subcaste of Chamar.

Bukekari.—(A seller of scented powder (bukka).) Synonym of Atari.

Bundela.—A clan of Rajputs of mixed descent. Name probably from the Vindhya hills. A subcaste of Basor. A sept of Manihar and Rawat.

Bundelkhandi.—A resident of Bundelkhand. Subcaste of Basdewa, Barai, Basor, Chamar, Darzi, Dhobi, Kumhar, Lohar, Nai and Sunar.

Bundhrajia.—Subcaste of Kamar.

Bunkar.—(A weaver.) Title of Balahi.

Burad.—A synonym for the Basor caste of bamboo-workers. A section of Koshti and Oswal Bania.

Burthia.—Subcaste of Charan Banjara.

Burud.—(A bamboo-worker.) Synonym for Basor in the Maratha country.

Butka.—(One who brings leaves.) Subcaste of Chasa.

Byahut.—(Married.) Subcaste of Kalar.

Chadar.—A caste. A subcaste of Kori.

Chakere.—(One who uses the potter's wheel in localities where other Kumhars do not use it.) Subcaste of Kumhar.

Chakla.—(A professional washerman.) Synonym for Dhobi.

Chalukya.—A synonym for Solanki Rajputs. (Perhaps from chhullu or challu, hollow of the hand.) A subcaste of Panwar Rajput.

Chamar, Chamara.—(From chamra, a hide.) The well-known caste of tanners. A subcaste of Banjara, Barhai and Darzi.

Chamar Gaur.—(Chamar and Gaur.) A well-known clan of Rajputs. See Rajput-Gaur.

Chambhar.—Name of the Chamar caste in Berar.

Chamra.—A contemptuous diminutive for the Chamar caste in Chhattisgarh.

Chandan, Chandania.—(Sandalwood.) A section of Chamar, Kawar, Khangar and Kurmi.

Chandel.—A famous clan of Rajputs. See Rajput-Chandel.

Chandewar.—(Belonging to Chanda.) Subcaste of Injhwar.

Chandi.—(One who hides behind a fishing-net.) A sept of Korku.

Chandra, Chandraha. (From chanda, the moon.) A section of Gujar and Teli.

Chandravansi or Somvansi.—(Descended from the moon.) A clan of Rajputs.

Chandravedi.—Synonym of Sanaurhia, meaning 'One who observes the moon.'

Chankhatia.—A subcaste of Bhuiya and Chamar.

Channagri.—A small Jain sect. A subcaste of Bania.

Chanti.—Name derived from chiti, an ant. Subcaste of Kawar. A section of Kumhar.

Chanwar.—(Whisk.) A totemistic sept of Kawar and Pabia.

Charak.—A subdivision of Maratha Brahman; a section of Brahman.

Charan.—Subcaste of Banjara and Bhat. Title of Bhat in Rajputana.

Chardeve.—A clan of Gonds worshiping four gods and paying special reverence to the tortoise.

Charghar.—(Four houses.) A subdivision of Saraswat Brahmans.

Charnagri.—A Jain sect or subcaste of Bania.

Chatrapati.—(Lord of the umbrella.) Title of the ancient Indian kings.

Chatri, Chhatri.—A common synonym for a Rajput. A subcaste of Bhamta.

Chaturbhuji.—(Four-armed.) An epithet of Vishnu. A title of the Chauhan clan of Rajputs. A class of Bairagis or religious mendicants.

Chaube, Chaturvedi.—(From Chaturvedi, or one learned in the four Vedas.) A surname for Kanaujia, Jijhotia and other Hindustani Brahmans. Subcaste of Banjara.

Chaubhaiya.—(Four brothers.) A subdivision of Saraswat Brahmans. They take wives from the Athbhaiya subdivision, but do not give girls to them in marriage.

Chaudhri, Chaudhari, Choudhri.—(A headman, the first person.) Title of Kalar Panwar, Rajput and other castes; title of Dhobi, vice-president of the caste committee. A section of Ahir, Maheshri Bania, Gadaria, Gujar, Halba and Marar (Mali). A subdivision of Kapewar.

Chauhan.—A famous clan of Rajputs. Name of a low caste of village watchmen in Chhattisgarh, perhaps the illegitimate descendants of Panwar Rajputs.

Chauka.—Title of the Kabirpanthi religious service. The chauk is a sanctified place on the floor of the house or yard, plastered with cowdung and marked out with lines of wheat-flour or quartz-dust within which ceremonies are performed.

