Machhri.—(Fish.) A sept of Oraon.

Mada Kukuria.—(Dead dog.) A subsection of the Viswal section of Koltas.

Madankul.—A section of Komti. They do not use red clothes, nor the wood of the swallow-wort tree.

Madari.—A class of Fakirs or Muhammadan beggars.

Made.—A resident of the Mad country in Chanda and Bastar. Subcaste of Pardhan.

Madgi, Madiga. [463]—The Telugu caste of workers in leather corresponding to the Chamars, which numbers nearly 1 1/2 millions in Madras, Mysore and Hyderabad. In 1911 there were nearly 6000 Madgis in the Central Provinces and 3000 in Berar. According to tradition, the Madigas derive their name from that of a sage called Matanga Muni, and it is said that a dynasty belonging to the caste once ruled in the Canarese country. The following legend of their origin comes from Mysore: [464] In former times the sage Jambava Rishi was habitually late in attending at Siva's court. Siva asked him why this happened, and he replied that he was occupied in tending his children. On this Siva took pity on him and gave him the sacred cow, Kamdhenu, from which all the needs of the children could be satisfied. But one day while Jambava was absent at Siva's court, another sage, Sankhya, visited his hermitage and was hospitably entertained by his son, Yugamuni. The cream which Sankhya was given was so good that he desired to kill the cow, Kamdhenu, thinking that her flesh would taste even better. In spite of Yugamuni's objections Sankhya killed the cow and distributed the meat to various persons. While this was in progress Jambava returned, and, on hearing what had been done, dragged Sankhya and Yugamuni before Siva's judgment seat. The two offenders did not enter the court but stood outside the doorway, Sankhya on the right side and Yugamuni on the left. Siva condemned them to become Chandalas or outcastes, and the descendants of Sankhya have become the right-hand Holias, while those of Yugamuni and his wife Matangi are the left-hand caste of Madigas. The latter were set to make shoes to expiate the sin committed by their ancestor in killing a cow. Another story given in the Central Provinces is that the Golla caste of cowherds, corresponding to the Ahirs and the Madgis, are the descendants of two brothers. The brothers had a large herd of cattle and wanted to divide them. At this time, however, cattle disease was prevalent, and many of the herd were affected. The younger brother did not know of this, and seeing that most of the herd were lying on the ground, he proposed to the elder brother that he himself should take all the cattle lying on the ground, and the elder brother all those which were standing up, as a suitable method of division. The elder brother agreed, but when the younger came to take his cattle which were on the ground he found that they were all dead, and hence he had no alternative but to take off the hides and cure and sell them. His descendants continued his degraded profession and became the Madgi caste. In Chanda the following six subcastes of Madgis are reported: The Nulka Chandriah or caste priests; the Anapa or leather dealers; the Sindhi who are supposed to have been performers of dramas; the Masti or dancers; the Kommu or tellers of stories; and the Dekkala or genealogists of the caste. It is said that Kommu really means a horn and Dekka a hoof. These last two are the lowest subdivisions, and occupy a most degraded position. In theory they should not sleep on cots, pluck the leaves of trees, carry loads on any animal other than a donkey, or even cook food for themselves, but should obtain their subsistence by eating the leavings of other Madgis or members of different castes. The Nulka Chandriah or priests are the highest subdivision and will not take food or water from any of the others, while the four remaining subcastes eat and drink together, but do not intermarry. There are also a number of exogamous groups, most of which have territorial names; but a few are titular or totemistic, as—Mukkidi, noseless; Kumawar, a potter; Nagarwar, a citizen; Dobbulwar, one who possesses a dobbulu or copper coin; Ippawar, from the mahua tree; Itkalwar from itkal a brick, and so on. The caste customs of the Madigas need not be recorded in detail. They are an impure caste and eat all kinds of food, and the leavings of others, though the higher subdivisions refuse to accept these. They live outside the village, and their touch is considered to convey pollution.

Madhavacharya.—A Vishnuite sect and order of religious mendicants. See Bairagi.

Madhyanjan, Madhyandina.—A class of Brahmans, the same as the Yajur-Vedis, or a section of them.

Madia.—A class of Gonds in Bastar.

Madpotwa.—(One who distils liquor.) Subcaste of Teli.

Madrasi.—Subcaste of Dhobi.

Magadha.—A subcaste of Ahir or Rawat in Chhattisgarh, who ask for food from others and do not cook for themselves.

Magar, Magra.—A sept of Khangar, Ahir or Rawat, Gond and Chadar.

Magida.—Synonym of Madgi.

Mahabrahman.—A degraded class of Brahmans who accept gifts for the dead.

Mahadeva Thakur.—(Lord Mahadeo.) A section of Mali.

Mahajalia.—(Deceitful.) A section of Lohar.

Mahajan.—A banker. Title of the Bania caste.

Mahakul.—Synonym for Ahir.

Mahalodhi.—(Great Lodhi.) Subcaste of Lodhi.

Mahanadiya.—(Those who came from the Mahanadi river.) A subcaste of Lodhi. A section of Ganda, Ghasia and Panka.

Mahant.—Chief of a math or monastery. A superior class of priest. A section of Ahir, Panka, Chamar and Koshta.

Mahanti.—A synonym for the Karan or writer caste of Orissa. A section of Chasa.

Mahapatra.—A subdivision of degraded Brahmans who take funeral gifts. An honorific title of Thanapati and of Uriya Brahmans. A subcaste of Bhat.

Mahar.—A caste. A subcaste of Balahi and Gondhali. A section of Rawat in Raigarh.

Maharaj.—(Great king.) A title of Brahmans.

Mahurana.—Synonym of Chitari.

Maharashtra or Marathe.—One of the five orders of Panch Dravida Brahmans inhabiting the Maratha country. They are also called Dakshini Brahmans. A subcaste of Kumhar, Kasar and Lohar.

Mahedia.—A section of Basors who worship pounded rice mixed with curds.

Mahenga.—(An elephant.) A totemistic sept of Rautia and Kawar in Bilaspur.

Maheshri.—Subcaste of Baina.

Mahili.—Synonym for Mahli.

Mahipia.—(A drinker of curds.) A subsection of the Viswal section of Koltas.

Mahisur.—(Lord of the earth.) A synonym of Brahmans.

Mahli-Munda.—Subcaste of Mahli.

Mahobia.—(From the town of Mahoba in Central India.) A subcaste of Barai, Chamar, Dangi, Ghasia, Khangar and Mahar. A section of Dangi, Kumhar and Kori.

Mahoda.—A subdivision of Brahmans in Jubbulpore.

Mahore, Mahure.—A subcaste of Bania, Kori, Kumhar and Kalar.

Mahratta.—Synonym of Maratha.

Mahto, Mahton.—A chief or village headman. Subcaste and title of Teli and Khairwar; title of the leader of the Bhuiya caste. A section of Ganda and Rawat (Ahir).

Mahur.—(Poison.) A subcaste of Sunars in Chhindwara.

Mahure, Mahuria.—(From Mahur, a town in Hyderabad.) Subcaste of Barhai and Dhangar.

Mai.—(Mother.) A division of the Kabirpanthi sect.

Maichhor.—A small clan of Rajputs. Perhaps from Maichuri in Jaipur.

Mailwar.—(Dirty.) A group of Sunars in Raipur.

Maina.—Synonym of Mina.

Mair.—A subcaste of Sunar named after Mair, their original ancestor, who melted down a golden demon.

Maithil.—One of the five divisions of Panch Gaur Brahmans inhabiting the province of Maithil or Bihar and Tirhut.

Majarewar.—A territorial section of Binjhwar (from Majare in Balaghat).

Majhi.—(A village headman.) Title of Bhatra.

Majhia.—Synonym of Majhwar.

Majhli.—(Middle.) Subcaste of Rautia.

Makaria.—(From makad, monkey.) A subcaste of Kamar, so called because they eat monkeys.

Makhia.—Subcaste of Mehtar.

Malaiya.—An immigrant from Malwa. Subcaste of Chhipa.

Male, Maler.—Synonyms of Mal.

Malha.—A boatman. Synonym of Mallah.

Malhar.—Subcaste of Koli.

Mali.—(A caste.) A section of Kalar.

Mal-Paharia.—Synonym of Mal.

Malvi, Malwi.—(From Malwa.) A subdivision of Brahmans in Hoshangabad and Betul. A subcaste of Ahir, Barhai, Darzi, Dhobi, Gadaria, Kalar, Koshti, Kumhar, Nai and Sunar.

Malyar. [465]—A small and curious caste of workers in gold and silver in Bastar State. They are known alternatively as Marhatia Sunar or Panchal, and outsiders call them Adhali. The name Malyar is said to be derived from mal, dirt, and jar or jalna, to burn, the Malyars having originally been employed by Sunars or goldsmiths to clean and polish their ornaments. No doubt can be entertained that the Malyars are in reality Gonds, as they have a set of exogamous septs all of which belong to the Gonds, and have Gondi names. So far as possible, however, they try to disguise this fact and perform their marriages by walking round the sacred post like the Hindustani castes. They will take food cooked without water from Brahmans, Rajputs and Banias, but will not eat katcha (or food cooked with water) from anybody, and not even from members of their own caste unless they are relatives. This custom is common to some other castes of mixed descent, and indicates that illicit connections are frequent among the Malyars, as indeed would necessarily be the case owing to the paucity of their numbers. But their memories are short, and the offspring of such irregular unions are recognised as belonging to the caste after one or two generations. An outsider belonging to any higher caste may be admitted to the community. The caste worship Mata Devi or the goddess of smallpox, and revere the spirit of a Malyar woman who became a Sati. They have learned as servants of the Sunars the rudiments of their art, and manufacture rough ornaments for the primitive people of Bastar.

Mana Ojha.—Subcaste of Ojha.

Mandal.—(A name for a prosperous cultivator in Chhattisgarh.) A section of Chamar and Panka. See article Kurmi.

Mandilwar.—Name derived from Mandla. Subcaste of Katia.

Mandkul.—A section of Komti who do not eat mangoes.

Mandlaha.—(From Mandla town.) Subtribe of Gond.

Mane Kunbi.—Subcaste of Gondhali.

Mang or Mangia.—A caste. Subcaste of Ganda, Gondhali, Bahrupia.

Mangan.—(From Manghunia, beggar.) A caste.