Chaukhutia.—A term which signifies a bastard in Chhattisgarh. Subcaste of Bhunjia.

Chauske.—Subcaste of Kalar. They are so called because they prohibit the marriage of persons having a common ancestor up to four generations.

Chaurasia.—Resident of a Chaurasi or estate of eighty-four villages. Subcaste of Barai and Bhoyar. A section of Dhimar and Kumhar. Many estates are called by this name, grants of eighty-four villages having been commonly made under native rule.

Chawara, Chaura.—One of the thirty-six royal races of Rajputs.

Chenchuwar, Chenchuwad or Chenchu—A forest tribe of the Telugu country of whom a few persons were returned from the Chanda District in 1911. In Madras the tribe is known as Chenchu, and the affix wad or wadu merely signifies person or man. [434] The marriage ceremony of the Chenchus may be mentioned on account of its simplicity. The couple sometimes simply run away together at night and return next day as husband and wife, or, if they perform a rite, walk round and round a bow and arrow stuck into the ground, while their relations bless them and throw rice on their heads. Each party to a marriage can terminate it at will without assigning any reason or observing any formality. The bodies of the dead are washed and then buried with their weapons.

Chenr.—(Little.) Subcaste of Bhand.

Cheorakuta.—(One who prepares cheora or pounded rice.) Subcaste of Dhuri.

Chero. [435]—A well-known tribe of the Munda or Kolarian family, found in small numbers in the Chota Nagpur Feudatory States. They are believed to have been at one time the rulers of Bihar, where numerous monuments are attributed, according to the inquiries of Buchanan and Dalton, to the Kols and Cheros. "In Shahabad [436] also most of the ancient monuments are ascribed to the Cheros, and it is traditionally asserted that the whole country belonged to them in sovereignty. An inscription at Budh Gaya mentions one Phudi Chandra who is traditionally said to have been a Chero. The Cheros were expelled from Shahabad, some say by the Sawaras (Saonrs), some say by a tribe called Hariha; and the date of their expulsion is conjectured to be between the fifth and sixth centuries of the Christian era. Both Cheros and Sawaras were considered by the Brahmans of Shahabad as impure or Mlechchas, but the Harihas are reported good Kshatriyas.

"The overthrow of the Cheros in Mithila and Magadha seems to have been complete. Once lords of the Gangetic provinces, they are now found in Shahabad and other Bihar Districts only holding the meanest offices or concealing themselves in the woods skirting the hills occupied by their cousins, the Kharwars; but in Palamau they retained till a recent period the position they had lost elsewhere. A Chero family maintained almost an independent rule in that pargana till the accession of the British Government; they even attempted to hold their castles and strong places against that power, but were speedily subjugated, forced to pay revenue and submit to the laws. They were, however, allowed to retain their estates; and though the rights of the last Raja of the race were purchased by Government in 1813, in consequence of his falling into arrears, the collateral branches of the family have extensive estates there still. According to their own traditions (they have no trustworthy annals) they have not been many generations in Palamau. They invaded that country from Rohtas, and with the aid of Rajput chiefs, the ancestors of the Thakurais of Ranka and Chainpur drove out and supplanted a Rajput Raja of the Raksel family, who retreated into Sarguja and established himself there.

"All the Cheros of note who assisted in the expedition obtained military service grants of land, which they still retain. The Kharwars were then the people of most consideration in Palamau, and they allowed the Cheros to remain in peaceful possession of the hill tracts bordering on Sarguja. It is popularly asserted that at the commencement of the Chero rule in Palamau they numbered twelve thousand families, and the Kharwars eighteen thousand; and if an individual of one or the other is asked to what tribe he belongs, he will say, not that he is a Chero or a Kharwar, but that he belongs to the twelve thousand or to the eighteen thousand, as the case may be. The Palamau Cheros now live strictly as Rajputs and wear the paita or caste thread."

It has been suggested in the article on Khairwar that the close connection between the two tribes may arise from the Kharwars or Khairwars having been an occupational offshoot of the Cheros and Santals.

In Palamau [437] the Cheros are now divided into two subcastes, the Bara-hazar or twelve thousand, and the Terah-hazar or thirteen thousand, who are also known as Birbandhi. The former are the higher in rank and include most of the descendants of former ruling families, who assume the title Babuan. The Terah-hazar are supposed to be the illegitimate offspring of the Bara-hazar.