Mangan. [466]—A small caste found in Chhattisgarh and Sambalpur who are the musicians and genealogists of the Ghasias. The term is considered opprobrious, as it means 'beggar,' and many Mangans probably return themselves as Ghasias. They are despised by the Ghasias, who will not take food or water from them. At the marriages of the former the Mangans play on a drum called ghunghru, which they consider as the badge of the caste, their cattle being branded with a representation of it. The only point worth notice about the caste is that they are admittedly of mixed descent from the unions of members of other castes with Ghasia prostitutes. They have five totemistic exogamous sections, about each of which a song is sung relating its origin. The Sunani sept, which worships gold as its totem and occupies the highest position, is said to be descended from a Brahman father and a Ghasia mother; the Sendaria sept, worshipping vermilion, from a Kewat ancestor and a Ghasia woman; the Bhainsa sept, worshipping a buffalo, from a Gaur or Ahir and a Ghasia; the Mahanadia sept, having the Mahanadi for their totem, from a Gond and a Ghasia woman; while the Bagh sept, who revere the tiger, say that a cow once gave birth to two young, one in the form of a tiger and the other of a human being; the latter on growing up took a Ghasia woman to himself and became the ancestor of the sept. As might be expected from their ancestry, the Mangan women are generally of loose character. The Mangans sometimes act as sweepers.

Mangta.—(A beggar.) A subcaste of Pasi in Sangor, who beg from their caste-fellows.

Maniara.—(A Pedlar.) Subcaste of Jogi.

Manihar.—A caste. The Manihars are also known as Bisati. An occupational name of Jogis.

Manikpuria.—(A resident Manikpur.) Subcaste of Panka.

Manjhi.—(Headman.) A synonym of Santal and Kewat. A section of Chasa, Dhanuhar and Kolta. A title of Chasa.

Manjur.—(Peacock.) A totemistic sept of Munda.

Manjmar.—Term for a boatman. Included in Kewat.

Mankar.—Name of a superior class of village watchmen in Nimar District. See article Bhil. A subcaste of Mana and Halba.

Mannepuwar.—A subcaste of Mala. Synonym, Teluga Bhoi.

Manwa.—Subcaste of Kunbi.

Marabi.—A common sept of Gond. A section of Nat.

Marai.—(A name for the goddess of cholera, who is called Marai Mata.) A common sept of Gond. Also a sept of Baiga, Pasor and Bhunjia. A subcaste of Majhwar.

Maral.—Synonym of Mali.

Marapa.—A sept of Gonds in Betul, who abstain from killing or eating a goat or sheep and throw away any article smelt by them.

Marar.—Synonym for Mali, a gardener. Also a subcaste of Kachhi.

Maratha, Marathe.—A caste. A subcaste of Barhai, Bedar, Chamar, Dhimar, Gadaria, Kumhar, Mahar, Mali, Mang, Nai and Teli.

Marathi, Maratha, Marthe, Marathe.—(A resident of the Maratha country.) Subcaste of Bahrupia, Chamar, Dhargar, Gundhali, Gopal, Injhwar, Kaikari, Kasar, Koshti, Nahal, Otari.

Marathia.—Resident of Bhandara or another Maratha District. Subcaste of Halba.

Maria.—A well-known tribe of Gonds in Bastar and Chanda. See article Gond. A subcaste of Gowari. A section of Ahir, Chamar and Kumhar.

Markam.—(Marka, mango.) One of the principal septs of Gonds. Also a sept of Baiga, Basor, Bhumjia, Pardhan and Solaha.

Marori. [467]—A small caste of degraded Rajputs from Marwar found in the Bhandara and Chhindwara Districts and also in Berar. The name is a local corruption of Marwari, and is applied to them by their neighbours, though many of the caste do not accept it and call themselves Rajputs. In Chhindwara they go by the name of Chhatri, and in the Tirora Tahsil they are known as Alkari, because they formerly grew the al or Indian madder for a dye, though it has now been driven out of the market. They have been in the Central Provinces for some generations, and though retaining certain peculiarities of dress, which show their northern origin, have abandoned in many respects the caste usages of Rajputs. Their women wear the Hindustani angia tied with string behind in place of the Maratha choli or breast-cloth, and drape their saris after the northern fashion. They wear ornaments of the Rajputans shape on their arms, and at their weddings they sing Marwari songs. They have Rajput sept names, as Parihar, Rathor, Solanki, Sesodia and others, which constitute exogamous groups and are called kulis. Some of these have split up into two or three subdivisions, as, for instance, the Pathar (stone) Panwars, the Pandhre or white Panwars and the Dhatura or thorn-apple Panwars; and members of these different groups may intermarry. The reason seems to be that it was recognised that people belonged to the same Panwar sept who were not blood kin to each other, and the prohibition of marriage between them was a serious inconvenience in a small community. They also have eponymous gotras, as Vasishtha, Batsa and others of the Brahmanical type, but these do not influence exogamy. The paucity of their numbers and the influence of local usage have caused them to relax the marriage rules adhered to by Rajputs. Women are very scarce, and a price varying from forty to a hundred rupees is commonly paid for a bride, though they feel keenly the degradation attaching to the acceptance of a bride-price. Widow-marriage is permitted, no doubt for the same reasons, and a girl going wrong with a man of another caste may be readmitted to the community. Divorce is not permitted, and an unfaithful wife may be abandoned; she cannot then marry again in the caste. Formerly, on the arrival of the marriage procession, the bride's and bridegroom's parties let off fireworks, aiming them against each other, but this practice is now discontinued. When the bridegroom approaches the marriage-shed the bride comes out and strikes him on the breast or forehead with a ball of dough, a sheet being held between them; the bridegroom throws a handful of rice over her and strikes the festoons of the shed with a naked sword. A bachelor espousing a widow must first be married to a ring, which he thereafter carries in his ear, and if it is lost funeral ceremonies must be performed as for a real wife. Women are tattooed on the arms only. Children have as many as five names, one for ordinary use, and the others for ceremonial purposes and the arrangement of marriages. If a man kills a cow or a cat he must have a miniature figure of the animal made of gold and give it to a Brahman in expiation of his sin.

Marskola.—(From markets, an axe.) A common sept of Gonds and Pardhans.

Maru.—Subcaste of Charan Bhats.

Marwari.—A resident of Marwar or the desert tract of Rajputana; Marwar is also used as a name for Jodhpur State. See subordinate article Rajput-Rathor. The name Marwari is commonly applied to Banias coming from Marwar. See article Bania. A subcaste of Bahna, Gurao, Kumhar, Nai, Sunar and Teli.

Masania.—(From masin, straw or grass mats, or masina, thatched roof.) A section of Lohar. A synonym for San Bhatras in Bastar.

Mashki.—(A water-bearer.) Synonym of Bhishti.

Masram.—A common sept of Gonds.

Masti.—(Dancer.) Subcaste of Madgi.

Mastram.—(Mastra, brass bangles.) A sept of Gonds in Betul. The women of this sept wear brass bangles.

Masuria.—A subcaste of Kurmi. From masur, lentil. A section of Rajput.

Mathadhari.—(Living in a monastery.) A celibate clan of Manbhao mendicants.

Mathpati.—(Lord of the hermitage.) A subcaste of Jangam.

Mathur, Mathuria.—(From Mathura or Muttra.) A subcaste of Kayasth. A subdivision of Brahman. A subcaste of Banjara, Darzi and Nai.

Matkuda, Matkora.—(Earth-digger.) A subcaste and synonym of Beldar. A name for Gonds and Pardhans who take to earthwork.

Mattha.—Corruption of Maratha. A subcaste of Koshti, Mahar and Teli, and a title of Teli.

Matti.—A subdivision of low-class Brahmans returned from Khairagarh. Also a class of Kashmiri Brahmans.

Matwala.—(A drinker of country liquor.) Subcaste of Kadera.

Mawasi, Mirdhan.—Subcaste of Dahait. Title of the headman of the Dahait caste committee.

Mayaluar.—(Chief man of the caste.) A subcaste of Turi.

Mayur.—(Peacock.) A totemistic section of the Ahir, Hatwa, Gond, Sonjhara and Sundi castes.

Mayurmara.—(Killer of peacock.) A section of Bahelia.

Meda Gantia.—(Counter of posts.) Title of Bhatra. Official who fixes date and hour for wedding.

Medara, Medari.—The Telugu caste of bamboo-workers and mat-makers, corresponding to the Basors. They have the same story as the Basors of the first bamboo having been grown from the snake worn by Siva round his neck, which was planted head downwards in the ground. The customs of the Medaras, Mr. Francis says, [468] differ from place to place. In one they will employ Brahman purohits (priests), and prohibit widow-marriage, while in the next they will do neither, and will even eat rats and vermin. The better classes among them are taking to calling themselves Balijas or Baljis, and affixing the title of Chetti to their names.

Medari.—Synonym of Medara.

Mehar.—Synonym of Bhulia.

Meher.—A section of Malwi Ahir, a synonym for Bhulia. A title of Chamar.

Mehra.—Synonym for Mahar. A subcaste of Katia and Kori.

Mehta.—A group of Brahmans. A section of Oswal Bania.

Mehtar.—(A prince or leader.) Common name for the sweeper caste. Title of the president of the Dhobi caste committee.

Meman.—Synonym of Cutchi.

Meshbansi.—(Descendant of a sheep.) A clan of Rajputs.

Mewada, Mewari.—(From Mewar.) A division of Gujarati or Khedawal Brahmans. A subcaste of Chhipa, Darzi, Mali and Sunar.

Mewati.—Synonym of Meo. See article. A class of Fakirs or Muhammadan beggars.

Mhali.—Synonym of Nai.

Mhasia, Mhashi.—(Mhas, buffalo.) A sept of Halba. A section of Kohli.

Mihir.—Synonym of Bhulia.

Mina.—A caste. A section of Raghuvansis.

Mirdaha.—A subcaste of Dahait, Khangar, and Nat. A section of Raghuvansi. Name used for the mate of a gang of coolies.

Mir-Dahait.—Title of the Mirdha caste.