"The distinctive physical traits of the Cheros," Colonel Dalton states, "have been considerably softened by the alliances with pure Hindu families, which their ancient power and large possessions enabled them to secure; but they appear to me still to exhibit an unmistakable Mongolian physiognomy. They vary in colour, but are usually of a light brown. They have, as a rule, high cheek-bones, small eyes obliquely set, and eyebrows to correspond, low broad noses, and large mouths with protuberant lips."

Cherwa.—Subcaste of Kawar.

Chetti.—Subcaste of Gandli.

Chhachan.—(A hawk.) A section of Rawat (Ahir).

Chhadesia.—(A man of six districts.) Subcaste of Banjara.

Chhadidar or Darwan.—Title of the Dahaits, who were door-keepers of the Rajas of Mahoba in former times.

Chhanava Kule.—(The ninety-six houses.) A subcaste of Maratha.

Chhatakia.—An illegitimate group of the Kumhar caste.

Chhattisgarhi, Chhattisgarhia.—Resident of Chhattisgarh or the region of the thirty-six forts, a name given to the eastern tract of the Central Provinces. Subcaste of Bahna, Darzi and Halba.

Chhehghar (Chhenghar).—(Members of the six houses.) A hypergamous division of Kanaujia Brahmans. They take daughters from the other two divisions, but do not give their daughters to them.

Chhipa.—(A dyer.) Synonym of Darzi.

Chhoha or Saroria.—A subcaste of Agharia of mixed descent.

Chholia.—(Rubbish.) A section of Rajjhar.

Chhote.—(Inferior.) Subcaste of Agharia and Teli.

Chhoti Pangat.—A subcaste of Halba, Synonym Surait. Chhoti Pangat signifies the inferior caste feast, and the implication is that these members cannot join in the proper feast.

Chhotki Bhir or Gorhi.—(Low.) Subcaste of Rautia.

Chhura,—(Razor.) A section of Panka. It was their business to shave other members of the caste after a death;

Chicham.—(Hawk.)—A sept of Gonds.

Chicheria.—(From church, forelock, which the children of this sept wear.) A sept of Dhimar.

Chika.—Subcaste of Majhwar.

Chikwa.—Synonym of Khatik.

Chinchkul.—A section of Komti. They abstain from the use of ginger and from the juice of the bhilawa or marking-nut tree.

Chita Purdhi, Chilewala.—(Leopard-hunter.) A subcaste of Pardhi.

Chiturkar, Chitrakar.—(A painter.) Synonym for Chitari.

Chiter.—(A painter.) See Chitari.

Chitevari.—(One who makes clay idols.) Synonym for Mochi.

Chitpawan.—(The pure in heart.) A synonym for Konkanasth Brahman.

Chitragupta Vansi.—(Descendants of Chitragupta.) A name for Kayasths.

Chobdar.—(A mace-bearer.) Title of Dahait.

Chorbans.—(Family of thieves.) A section of Chamar.

Chourdhar.—(A whisk-carrier.) A section of Sunar.

Chuhra.—Subcaste of Mehtar. Name for the sweeper caste in the Punjab.

Chungia.—(One who smokes a leaf-pipe.) Subcaste of Chamar and Satnami.

Chunwiha.—(From chunri, a coloured sheet worn by women.) A section of Tamera.

Churha.—(Thief.) A subcaste of Sunar. A section of Chhipa.

Cutchwaha.—Clan of Rajput. Synonym for Kachhwaha.

Daharia.—(From Dahar, the old name of the Jubbulpore country.) A clan of Rajputs which has developed into a caste. A subcaste of Bhoyar, Kalar, Mahar, Maratha and Teli. A section of Chadar, Chamar and Katia.

Dahat.—A variant for Dahait. A subcaste of Khangar.

Dahia.—One of the thirty-six royal races of Rajputs.

Daijanya.—Subcaste of Chamar. They are so called because their women act as dai or midwives.

Dakhne, Dakshne, Dakshni, Dakshini.—(Belonging to the Deccan.) Subcaste of Bahna, Chamar, Gondhali, Gurao, Kunbi, Mahar, Mang and Nai.

Dakochia.—A synonym for Bhadri, an astrologer.

Dal.—(From dal, an army.) Subcaste of Khond.

Dalboha, Dalbuha.—(One who carries dhoolies or palanquins.) Subcaste of Ghasia and Katia.

Dalia.—(From dal or the pulse of Burhanpur which had a great reputation). Subcaste of Kunbi.

Dal Khalsa.—(Army of God.) Title of the Sikh army.

Dandewala.—(One who performs acrobatic feats on a stick or bamboo.) Synonym for Kolhati.

Dandi.—(One who carries a stick.) Name of a class of religious mendicants. See article Gosain.

Dandsena.—(One who carries a stick.) Subcaste of Kalar.

Dang-charha.—(A rope-climber.) Synonym of Nut.

Dangiwara.—Name of part of the Saugor District, which is called after the Dangi caste. Subcaste of Kadera.

Dangua.—(A hill-dweller.) Subcaste of Taonla.

Dangur.—A small caste of hemp weavers numbering about 100 persons, and residing almost entirely in the village of Masod in Betul District. They are of the same standing as the caste of Kumrawat or Patbina which pursues this occupation in other Districts, but acknowledge no connection with them and are probably an occupational offshoot of the Kunbi caste, from whose members they readily accept any kind of cooked food. Like many other small occupational castes with no definite traditions, they profess to have a Kshatriya origin, calling themselves Bhagore Rajputs, while their families are known by such high-sounding titles as Rathor, Chauhan, Gaur, Solanki and other well-known Rajput names. These pretensions have no foundation in fact, and the Dangurs formerly did not abjure pork, while they still eat fowls and drink liquor. They neither bathe nor clean their kitchens daily. They may eat food taken from one place to another, but not if they are wearing shoes, this being only permissible in the case when the bridegroom takes his food wearing his marriage shoes.

Dantele.—(With teeth.) A section of Purania Sunars in Saugor.

Daraihan.—A small caste of debased Rajputs found in the Bilaspur District of Chhattisgarh and numbering some 2000 persons in 1901. They say that their ancestors were Rajputs from Upper India who settled in Chhattisgarh some generations back in the village of Dargaon in Raipur District. Thence they were given the name of Dargaihan, which has been corrupted into Daraihan. Others say that the name is derived from dari, a prostitute, but this is perhaps a libel. In any case they do not care about the name Daraihan and prefer to call themselves Kshatriyas. They have now no connection with the Rajputs of Upper India, and have developed into an endogamous group who marry among themselves. It seems likely that the caste are an inferior branch of the Daharia cultivating caste of Chhattisgarh, which is derived from the Daharia clan of Rajputs. [438]

Like other Rajputs the Daraihans have an elaborate system of septs and subsepts, the former having the names of Rajput clans, while the latter are taken from the eponymous gotras of the Brahmans. There are fourteen septs, named as a rule after the principal Rajput clans, of whom four, the Chandel, Kachhwaha, Dhandhul and Sakrawara, rank higher than the other ten, and will take daughters from these in marriage, but not give their daughters in return. Besides the septs they have the standard Brahmanical gotras, as Kausilya, Bharadwaj, Vasishtha and so on to the number of seven, and the members of each sept are divided into these gotras. Theoretically a man should not take a wife whose sept or gotra is the same as his own. The marriage of first cousins is forbidden, and while the grandchildren of two sisters may intermarry, for the descendants of a brother and a sister the affinity is a bar till the third generation. But the small numbers of the caste must make the arrangement of matches very difficult, and it is doubtful whether these rules are strictly observed. They permit the practice of Gunravat or giving a bride for a bride. In other respects the social customs of the caste resemble those of their neighbours, the Daharias, and their rules as to the conduct of women are strict. The men are well built and have regular features and fair complexions, from which their Rajput ancestry may still be recognised. They wear the sacred thread. The Daraihans are good and intelligent cultivators, many of them being proprietors or large tenants, and unlike the Daharias they do not object to driving the plough with their own hands. In the poorer families even the women work in the fields. They have a strong clannish feeling and will readily combine for the support or protection of any member of the caste who may be in need of it.

Darbania.—(Door-keeper.) Title of Khangur.

Darshani.—Title of the most holy members of the Kanphata Jogis.

Darshni.—(From darshan, seeing, beholding, as of a god.) A sub-division of Jogi.

Darwan.—(A door-keeper.) Title of Dahait.

Darwe or Dalwe.—A subcaste of Gonds in Chanda; the Darwes are also called Naik.

Darwesh.—Persian name for a Muhammadan Fakir or religious mendicant.

Darzi.—A caste of tailors. Subcaste of Ghasia.

Das.—(Servant.) Used as the termination of their names by Bairagis or religious mendicants. A term applied by Pankas and other Kabirpanthis to themselves.

Dasa.—(Ten.) A subdivision of Agarwala and other subcastes of Bania, meaning those of pure blood.