Mirdha.—A small caste found only in the Narsinghpur District. They are a branch of the Khangar or Dahait caste of Saugor and Damoh. The names of their exogamous sections tally with those of the Khangars, and they have the same story of their ancestors having been massacred at a fort in Orchha State and of one pregnant woman escaping and hiding under a kusum tree (Schleichera trijuga), which consequently they revere. Like Khangars they regard Muhammadan eunuchs and Fakirs (beggars) with special friendship, on the ground that it was a Fakir who sheltered their ancestress when the rest of the caste were massacred by Rajputs, and Fakirs do not beg at their weddings. One explanation of the name is that this section of the caste were born from a Muhammadan father and a Dahait woman, and hence were called Mir-Dahaits or Mirdaha, Mir being a Muhammadan title. Mirdha is, however, as noted by Mr. Hira Lal, the name of the head of the caste committee among the Dahaits; and in Hoshangabad he is a servant of the village proprietor and acts as assistant to the Kotwar or village watchman; he realises the rents from the tenants, and sometimes works as a night guard. In Gujarat the name is said to be a corruption of mir-deh or 'mason of the village.' [469] Here it is said that the Mirdhas are held to be of part foreign, part Rajput origin, and were originally official spies of the Gujarat sultans. They are now employed as messengers and constables, and therefore seem to be analogous to the same class of persons in the Central Provinces.

Mirshikar.—Synonym of Pardhi.

Misra or Misar.—A surname of Kanaujia, Jijhotia, Sarwaria and Uriya Brahmans.

Mistri.—(Corruption of the English Mister.) A master carpenter or mate of a gang. Title of Barhai, Beldar and Lohar.

Mithia.—(A preparer of sweets.) Synonym of Halwai.

Mochi.—(A shoemaker.) A caste. Subcaste of Chamar.

Modh.—A subdivision of Khedawal or Gujarati Brahmans who take their name from Modhera, an ancient place in Gujarat. A subcaste of Gujarati Bania.

Modh-Ghaneli.—Subcaste of Teli in Gujarat.

Moghia.—Synonym of Pardhi.

Mohania.—(Captivator.) A section of Rajjhar and Kirar.

Mohtaria.—Title of the headman of the Andh caste committee.

Mohtera.—One who fixes the auspicious moment, hence the headman of the caste. A titular section of Basor.

Monas.—A subdivision of Brahmans.

Mongre, Mongri, Mongrekair.—(A club or mallet.) A section of Ahir or Rawat in Chhattisgarh, and of Chamar, Ganda, and Panka.

Mori.—A branch of the Panwar Rajputs.

Mor Kachhi.—One who prepares the maur or marriage-crown for weddings. Subcaste of Kachhi.

Morkul.—A section of Komti. They do not use asafoetida (hing) nor the fruit of the umar fig-tree.

Motate.—(From mot, water-bag.) A subcaste of Kapewar.

Moujikul.—A section of Komti. They do not use pepper.

Mowar.—Subcaste of Rajwar.

Mowasi.—A resident of the forests of Kalibhit and Melghat known as the Mowas. Subcaste of Korku.

Muamin.—Synonym of Cutchi.

Muasi.—Title of Korku; subcaste of Korwa.

Muchi.—Synonym of Mochi.

Mudara.—Subcaste of Parja.

Mudgalia.—(From mudgal, Indian club—an athlete.) A surname of Adi Gaur Brahmans in Saugor.

Mudha.—Synonym for Munda.

Mudotia.—(From mudha, a cheat.) A surname of Sanadhia Brahmans in Saugor.

Mughal.—A tribal division of Muhammadans. See article Muhammadan Religion.

Muhammadan.—Subcaste of Koli.

Muhjaria.—(Burnt mouth.) A section of Lodhi.

Mukeri.—Or Kasai, a small Muhammadan caste of traders in cattle and butchers. In 1891 more than 900 were returned from the Saugor District. Their former occupation was to trade in cattle like the Banjaras, but they have now adopted the more profitable trade of slaughtering them for the export of meat; and as this occupation is not considered very reputable, they have perhaps thought it desirable to abandon their caste name. The derivation of the term Mukeri is uncertain. According to one account they are a class of Banjaras, and derive their name from Mecca, on the ground that one of their Naiks or headmen was camping in the neighbourhood of this town, at the time when Abraham was building it, and assisted him in the work. When they emigrated from Mecca their illustrious name of Makkai was corrupted into Mukeri. [470] A variant of this story is that their ancestor was one Makka Banjara, who also assisted in the building of Mecca, and that they came to India with the early Muhammadan invaders. [471] The Mukeris form a caste and marry among themselves. In their marriage ceremony they have adopted some Hindu observances, such as the anointing of the bride and bridegroom with turmeric and the erection of a marriage-shed. They take food from the higher Hindu castes, but will not eat with a Kayasth, though there is no objection to this on the score of their religion. They will admit an outsider, if he becomes a Muhammadan, but will not give their daughters to him in marriage, at any rate until he has been for some years a member of the caste. In other matters they follow Muhammadan law.

Mullaji.—Title of the priests of the Bohra caste.

Multani.—Subcaste and synonym of Banjara.

Munda.—(A village headman, from munda, the head.) Title and synonym of Kol. A subcaste of Kharia and Oraon.

Mundela.—(Bald-headed.) A surname of Jijhotia Brahmans in Saugor.

Mundle.—(Shaven ones.) Subcaste of Gujar.

Munikul.—A section of Komti. They do not use munga beans.

Munjia.—Name of an Akhara or school of Bairagi religious mendicants. See Bairagi.

Munurwar.—Synonym of Kapewar.

Murai, Murao.—(From muli, or radish.) Subcaste of Kachhi.

Murchulia.—(One who puts rings on the fingers of the caste.) A section of Ganda and Panka in Raipur.

Muria.—A well-known subtribe of Gonds in Bastar and Chanda.

Murli.—Synonym of Waghya.

Musabir.—Synonym of Mochi.

Musahar.—(A rat-eater.) Subcaste and title of Bhuiya.

Musare.—(Musar, a pestle.) A section of Mali.

Mussali.—Title of Mehtar.

Mutracha.—Synonym of Mutrasi.

Mutrasa.—Synonym of Mutrasi.

Mutrasi, Mutrasa, Muthrasi, Mutracha.—(From the Dravidian roots mudi, old, and racha, a king, or from Mutu Raja, a sovereign of some part of the Telugu country.) [472] A caste which is numerous in Hyderabad and Madras, and of which a few persons are found in the Chanda District of the Central Provinces. The Mutrasis are the village watchmen proper of Telingana or the Telugu country. [473] They were employed by the Vijayanagar kings to defend the frontier of their country, and were honoured with the title of Paligar. Their usual honorific titles at present are Dora (Sahib or Lord) and Naidu. As servants they are considered very faithful and courageous. Some of them have taken to masonry in Chanda, and are considered good stone-carvers. They are a comparatively low caste, and eat fowls and drink liquor, but they do not eat beef or pork. It is compulsory among them to marry a girl before she arrives at adolescence, and if this is not done her parents are put out of caste, and only readmitted on payment of a penalty.

Nabadia.—(Boatman or sailor.) A synonym for Kewat.

Naddaf.—A synonym for Bahna or Pinjara.

Nadha.—(Those who live on the banks of streams.) Subcaste of Dhimar.

Nadia.—A clan of Dangi.

Nag, Nagesh.—(Cobra.) A sept of the Ahir or Rawat, Binjhal, Bhatia, Chasa, Hatwa, Halba, Khadal, Kawar, Khangar, Karan, Katia, Kolta, Lohar, Mahar, Mali, Mowar, Parja, Redka, Sulia, Sundi and Taonla castes. Most of these castes belong to Chhattisgarh and the Uriya country.

Naga.—A clan of Gosains or mendicants. See Gosain.

Nagar.—A subcaste of Brahmans belonging to Gujarat; a subcaste of Bania; a section of Teli.

Nagarchi.—(A drum-beater.) A class of Gonds. A subcaste of Ganda and Ghasia.

Nagarchi.—The Nagarchis appear to be a class of Gonds, whose special business was to beat the nakkara or kettledrums at the gates of forts and palaces. In some Districts they now form a special community, marrying among themselves, and numbered about 6000 persons in 1911. The nagara or nakkara is known in Persia as well as in India. Here the drum is made of earthenware, of a tapering shape covered at both ends with camel-hide for the zir or treble, and with cowhide for the bam or bass. It is beaten at the broader end. In Persia the drums were played from the Nakkara-khana or gateway, which still exists as an appanage of royalty in the chief cities of Iran. They were beaten to greet the rising and to usher out the setting sun. During the months of mourning, Safar and Muharram, they were silent. [474] In India the nagara were a pair of large kettledrums bound with iron hoops and twice as large as those used in Europe. They were a mark of royalty and were carried on one of the state elephants, the royal animal, in the prince's sowari or cavalcade, immediately preceding him on the line of march. The right of displaying a banner and beating kettledrums was one of the highest marks of distinction which could be conferred on a Rajput noble. When the titular Maratha Raja had retired to Satara and any of the Maratha princes entered his territory, all marks of royalty were laid aside by the latter and his nagara or great drum of empire ceased to be beaten. [475]

The stick with which the kettledrum was struck was called danka, and the king's jurisdiction was metaphorically held to extend so far as his kettledrums were beaten. Angrezi raj ka danka bajta hai or 'Where the English drum is beaten,' means 'So far as the English empire extends.' In Egypt the kettledrums were carried on camels. [476]

Nagaria.—(A drum-player.) A section of Jasondhi Bhat and Teli.

Nagbans.—(Descended from the cobra.) A totemistic sept of Gadba, Ghasia, and Gond.

Nagla.—(Naked.) Subcaste of Khond.

Nagpure.—(From Nagpur.) A section of Lodhi and Kohli.

Nagvansi.—A clan of Rajputs. See article Rajput-Nagvansi. A subcaste and section of Sunar. A section of Daharia or Daraiha and Gond.

Nahar.—(Tiger.) A subtribe of Baiga. A section of Rajputs in Saugor.

Nahonia.—A clan of Dangi in Damoh and Saugor. They were formerly Kachhwaha Rajputs from Narwar, but being cut off from their own domicile they married with Dangis. Rajputs accept daughters from them but do not give their daughters to Nahonias.

Naidu.—Title of the Balija, Mutrasi and Velama castes. Often used by Balijas as their caste name.

Naik.—(Leader.) A subdivision of Gond, also known as Darwe. A title of Banjara headmen. A title of Teli and Kolta. A section of Ahir, Chamar, Chasa, Gadaria, Halba, Kewat, Khond, Mali, Sudh.