Dasghar.—(Ten houses.) One of the three subdivisions of Kanaujia Brahmans. They give their daughters to members of the Chheghar or six houses and receive them from the Panchghar or five houses.

Dasnami.—A member of the ten orders. Synonym for Gosain.

Datta or Dutt.—Surname of Bengali Kayasths.

Daune.—A subdivision of Prabhu or Parbhu in Nagpur, so called on account of their living in the island of Diu, a Portuguese possession.

Deccani.—See Dakhne.

Dehalwi.—(From Delhi.) A subdivision of Gaur Kayasths.

Dehri.—(A worshipper.) Subcaste of Sudh.

Dekkala.—(A genealogist.) Subcaste of Madgi.

Delki.—Subcaste of Kharia.

Deo.—(God.) A hereditary title borne by certain Feudatory Chiefs. A surname of Karhara Brahmans in Saugor. A subcaste of Gandli in Chanda.

Deobansi.—(A descendant of a god.) Subcaste of Patwa.

Deogarhia or Rajkunwar.—(From Deogarh.) A subcaste of Pardhan. A subcaste of Audhelia made up of prostitutes. A sept of Dhimar.

Deokia.—Title used in the Bedar caste.

Deoputra.—(Son of god.) Synonym of Charan.

Desa or Kota.—Subcaste of Balija.

Desai.—A variant for Deshmukh or a Maratha revenue officer. Title of the Pardhan caste.

Desawal.—A subdivision of Brahman in Jubbulpore. They take their name from Disa, a town in Palanpur State in Bombay Presidency.

Desha, Desaha.—(Belonging to the home country.) The name is usually applied to immigrants from Malwa or Hindustan. A subcaste of Ahir, Bargah, Bari, Chamar, Dhuri, Gadaria, Kalar, Kol, Kurmi, Lakhera, Lohar, Mahar, Sunar and Teli.

Deshastha.—A subcaste of Maratha Brahmans inhabiting the country (Desh) above the Western Ghats. A subcaste of Gurao.

Deshkar.—(One belonging to the country.) A subcaste of Gondhali, Gurao, Kasar, Koshti, Kunbi, Mahar, Mali, Maratha, Nai, Sunar and Teli.

Deshmukh.—Under Maratha rule the Deshmukh was a Pargana officer who collected the revenue of the Pargana or small subdivision, and other taxes, receiving a certain share. The office of Deshmukh was generally held by a leading Kunbi of the neighbourhood. He also held revenue-free land in virtue of his position. The Deshmukh families now tend to form a separate subcaste of Kunbis and marry among themselves.

Deshpande.—The Deshpande was the Pargana accountant. He was generally a Brahman and the right-hand man of the Deshmukh, and having the advantage of education he became powerful like the Deshmukh. Now used as a surname by Maratha Brahmans.

Deswali.—Synonym for Mina.

Devadasi.—(Handmaidens of the gods.) Synonym for Kasbi.

Devarukhe.—A subdivision of Maratha Brahmans. The word is derived from Devarishi, a Shakha (branch) of the Atharva Veda, or from Devarukh, a town in Ratnagiri District of Bombay Presidency. Among Brahmans they hold rather a low position.

Dewangan.—(From the old town of this name on the Wardha river.) Subcaste of Koshti.

Dhaighar.—(2 1/2 houses.) A subcaste of Khatri.

Dhakan.—(A witch.) Subcaste of Bhat.

Dhakar.—Name of a caste in Bastar. A clan of Rajputs. A subcase of Barai, Bania and Kirar. A sept of Halba.

Dhalgar.—A small occupational caste who made leather shields, and are now almost extinct as the use of shields has gone out of fashion. They are Muhammadans, but Mr. Crooke [439] considers them to be allied to the Dabgars, who make leather vessels for holding oil and ghi and are also known as Kuppesaz. The Dabgars are a Hindu caste whose place in the Central Provinces is taken by the Budalgir Chamars. These receive their designation from budla, the name of the leather bag which they make. Budlas were formerly employed for holding ghi or melted butter, oil and the liquid extract of sugarcane, but vegetable oil is now generally carried in earthen vessels slung in baskets, and ghi in empty kerosene tins. Small bottles of very thin leather are still used by scent-sellers for holding their scents, though they also have glass bottles. The song of the Leather Bottel recalls the fact that vessels for holding liquids were made of leather in Europe prior to the introduction of glass. The Dhalgars also made targets for archery practice from the hides of buffaloes; and the similar use of the hides of cattle in Europe survives in our phrase of the bull's eye for the centre of the target.