Nakib.—Mace-bearer or flag-bearer in a procession. Subcaste of Jasondhi Bhat and Khangar.

Nakshbandia.—A class of Fakirs or Muhammadan beggars.

Naksia.—Synonym of Nagasia.

Namdeo.—A religious sect confined to members of the Chhipa and Darzi castes, which has become a subcaste.

Nanakshahi.—Synonym of Nanakpanthi.

Nandia.—(One who leads about with him a performing bullock). From Nandi, the bull on which Mahadeo rides. Subcaste of Jogi.

Nandvansi.—Subcaste of Ahir.

Nanghana.—A name given to the Kol tribe in Hoshangabad.

Napita.—Sanskrit name for Nai or barber.

Naqqal.—Title of Bhand.

Naraina.—Subcaste of Patwa.

Naramdeo.—A subcaste of Brahmans belonging to the Gaur branch. They take their name from the river Nerbudda.

Narbadi, Narmada.—(From the river Nerbudda.) A subdivision of Maharashtra Brahmans. A section of Yajur-Vedi Brahmans. A synonym for Naramdeo Brahmans. A section of Agharia, Binjhal and Chamar.

Narnolia.—(From a place called Narnol in the Punjab.) Subcaste of Mehtar.

Narwaria.—A clan of Dangi. A subcaste of Ahir.

Nata.—(A young bullock.) A section of Ahir and Oswal Bania.

Nathunia.—(Nose-ring.) A subcaste of Pasi.

Navadesia.—(A man of nine districts.) Subcaste of Banjara.

Nawaria.—A subcaste of Barhai, Lohar, Kachera or Sisgar, Nai and Tamera.

Nazir.—(A cashier or usher.) Subcaste of Jasondhi Bhat.

Negi.—A vice-president of the caste committee in the Kharia caste.

Nema or Nima.—A subcaste of Bania. See article Bania, Nema.

Netam.—(The dog in Gondi.) One of the common septs of Gond. Also a sept of Basor, Bhatra, Bhuiya, Dewar, Kawar and Parja.

Nawari.—(From newar, thick tape used for webbing of beds.) Subcaste of Bahna.

Niaria.—An occupational term applied to persons who take the refuse and sweepings from a Sunar's shop and wash out the particles of gold and silver. See article Sunar.

Nigam, Nigum.—A subcaste of Kayasth.

Nihal.—Synonym of Nahal.

Nihang.—A class of Bairagis or religious mendicants, who remain celibate.

Nikhar.—A subcaste of Ahir, Bharewa (Kasar), Gadaria. A clan of Rajput. A section of Koshti.

Nikumbh.—A clan of Rajputs included in the thirty-six royal races. A section of Joshi.

Nilgar.—Synonym of Chhipa.

Nilkar.—(From nil, indigo.) A subcaste of Darzi or Simpi (tailors) in Naagpur, so named because they took up the work of dyeing in addition to their own and formed a new subcaste.

Nimanandi.—A Vishnuite sect and order of religious mendicants. See Bairagi.

Nimari, Nimadi, Nimaria.—(A resident of Nimar.) A subcaste of Balahi, Bania, Dhobi, Mahar and Nai.

Nimawal.—A class of Bairagi.

Nirali.—Synonym of Chhipa.

Niranjani.—Name of an Akhara or school of Bairagis. See Bairagi.

Nirbani.—(Nir, without; bani, speech.) A class of Bairagis who refrain from speech as far as possible.

Nirmohi.—A class of Bairagis.

Nona or Lona.—Name derived from Nona or Lona Chamarin, a well-known witch. Subcaste of Chamar.

Nulkachandriah.—Caste priests. Subcaste of Madgi.

Nun.—(Salt.) A sept of Oraon.

Nunia, Nonia, Lunia.—(Saltmaker.) A synonym of Beldar. A section of Binjhwar and Koli.

Od.—Synonym of Beldar.

Odde, Ud.—(From Odra the old name of Orissa.) Term for a digger or navvy. A group of Beldars.

Odhia.—Synonym for Audhia Bania.

Odia or Uriya.—Subcaste of Beldar in Chhattisgarh.

Oiku.—Subtribe of Majhwar.

Ojha.—(From Ojh, entrails.) A caste of Gond augurs, see article. A title of Maithil Brahmans. A subcaste of Lohar, Nat and Savar.

Okkilyan.—Synonym of Wakkaliga.

Omre, Umre.—A subcaste of Bania. See Bania Umre.—A subcaste of Teli.

Onkar Nath.—A subdivision of Jogis.

Onkule.—Subcaste of Koshti.

Orha.—Subcaste of Chasa.

Oswal.—A subcaste of Bania. See subordinate article to Bania.

Ota.—(One who recites the Vedas aloud in sacrifices.) An honorific title of Uriya Brahmans.

Otari, Watkari.—A low caste of workers in brass in the Maratha country. The name is derived from the Marathi verb otne, to pour or smelt. They number about 2600 persons in the Bhandara and Chanda Districts, and in Berar. The caste have two subcastes, Gondadya and Maratha, or the Gond and Maratha Otaris. The latter are no doubt members of other castes who have taken to brass-working. Members of the two subcastes do not eat with each other. Their family names are of different kinds, and some of them are totemistic. They employ Brahmans for their ceremonies, and otherwise their customs are like those of the lower artisan castes. But it is reported that they have a survival of marriage by capture, and if a man refuses to give his daughter in marriage after being asked twice or thrice, they abduct the girl and afterwards pay some compensation to the father. They make and sell ornaments of brass and bell-metal, such as are worn by the lower castes, and travel from village to village, hawking their toe-rings and anklets. There is also an Otari subcaste of Kasars.

Pabaiya.—(From Pabai in Bundelkhand.) A clan of Rajputs in Hoshangabad.

Pabia.—A small caste in the zamindaris of the Bilaspur District, and some of the Feudatory States, who numbered about 9000 persons in 1911. They appear to be Pans or Gandas, who also bear the name of Pab, and this has been corrupted into Pabia, perhaps with a view to hiding their origin. They are wretchedly poor and ignorant. They say that they have never been to a Government dispensary, and would be afraid that medicine obtained from it would kill them. Their only remedies for diseases are branding the part affected or calling in a magician. They never send their children to school, as they hold that educated children are of no value to their parents, and that the object of Government in opening schools is only to obtain literate persons to carry on its business. One curious custom may be noticed. When any one dies in a family, all the members, as soon as the breath leaves his body, go into another room of the house; and across the door they lay a net opened into the room where the corpse lies. They think that the spirit of the dead man will follow them, and will be caught in the net. Then the net is carried away and burnt or buried with the corpse, and thus they think that the spirit is removed and prevented from remaining about the house and troubling the survivors.

Pabeha.—Synonym for Dhimar.

Pabudia or Madhai.—A subcaste of Bhuiya.

Pachadhe.—(Western.)—A subdivision of Saraswat Brahman.

Pachbhaiya.—(Five Brothers.) A section of Ahir and Audhelia.

Pada.—(A pig-eater.) A section of Muria Gonds and Pardhans.

Padhan.—(An Uriya name for a chief or headman of a village.) A section of Bhuiya, Chasa, Dumal, Hatwa, Kolta, Tiyar and other Uriya castes. A title of Chasa and Kolta.

Padmasale.—Subcaste of Koshti.

Padyal.—A subtribe of Gond in Chanda. A section of Marori.

Pahalwan.—A small community numbering about 600 persons in the Bilaspur District and surrounding tracts of Chhattisgarh. The word Pahalwan means a wrestler, but Sir B. Robertson states [477] that they are a small caste of singing beggars and have no connection with wrestling. They appear, however, to belong to the Gopal caste, who have a branch of Pahalwans in their community. And the men returned from Bilaspur may have abandoned wrestling in favour of singing and begging from trees, which is also a calling of the Gopals. They themselves say that their ancestors were Gopals and lived somewhere towards Berar, and that they came to Bilaspur with the Maratha leader Chimnaji Bhonsla.

Pahar.—Subcaste of Mahli.

Paharia or Benwaria.—Subcaste of Korwa.

Paik.—(A foot-soldier.) See Rajput-Paik.

Paikaha.—(One who follows the calling of curing hides.) Synonym for Chamar.

Paikara.—(From Paik, a foot-soldier.) Subcaste of Kawar.

Pailagia.—(Pailagi or 'I fall at your feet,' is a common term of greeting from an inferior to a superior.) Subcaste of Dahait.

Paiyam.—(From paiya, a calf.) A sept of Gonds in Betul.

Pajania.—(Paijana, tinkling anklets.) A section of Kurmi.

Pakhali.—(From pakhali, a leathern water-bag.) Synonym of Bhishti.

Pakhawaji.—(One who plays on the pakhawaj or timbrel.) Title of Mirasi.

Pakhia.—(They are so called because they eat the flesh of the por or buffalo.) Subcaste of Khond.

Palas.—(From the palas tree, Butea frondosa.) A totemistic sept of Gonds.

Palewar.—A gotra of Binjhwar; a subcaste of Dhimar found in the Telugu country. They are also called Bhoi in Chanda. A name for Telugu Dhimars or watermen. A section of Binjhwar.

Palgaria.—(Sleeping on a palang or cot.) A sept of Bhunjia.

Palliwal.—A subcaste of Brahmans belonging to the Kanaujia division. They take their name from Pali, a trading town of Marwar. A subcaste of Bania, whose name is derived from the same place.

Palsa-gacha.—(Palas tree, Butea frondosa.) A totemistic sept of Pans.

Palshe.—A subcaste of Maratha Brahmans. They derive their name from Palsaoli village in Kalyan (Bombay Presidency).

Pampatra.—(Those who use their hands as pots.) A section of Khandwal.

Pan.—(Name of a forest tribe.) Synonym for Ganda.

Panch, Panchayat.—(A caste committee, so called because it is supposed to consist of five (panch) persons.) A section of Marar.

Panchal.—An indeterminate group of artisans engaged in any of the following five trades: Workers in iron, known as Manu; workers in copper or brass called Twashtik; workers in stone or Shilpik; workers in wood or Maya; and workers in gold and silver designated as Daivagnya. [478] The caste appear to be of Telugu origin, and in Madras they are also known as Kammala. In the Central Provinces they were amalgamated with the Sunars in 1901, but in 1891 a total of 7000 were returned, belonging to the southern Districts; while 2700 members of the caste are shown in Berar. The name is variously derived, but the principal root is no doubt panch or five. Captain Glasfurd writes it Panchyanun. [479] In the Central Provinces the Panchals appear generally to work in gold or brass, while in Berar they are blacksmiths. The gold-workers are an intelligent and fairly prosperous class, and devote themselves to engraving, inlaying, and making gold beads. They are usually hired by Sunars and paid by the piece. [480] They are intent on improving their social position and now claim to be Vishwa Brahmans, presumably in virtue of their descent from Viswa Karma, the celestial architect. At the census they submitted a petition begging to be classified as Brahmans, and to support their claim they employ members of their own caste to serve them as priests. But the majority of them permit the remarriage of widows, and do not wear the sacred thread. In other respects their customs resemble those of the Sunars. The Berar Panchals, on the other hand, appear to be a much lower group. Mr. Kitts describes [481] them as a "wandering caste of smiths living in grass-mat huts and using as fuel the roots of thorn bushes, which they batter out of the ground with the back of a short-handled axe peculiar to themselves. The Berari Panchals," he continues, "who differ from the Dakhani division in the custom of shaving their heads and beards on the death of a parent, have been in the Provinces for some generations. They live in small pals or tents, and move from place to place with buffaloes, donkeys, and occasionally ponies to carry their kit. The women of the Berari division may be distinguished from those of the Dakhani Panchals by their wearing their lugras or body-cloths tucked in at the back, in the fashion known as kasote." It is no doubt from the desire to dissociate themselves from the wandering blacksmiths of Berar that the Panchals of the Central Provinces desire to drop their caste name.

Pancham.—A subcaste of Bania. A subcaste of Barai, the same as Beraria.

Panchbhai.—(Five brothers.) A surname of Bhanara Dhimars, a section of Ghasia.

Panchdeve.—A subdivision of Gonds, worshipping five gods and paying special reverence to the saras crane.

Panch Dravid.—One of the two primary divisions of Brahmans, inhabiting the country south of the Vindhya hills and Nerbudda river, and including the following five orders: viz., Karnata (Carnatic), Dravid (Madras), Tailanga (Telugu country), Maharashtra (Bombay) and Gurjara (Gujarat).

Panch Gaur.—One of the two primary divisions of Brahmans inhabiting the country north of the Vindhya hills and Nerbudda river; it includes the following five orders: Saraswat (Punjab), Kanaujia (Hindustan), Gaur (Bengal), Utkal (Orissa) and Maithil (Bihar or Tirhut).

Panchghar.—One of the three subdivisions of Kanaujia Brahmans in Hoshangabad.

Panda.—(A priest of Devi, a wise man.) A subcaste or title of Mali. A subcaste and surname of Uriya Brahmans. A subcaste of Jasondhi Bhats.

Pandaram.—A class of Brahman priests.

Pande.—(A wise man.) A surname of Kanaujia and Gaur Brahmans. A section of Agharia, Barhai, Kewat and Marar. A title of Joshi and Kumhar.

Pandhare.—(White.) Subcaste of Sunar.

Pandit.—(A learned man.) A title of Brahmans.

Pandki.—(Dove.) A totemistic sept of Bhatra, Kawar and Parja.

Pandra.—A small caste of cultivators in the Uriya country. It is said that one of the Rajas of Patna had an illegitimate son to whom he gave the village of Pandri. His descendants were the Pandras.

Pandwar or Padwar.—A section of Panka in Raipur. They are said to be so named because they washed the feet of others.

Pangal.—Subcaste of Gopal. They make mats, but in addition to this they are mendicants begging from trees.

Panhara.—An occupational term meaning a seller of pan or betel-leaf.

Panibhar.—(A waterman.) Subcaste of Dangri.

Panigrahi.—(Husband.) An honorific title of Uriya Brahmans.

Panjha.—(Paw of an animal.) A sept of Gond.

Panka.—A weaver caste derived from the Gandas, being Gandas who follow the Kabirpanthi sect. See article. In Chhattisgarh Pankas sometimes call themselves Das, as servants of Kabir. Panka is also a subcaste of Ganda.

Pansari.—(A druggist.) Synonym for Barai.

Panwar.—A clan of Rajput. See article Panwar Rajput. A subcaste of Banjara and Bhoyar. A section of Ahir, Bhilala, Koshti, Maratha and Marori.

Parasar, Parashar.—(Name of a Brahmanical saint.) An eponymous section of Brahmans. A surname of Sanadhya and Gaur Brahmans. A section of Basdeva, Rangari, Sunar and Vidur.

Parauha.—(From para, a male buffalo calf.) A subcaste of Basdewa who deal in buffaloes.

Parbat.—Name of one of the ten orders of Gosain.

Parbhu.—Synonym of Prabhu.

Pardeshi.—(A foreigner.) The name is sometimes applied to immigrants from Malwa, and also to those coming from northern India. A subcaste of the Bahna, Barai, Barhai, Chamar, Dhimar, Dhobi, Garpagari, Kimbi, Kasar, Kumhar, Lohar, Nai, Rangari, Sunar and Teli castes.

Pardhan.—(A chief.) A caste who are priests of the Gonds. See article. A section of Chhattisgarhi Ahir or Rawat, Halba and Pabia. Title of caste headman of the Kharia tribe.

Pardhi.—(A hunter.) A caste. See article. A subcaste of Khatik. A section of Kunbi and Panwar Rajput.

Parewa.—(A pigeon.) A section of Chhattisgarhi Ahir or Rawat, and Panka.

Parganiha.—A synonym of Pardhan (Gond priests) in Kawardha.

Parihar.—An important clan of Rajputs. See Rajput Parihar. A section of Daharia and Daraiha, of Panwar Rajput and Pardhi.

Parit.—Synonym for Dhobi in the Maratha districts.

Parka. [482]—A small caste of labourers belonging to the Jubbulpore District and adjoining tracts, whose strength was something over 2000 persons in 1901. Sir B. Robertson wrote [483] in 1891 that the Parkas of the three northern Districts had been kept separate from the Panka caste in the census tables, but that they were in all probability the same. Mr. Hira Lal points out that several of the names of septs as Padwar, Sanwani, Gullia and Dharwa are the same in the two castes, and that in the Districts where Parkas are found there are no Pankas. The Panka caste was probably formed in Chhattisgarh by the separation of those Gandas or Pans who had embraced the doctrines of Kabir from their parent caste, and the name is a variant of Pan. In Jubbulpore the name Panka has no understood meaning, and it may have been corrupted into Pandka (a dove) and thence to Parka. Like the Pankas the Parkas often act as village watchmen. Many of the Parkas are also Kabirpanthis and, as with the Pankas, those who are not Kabirpanthis and do not abstain from flesh and liquor are called Saktahas. Intermarriage is not prohibited between the Parka Kabirpanthis and Saktahas. Some of the Parkas play on drums and act as village musicians, which is a regular occupation of the Pankas and Gandas. It may also be noted that the Parkas will take food cooked with water from a Gond and that they worship Bura Deo, the great god of the Gonds. Perhaps the most probable surmise as to their origin is that they are a small mixed group made up of Pankas and Gonds. A proverbial saying about the caste is 'Gond Raja, Parka Pardhan,' or 'The Gond is the master and the Parka the servant,' and this also points to their connection with the Gonds. Several of their section names indicate their mixed origin, as Kumharia from Kumhar a potter, Gullia From Gaolia or milkman, Bhullia from Bhulia an Uriya weaver, Andwan a subcaste of the Mahar caste, Tilasia a sept of the Kawars, and so on. If a Parka man forms a connection with any woman of higher caste she will be admitted into the community, and the same privilege is accorded to a man of any equal or higher caste who may desire to marry a Parka girl. A girl is only cast out when she is discovered to have been living with a man of lower caste than the Parkas. All these facts indicate their mixed origin. As already seen, the caste are labourers, village watchmen-and musicians, and their customs resemble those of low-caste Hindus, but they rank above the impure castes. They will eat food cooked with water from Lodhis, many of whom are landowners in Jubbulpore, and as such no doubt stand to the Parka in the relation of employer to servant. Every year on the second day of Bhadon (August) they worship a four-sided iron plate and a spear, which latter is perhaps the emblem of the village watchman. Fines imposed for caste offences are sometimes expended in the purchase of vessels which thereafter become common property and are lent to any one who requires them.

Parnami.—(A follower of Prannath of Panna.) Subcaste of Dangi.

Parsai.—(Village priest.) Synonym for Joshi.

Parsoli.—(parsa, an axe.) A section of Ahir or Rawat in Chhattisgarh.

Parwar.—A subcaste of Bania. See article Bania-Parwar. A subcaste of Kumhar.

Passi.—Synonym of Pasi.

Patadhari.—(One occupying the seat of instruction.) A section of celibate Manbhaos.

Patane.—A subcaste of Prabhu, so called on account of their living near Patan in Gujarat.

Patbina.—(From patti, sacking, and binna, to weave.) Synonym of Kumrawat. Subcaste of Jogi.

Patel.—(Headman of a village.) A subcaste and title of Mali. A surname of Gaur Brahmans in Saugor and of Parsis. A surname or section of Agharia, Mahar and Kachhi. A title of the Ahir and Bhoyar castes.

Pathak.—(Teacher.) A surname of Kanaujia and other classes of Brahmans.

Pathan.—One of the four tribes of Muhammadans. See article Muhammadan Religion.

Pathari.—(A hillman.) Synonym of Pardhan. Subcaste of Katia.

Patharia.—A subcaste of Katia, Kurmi and Mahar. A section of Halba. A subcaste of Agaria, who place a stone on the mouth of the bellows to fix them in the ground for smelting iron.

Pathmukh.—A subsept of the Dhurwa Gonds in Betul. They offer a young goat to their gods and do not kill bears.

Pathrot, Pathrawat.—(One who makes and sharpens millstones and grindstones.) Synonym of Beldar.

Pati.—(Lord.) An honorific title of Uriya Brahmans.

Patkar.—(From pat, widow-marriage.) A subcaste of Sunar in Wardha. A section of Rangari.

Patlia.—(From patel.) Title of Panwar Rajput.

Patnaik.—A surname of Karan or Mahanti, the Uriya writer caste.

Patra.—(An Uriya word meaning councillor.) A subcaste of Kolta and Chasa, and title of several Uriya castes. Also a synonym for the Patwa caste.

Patti.—(A thread-seller.) Subcaste of Kaikari.

Patwa.—A caste. See article. In Seoni tahsil of Hoshangabad District Patwa and Lakhera appear to be synonymous terms. A section of Oswal Bania.

Patwari.—(Name of the village accountant and surveyor, who is now a salaried Government official.) The Kayasth caste were formerly patwaris by profession. See article.

Patwi.—(A dyer who colours the silk thread which weavers use to border their cotton cloth.) Synonym of Patwa. Subcaste of Koshti. From pata, a woven cloth.

Pawanbans.—(The children of the wind.) Synonym for Bhuiya.

Pendhari.—Synonym of Pindari.

Peng.—Subcaste of Parja.

Penthi.—(Sheep.) A totemistic sept of Bhulia.

Periki, Perki, Perka.—The Perikis are really a subcaste of the great Balija or Balji caste, but they have a lower position and are considered as a distinct group. About 4000 Perikis were returned in the Central Provinces in 1911 from the Nagpur, Wardha and Chanda Districts. They derive their names from the perike or panniers in which they carried salt and grain on bullocks and donkeys. They were thus formerly a nomadic group, and like the Banjaras and Bhamtas they also made gunny-bags and sacking. Most of them have now taken to cultivation, and in Madras some Perikis have become large landholders and claim Rajput rank. In the Central Provinces the Balijas and Naidus deny that the Perikis have any connection with the Balija caste.

Peta.—(A trading Balija.) Subcaste of Balija.

Phal Barhai.—(A carpenter who only works on one side of the wood.) Synonym for Chitari in the Uriya country.

Phanse.—(A Pardhi who hunts with traps and snares.) Subcaste of Pardhi.

Phansigar.—(A strangler.) Synonym of Thug.

Pharsi.—(Axe.) A section of Uriya, Ahir or Gahara.

Phopatia.—Title of the officer of the Andh caste who summons the caste committee.

Phulia, Phulmali.—(A flower-gardener.) Subcaste of Kachhi and Mali.

Phuljharia.—(From Phuljhar zamindari in Raipur.) A territorial subcaste of Ahir or Rawat, Ghasia and Panka.

Phul Kunwar.—A section of Kawar. They use the akre or swallow-wort flower for their marriage-crown.

Phulsunga.—A totemistic section of Gadaria. They abstain from smelling or touching a flower called gadha.

Phurasti.—(A wanderer.) Subcaste of Kaikari.

Pindara.—Synonym of Pindari.

Pindari.—A caste. Subcaste of Mang.

Pinjara.—(One who cards cotton.) Synonym of Bahna.

Pipar.—(A tree.) A section of Khatik and Kalar.

Pipariya.—(From the pipal tree, or from Piparia, a common place-name derived from the tree.) A clan of Rajputs in Saugor. A section of Sunars in Saugor.

Piria.—Subcaste of Kachhi. From piria, the basket in which they carry earth.

Pit.—Subcaste of Bhatra.

Pitariya.—(From pital, brass.) A subdivision of Pardeshi Sunars in Nagpur. They practise hypergamy, taking wives from the Sadihe subcaste, and giving daughters to the Srinagariye, Bangar, Mahuwe and Jadiye subcastes.

Pohni.—Subcaste of Jhadi Telenga.

Poiya,—Subcaste of Majhwar.

Polya.—(One who did not take off his turban at the feast.) Title of Hatkar.

Pondro.—(A tree.) One of the six subsepts of the Marai clan of Pathari Gonds in Khairagarh.

Ponwar.—Synonym of Panwar Rajput.

Portai.—(Basket.) A subsept of the Uika clan of Gonds in Betul. They do not kill the tiger or crocodile. A sept of Dhur Gonds.

Potdar.—(A money-tester.) Synonym and title of Sunar. A surname of Karhara Brahmans in Saugor.

Potdukh.—(Stomach-ache.) A section of Teli in Chanda.

Potharia.—(One to whom a certain dirty habit is imputed.) Subcaste of Korku.

Potwa.—(A worker in tasar silk.) Synonym for Darzi; a subcaste of Darzi.

Poyam.—(Worshipper of eight gods.) A sept of Pardhan and of Maria Gonds.

Prajapati.—Title of Kumhar.

Pramara.—Synonym for Panwar Rajput.

Prannathi.—A follower of Prannath of Panna. Synonym for Dhami.

Pravar.—A term for the ancestors sharing in a sacrificial invocation, particularly that of the Horn or fire-sacrifice.

Prayagwal.—(From Prayag-Allahabad.) A subcaste of Brahmans who preside at the ceremonial bathing in the Ganges at Allahabad.

Puar.—Synonym of Panwar Rajput.

Pujari.—(A worshipper.) Name for the priest in charge of a temple. A title of Bhatra.

Purad.—A small mixed caste in Nagpur. They say that their ancestor was a Brahman, who was crossing a river and lost his sacred thread, on being carried down in a flood (pur). Therefore he was put out of caste because the sacred thread must be changed before swallowing the spittle, and he had no other thread ready. At the census the Purads were amalgamated with Vidurs. They are shopkeepers by profession.

Purait.—(One who is of pure blood.) A subdivision of Jharia Rawat (Ahir) in Chhattisgarh. A subcaste of Dhakar, Halba and Marar.

Purania.—(Old.) A subcaste of Kachera or Sisgar in Saugor. The Puranias are the Muhammadan bangle-makers who originally practised this calling. A subcaste of Barai, Basor, Nai and Sunar. A section of Chamar and Darzi.

Purbia.—This term, which means eastern or coming from the east, is used in Hoshangabad and other Districts to designate Rajputs from Oudh and the adjoining tracts, especially retired sepoys from the Bengal army. They appear to belong to different clans, but many of them are Bais Rajputs. Some of the Purbias say that their king, somewhere in northern India, heard that cows were being killed in the Central Provinces, so he sent them to stop the practice and they came and stopped it and settled there. In Gujarat this name appears to be applied to Brahmans. A subcaste of Barhai and Gadaria. A section of Nat and Sunar.

Purkam.—(Purka-pumpkin.) A sept of the Uika clan of Gonds in Betul.

Purohit.—(Family priest.) A common title of Brahmans.

Purouti or Pudoti.—(Bowels.) A sept of Gonds in Khairagarh.

Pusam.—(Worshipper of five gods.) A sept of Raj-Gond and Dhur Gond, and of Baiga and Pardhan.

Putka.—A subcaste of Sudh, being the illegitimate issue of the Dehri Sudhs.

Qawwal.—(One who speaks fluently.) Title of Mirasi.

Rachhbandia.—(Comb-makers.) A subcaste of Kuchhbandia (Kanjar).

Raghunathia.—A small group of Brahmans, so called because their ancestors are said to have received a grant of five villages from Raghunath Deo of Hindoli.

Raghuvansi.—A caste formed from a Rajput clan. See article. A subcaste of Ahir; a section of Mali and Gond.

Raghvi.—Synonym of Raghuvansi.

Rahmat.—(Compassion.) A section of Panwar Rajput. A Muhammadan proper name.

Rai or Raj.—Subcaste of Darzi, Kalar, Khangar.

Rai-bhaina.—Subcaste of Baiga in Balaghat.

Raipuria.—(From Raipur.) A subcaste of Dhimars who do not wear gold ornaments. A subcaste of Dewar in Bilaspur.

Raj or Rai.—From Raja, a king. This term designates the landholding division of certain tribes, as the Raj-Gonds, the Raj-Korkus, the Raj-Khonds and the Rajbhars. The Raj-Bhats, Raj-Dhuris and Rai-Darzis are similarly subcastes of good position in their respective castes. Raj is also used as a synonym for Beldar, meaning a mason.

Raja.—(A king.) Title of a ruling chief, and occasionally conferred on prominent Indian gentlemen.

Rajak.—(A washerman.) Synonym for Dhobi.

Rajbhar.—(A landowning Bhar.) Synonym for Rajjhar.

Raj-Bhat.—Subcaste of Bhat.

Raj-Dhuri.—A subcaste of Dhuri, said to be descendants of personal servants in Rajput families.

Raj-Gond.—The landholding subdivision of the Gond tribe; a section of Chamar and Kachhi.

Raj-Khond.—Subcaste of Khond.

Raj-Kunwar, Raj-Pardhan.—A subcaste of Pardhan in Balaghat.

Rajoria.—(Kingly.) A section of Barhai, Dangi, Khatik and Sanadhya Brahman.

Raj-Pardhan.—A subcaste of Pardhan. They are said to be also known as Kunwar Pardhan or Gond Bhat and to be beggars and bards of the Gonds.

Raj-Pasi.—Subcaste of Pasi.

Rajput.—(Son of a king.) A caste, representing the ancient Kshatriya caste. See article. A subcaste of Banjara, Kadera, Kumhar and Patwa.

Rajwaria.—From the Rajwar caste. Subcaste of Dahait. Subdivision of Kol in Mirzapur.

Rakaseya.—(From Rakas, a devil.) A section of Katia.

Rakhotia.—An illegitimate section of Kumhar.

Rakhwaldar.—(Village watchman.) Title of Ramosi.

Raksa.—(Demoniac.) A section of Kumhar and Kawar.

Ramanandi.—A class of Bairagis or religious mendicants. See article Bairagi.

Ramanuja.—A class of Bairagis or religious mendicants. See article Bairagi.

Ramgarhia.—(A resident of Ramgarh in Mandla.) Subcaste of Ghasia.

Ramoshi.—Synonym of Ramosi.

Rana.—A title of Sesodia Rajputs. A section of Halba and Panwar.

Randgolak.—A subdivision of degraded Maharashtra Brahmans, the offspring of illicit unions or remarried widows.

Rangari.—(One who works in indigo (nil).) Synonym for Chhipa.

Rao.—Synonym for Bhat. A section of Chamar and Lohar. A title of the Bhilala caste.

Ratanpuria.—(A resident of Ratanpur in Bilaspur.) Subcaste of Nunia and Dewar.

Ratha.—(A car for carrying a god.) Honorific title of Uriya Brahmans.

Rathia.—Subcaste of Kawar.

Rathor, Rathaur.—A famous Rajput clan. See article Rajput-Rathor. A subcaste of Banjara, Bari and of Teli in Mandla, Betul, Nimar and other Districts. A section of Ahir, Bhilala, Mochi, Nahal and Pardhi.

Ratna Banik.—(Dealer in jewels.) A synonym of Sunar in Sambalpur.

Rautadi.—Subcaste of Bhuiya.

Rautele.—A subcaste of Kol. A section of Barai, Bhat, Gadaria and of Sunar in Saugor.

Rautia.—A subcaste of Kol in several Districts. A subcaste of Dahait. A subcaste of Kawar. A section of Chamar and Rawat (Ahir).

Rawal.—Title borne by some Rajput chieftains in Western India. Probably a diminutive of Rao, the Marathi form of Raj or Raja. A section of Chasa, Mali and Garpagari.

Rawanbansi.—Descendants of Rawan, the demon king of Ceylon. A name applied to the Gonds generally, and now used as a subtribal designation to distinguish them from Raj-Gonds.

Rawanvansi.—Name of a clan of Gosain mendicants.

Rawat.—A title borne by some minor Rajput chiefs. Probably a diminutive of Rajputra, the original form of the term Rajput. An honorific title of Gonds and Savars in Saugor and Damoh. The name by which the Ahir caste is generally known in Chhattisgarh. A subcaste and title of Khairwar. A title sometimes used by Sunars and Brahmans in Bundelkhand and by Lodhis. A subcaste of Mehtar and Mali. A section of Arakh, Banjara, Binjhwar, Dhanwar, Kawar, Khairwar, Kunbi, Nat, Patwa, Panwar Rajput, and Sudh.

Reddi.—A synonym for the Kapewar or Kapu caste; a subcaste of Kapewar and Gandli.

Redka.—A small labouring caste of Sambalpur. They are apparently the result of intermarriages between some members of the Reddi or Kapu cultivating caste of Telingana, who came to Sambalpur during the Orissa famine of 1866, with low-class Uriya women. They still speak Telugu among themselves, using Uriya to outsiders. Only one curious feature of the marriage ceremony of the Redkas need be noticed here. This is that the officiating Brahman actually places a red-hot copper seal on the arms of the bride and bridegroom as a symbol of sealing the marriage bond. In other respects their customs resemble those of low-caste Uriyas.

Rekwar.—Subcaste of Dhimar.

Rig-Vedi.—Sectarian division of Brahmans.

Rikhiasan Mahatwar.—Subcaste of Bhuiya.

Ritha Biknath.—One who prepares and sells soap-nuts for washing clothes. Subcaste of Jogi.

Rohidasi.—Honorific term for a Chamar. It signifies a follower of the sect of Rohidas in Northern India. The Chamars often describe themselves by this name instead of their caste name.

Rohilla.—A Pathan tribe who have settled in Rohilkhand or the Bareilly tract of the United Provinces. They derive their name from Roh, the designation given to the country where the Pushto language is spoken by residents of Hindustan. The word Roh, like Koh, means a mountain, and Rohilla therefore signifies a highlander. [484] The Rohilla Pathans occupied Rohilkhand in the eighteenth century. Their name first attracted attention when Warren Hastings was charged with hiring out British troops for their suppression. The Rohillas say that they are of Coptic origin, and that driven out of Egypt by one of the Pharaohs they wandered westward till they arrived under that part of the mountains of Afghanistan known as Sulaimani Koh. [485] Parties of Rohillas visit the Central Provinces bringing woollen cloths and dried fruits for sale. Here they formerly bore a bad character, being accustomed to press the sale of their merchandise on the villagers on credit at exorbitant interest; and when the time for realisation came, to extort their money by threats of violence, or actual assault, or, if this was not practicable, by defiling the graves of their debtors' ancestors. These practices have now, however, been largely suppressed.

Romya or Haralya.—Subcaste of Chamar.

Ror.—Subcaste of Khatri.

Rora.—Synonym of Arora.

Ruma.—A resident of Basim and Gangra in Amraoti District. Subcaste of Korku.

Ruthia.—A name formed from the noise rut, rut made by the oil-mill in turning. Subcaste of Teli.

Sabara.—Synonym for the Savar tribe. A section of Kawar and Teli.

Sabat.—(From saot, co-wife.) An honorific title of Uriya Brahmans.

Sadaphal.—(A fruit.) A section of Chandnahu Kurmi and Sonkar.

Sada-Sohagal.—A class of Fakirs or Muhammadan beggars.

Sadhu.—(A religious mendicant.) Synonym for Bairagis or Gosains.

Sagar.—Name of one of the ten orders of Gosains.

Sagunsale.—A group of illegitimate descent. Subcaste of Koshti.

Sahadeve.—A clan of Gonds worshipping six gods and paying special reverence to the tiger.

Sahani.—(From siahi, ink.) An honorific title of Karan or Mahanti. A subcaste of Paik.

Sahara.—Synonym for the Savar tribe.

Sahasra Audichya.—(A thousand men of the north.) A subdivision of Gujarati Brahmans who are said to have accepted presents from Raja Mulraj of Anhalwara Patan at a sacrifice, and hence to have suffered some degradation in rank. Audichya probably signifies coming from Oudh.

Sahra.—Synonym of Savar.

Sahu.—(A trader.) An honorific title of Bania. A synonym for Sunar in Sambalpur. A subdivision of Uriya Brahmans. A section of Khadra, Kolta, Sundi and Teli.

Sahukar.—Title of Bania. See Sahu.

Sain.—Synonym for Fakir.

Saiqalgar.—From Arabic saiqal, a polisher. Synonym for Sikligar.

Sais.—The title by which grooms or horse-keepers are usually known. The word Sais, Colonel Temple states, [486] is Arabic and signifies a nobleman; it is applied to grooms as an honorific title, in accordance with the common method of address among the lower castes. Other honorific designations for grooms, as given by Colonel Temple, are Bhagat or 'Saint,' and Panch, 'Arbitrator,' but neither of these is generally used in the Central Provinces. Another name for Saises is Thanwar, which means a person in charge of a stable or place where a horse is kept. Grooms from Northern India are usually of the Jaiswara division of Chamars, who take their name from the old town of Jais in Oudh; but they drop the Chamar and give Jaiswara as their caste. These men are thin and wiry and can run behind their horses for long distances. The grooms indigenous to the Central Provinces are as a rule promoted grass-cutters and are either of the Ghasia (grass-cutter) or the Kori and Mahar (weaver) castes. They cannot usually run at all well. It is believed that both the Jaiswaras and Mahars who work as grooms have taken to marrying among themselves and tend to form separate endogamous groups, because they consider themselves superior to the remainder of the caste. A Sais will frequently refuse to tie up a dog with a rope or lead him with one because he uses a rope for leading his horses. This taboo is noticed by Sir B. Fuller as follows: "Horses in India are led not by the bridle but by a thick cotton leading-rope which is passed over the headstall, and such a rope is carried by every Indian groom. I asked my groom one day to tie up with his leading rope a dog that would not follow. He absolutely refused, and I discovered that the rope was the fetish of his caste and was formerly adored and propitiated in the course of an annual caste festival. To touch a dog with it would have been sacrilege." [487]

Saitwal.—A subcaste of Jain Banias.

Saiyad.—One of the four Muhammadan tribes, which is supposed to comprise the descendants of the Prophet.

Sakadwipi.—A tribe of Brahmans taking their name from Sakadwipa, the country of the Sakas. The Sakas were a Central Asian tribe who invaded India before the commencement of the Christian era, and Sakadwipa is said to be the valley of the Kabul river.

Sakarwal, Sikarwar.—A clan of Rajputs whose name is said to be derived from Fatehpur Sikri.

Saksena.—A subcaste of Kayasth, also called Sukhsena. A subcaste of Bharbhunja and Kachhi.

Saktaha.—A synonym for Shakta, a worshipper of Devi in Chhattisgarh. Saktaha practically means a person who eats flesh, as opposed to a Kabirpanthi who abstains from it. A subcaste of Panka, who are not Kabirpanthis.

Sakum.—A sept of Korku. (One who hides behind a teak tree.)

Salam.—(Worshipper of six gods.) A clan of Gond. A section of Dewar.

Salewar.—A name for Telugu Koshtis. A subcaste of Koshti.

Samaiya.—A sect of Jains.

San.—A subcaste of Bhatra.

Sanadhya.—A subcaste of Brahmans belonging to the Gaur division.

Sanak-kul.—A section of Komti. They do not use jaiphal or nutmeg.

Sanaurhia.—Subcaste of Brahman. Synonym for Sanadhya.

Sanbagh.—(A little tiger.) A section of Bhulia.

Sand.—(The bull.) A totemistic sept of Kawar. They do not use bullocks for ploughing, or are supposed not to. A section of Khangar. They do not give a present of a bull at weddings. A section of Mali.

Sania.—(A grower of san-hemp.) Subcaste of Kachhi.

Saniasi.—Name for a religious mendicant. Synonym for Gosain.

Sanjogi.—A class of Bairagis or mendicants who marry, also called Grihastha.

Sankrita.—An eponymous section of Kanaujia Brahmans.

Sanp.—(Snake.) A sept of Gond and Kawar.

Santal, Saonta, Sonthal.—An important tribe of Bengal, belonging to the Munda family. The transfer of five of the Chota Nagpur States has brought more than 10,000 Santals into the Central Provinces. They belong principally to the Sarguja State and a few are returned from Udaipur State and from the Bilaspur District, but in all those tracts they are known as Saonta and appear to have been cut off from the main tribe for a considerable period. According to Mr. Skrefsrud the name Santal is a corruption of Saontar and was given to the tribe by the Bengalis because they lived in the country about Saont in Midnapur. Sir H. Risley held that the tribe might equally well have given its name to the locality, and there was no means of ascertaining which theory was correct. The forms Santal and Sonthal are only used by natives who have come into contact with Europeans. Santals call themselves 'harko,' men, or 'harhapan,' man-child. [488] At the present day when a Santal is asked to what caste he belongs he will almost invariably reply Manjhi, which means a village headman, and is the common title of the tribe; if further explanation is demanded, he will add Santal Manjhi. Whether the term Santal was derived from the Saont pargana or not, it is therefore at any rate a name conferred by the Hindus and affords no evidence in favour of a separate origin of the tribe.

There seems good reason to hold that the Santals are only a branch of the Kols or Mundas, who have been given a distinct designation by their Hindu neighbours, while their customs and traditions have been modified either by long separation from the Mundas of Chota Nagpur or by contact with Hindu influences. Sir G. Grierson's account of the two dialects Santali and Mundari shows that they closely resemble each other and differ only in minor particulars. The difference is mainly to be found in the vocabulary borrowed from Aryan neighbours, and in the grammatical modifications occasioned by the neighbouring Aryan forms of speech. [489] Of Mundari he says: "Aspirated letters are used as in Santali, the semi-consonants are apparently pronounced in the same way as in Santali; genders and numbers are the same, the personal pronouns are the same, the inflexion of verbs is mainly the same." [490] Some points of difference are mentioned by Sir G. Grierson, but they appear to be of minor importance. The Mundas, like the Santals, call themselves hara-ko or men. In the vocabulary of common words of Mundari and Santali given by Colonel Dalton [491] a large proportion of the words are the same. Similarly in the list of sept-names of the tribes given by Sir H. Risley [492] several coincide. Among the 15 names of main septs of the Santals, Besra, a hawk, Murmu nilgai, or stag, and Aind, eel, are also the names of Munda septs. The Santal sept Hansda, a wild goose, is nearly identical with the Munda sept Hansa, a swan; the Santal septs Kisku and Tudu are sept-names of the Hos, a branch of the Mundas; and in one or two other names there is a great resemblance. The principal deity of the Santals, Marang Buru, is a Munda god. In the inheritance of property both tribes have the same rule of the exclusion of daughters. In his article on Ho, Sir H. Risley indeed states that the Santals, Hos and Mundas are local branches of the same tribe.

The Saontas of Sarguja and Bilaspur appear to have been separated from the parent tribe for some generations and to have assimilated some of the customs of the Gonds. They have some Gond sept-names, as Markam and Dhurwa. Those of Pendra zamindari have no traditions of their origin beyond saying that the adjoining Kenda zamindari was their original home. They profess to revere only the sun, fire and water. In order to worship the Jal-deota or water-god they pour water round the fire and then throw a little butter on the fire in his name. Mr. C.U. Wills, Settlement Officer, records of them the following curious custom: When a man is at the point of death or actually dead, they sometimes set fire to the hut in which his body is lying and run away, no doubt to save themselves from being haunted and troubled by his spirit, to the attainment of which end so large a part of funeral ritual is everywhere directed.

The following short account of them by Colonel Dalton may be reproduced for reference: [493]

"The name Saont or Saonta directs us to the Santal branch of the Kols, and, as I have already noticed, there is in Sarguja a small tribe so called. They are the sole inhabitants of the magnificent tableland forming the southern barrier of Sarguja, called the Mainpat or more correctly perhaps the Manipat. They are a small tribe living scattered over the vast area of the plateau in about a dozen hamlets, and they are strong in the belief that they were especially created to dwell there, or that they and the plateau somehow sprang into existence together, and cannot be separated. I saw a number of them when I was last in Sarguja, and from their features I should be inclined to class them as Kols, but they have some customs and notions which they must have derived from the Dravidian Gonds. They acknowledge Dulha Deo as a household god, and follow the customs of the Gonds and other southerners in their marriage ceremonies.

"They worship the sun as Bhagwan, and like the Kharias offer sacrifices to that luminary in an open place with an ant-hill for an altar. The Mainpat is their Marang Buru, and as it is 16 miles long, 12 miles broad, and rises 3850 feet above the sea-level, it is not unworthy of the name, but they do not use that or any other Kol term. The great Mainpat is their fatherland and their god. They have it all to themselves except during the summer months, when it becomes a vast grazing field for the cattle of Mirzapur and Bihar.

"The Saonts are armed like the Korwas with bows and arrows, and the peculiar battle-axe of the country, but it is against the beasts of the forest that these weapons are used. Formerly the Mainpat was a magnificent hunting field, especially noted for its herds of antelope and gaur. The late Maharaja of Sarguja strictly preserved it, but on his death it fell into the hands of his widow, a very money-loving old lady, who allowed it to become one of the great grazing tracts, and the pasturage alone gives her an income of L250 a year; but the wild animals have in consequence withdrawn from it.

"The position of the Saonts is altogether very curious, and though they now speak no language but a rude Hindi, the evidence is, on the whole, favourable to their being a remnant of the ancient Kol aborigines of Sarguja, cut off from connection with those people by successive inroads of other races or tribes. Their substitution of a Hindi dialect for their own language seems to indicate that they were first subjugated by Aryans. The Gond chiefs only count about twenty-four generations in Sarguja, and they have all adopted the Hindi language."

Sanyasi.—(A religious recluse.) Synonym for Gosain.

Sao.—(For sahu, a banker, a rich man.) A subcaste of Kalar and Teli. An honorific title of Chhipa or Rangari. A sept of Gond.

Saojin.—(From sao, a banker.) Subcaste of Banjara.

Saonr.—Synonym of Savar.

Saonta.—Name by which the Santal tribe is known in Bilaspur. A subcaste of Dhanwar.

Sapera.—(A snake-charmer.) Name of a clan of Nats, who exhibit snakes. A section of Basor and Khatik.

Saraf.—(A money-changer and tester.) A synonym of Sunar.

Saraia (Angler.) From sarai, a bamboo fishing-rod. Subcaste of Dhimar.

Sarangarhia.—(From Sarangarh.) A subtribe of Gonds in Khairagarh. A subcaste of Dewar.

Saraogi.—A name by which Jain laymen are known. Subcaste of Bania.

Saras.—(A large crane.) A section of Chamar.

Saraswat.—One of the five orders of Panch Gaur Brahmans inhabiting the country of the river Saraswati. One of the ten orders of Gosains.

Sarati.—A sept of Gond and Pardhan.

Sariyam.—A subsept of the Dhurwa clan of Gonds in Betul, said to be so called because the road to the place of the gods was swept by their priests.

Sarolia or Sarwaria.—(Inferior or mixed.) Subcaste of Agharia.

Saroti.—A sept of Pardhans said to be named after sarra, a whip, because their priest once struck a man with a whip.

Sarsatia.—(From the Saraswati river.) Subcaste of Bahna.

Satani. [494]—A Telugu caste of priests and mendicants of which 900 persons were returned, principally from the Chanda District, in 1911. In the Central Provinces, Ayawar, Satani and Dasari have been taken as one caste, but elsewhere they are considered as distinct. Ayawar is a term of respect analogous to the Hindustani Maharaj, and is applied to the Satanis and other religious orders. The Satanis and Dasaris are distinguished in Madras; Satani is stated [495] to be a corruption of Sattadavan, which means 'One who does not wear' (e.g. the sacred thread and scalp-lock). It is a mixed religious order recruited from any caste except the Pariahs, leather-workers and Muhammadans. The Dasaris [496] are said to be the reputed descendants of a wealthy Sudra of one of the northern Districts, who, being childless, vowed that if offspring should be granted to him he would devote a son to the service of the god. After this he had several children, one of whom he consecrated to the deity, calling him Dasan (the obedient servant). Dasan and his offspring made their livelihood by begging. This order, like that of the Satanis, is reinforced by idle members of the lower Sudra castes, who become Dasaris by being branded by the Guru of Tirupatti and other shrines. In the Central Provinces the Dasaris are stated to be recruited from the impure Mala caste of the Telugu country, and hence to rank below the Satanis. Many of the Madrasi servants in European households call themselves Dasaris. Members of the agricultural castes are usually admitted into the Satani order and its status is almost equal to theirs. The caste, in spite of its small numbers, has several subdivisions, as the Sale Satanis, who are weavers, the Bukkas, who are sellers of kunku or red powder, and five other subdivisions who are all beggars. Some of these eat together but do not intermarry. They have exogamous family groups, usually named after sacred places in Madras or celebrated Gurus (spiritual preceptors) or deities, as Tirupatti, Ramanujamwar, Shaligramwar and so on. The caste marry in the ordinary way and do not observe celibacy. Widow-marriage is allowed, but a widow must marry a widower, and the officiating priest at the ceremony must also be a widower. The Satanis principally revere Vishnu, whom they worship on Fridays. Their priests are taken from their own order and form a separate subcaste under the name of Parmastwar. A novice, on being initiated to the order, is branded with the figures of a Sankha (conch-shell) and Chakra (discus). They both burn and bury the dead, and the spirits of female as well as of male ancestors are propitiated. This is done by calling a married woman by the name of the dead female, putting red powder on her forehead and worshipping her. Among the Satanis a widow accompanies the corpse of her husband to the grave. They officiate at funerals, and a Satani priest applies the caste-mark to the body of the corpse and also to that of the four persons who are to carry it. He receives presents in the name of the dead man, and takes the red cloth with which the corpse is covered. At the funeral feast the Satani offers cooked food, including flesh and also liquor, to the god, and the assembled guests then partake of them. The Satani drinks liquor only and does not eat the food, and since he must stay to the end of the feast he sometimes becomes intoxicated. The Satanis are priests and mendicants. Though they do not wear the sacred thread themselves, the manufacture of it is one of their hereditary occupations. They collect alms in a lota or brass vessel, on which representations of the conch and discus are drawn. The Dasaris wander about, singing hymns to a monotonous accompaniment upon a leather instrument called tappai (perhaps a tabor). They are engaged by some Sudra castes to sing their chants in front of the corpse at funerals. Others exhibit what is called the Panda sewai, that is, they become possessed by the deity and beat themselves over the body with a flaming torch. A few train young bulls to perform tricks and travel about exhibiting them. Some have become masons and goldsmiths. Men have the mark of the trident on the forehead, the two outer lines being white and the middle one red or yellow. They shave the head and face clean, not retaining the scalp-lock. Women have a vertical streak on the forehead and do not wear glass bangles nor the necklace of black beads. Neither men nor women are tattooed. The Satanis have a fairly good social position and the lower castes will take food from them.

Satbhuiyan or Utar.—Subcaste of Khond.

Satdeve.—A clan of Gonds worshipping seven gods and paying special reverence to the porcupine.

Satghare.—(Seven houses.) A division of the Maratha caste, consisting of seven of the highest clans who marry among themselves and sometimes take daughters from the other ninety-six clans.

Satnami.—A religious sect, which now practically forms a subcaste of Chamar.

Satputia.—(Having seven sons.) A section of Lonare Mali.

Satyanath. A subcaste of Jogi or Nath.

Savar, Savara.—A tribe.

Sawalakh.—(1 1/4 lakhs.) A section of Dhobi.

Sawara.—Synonym for Savar. Subcaste of Kol.

Segidi, [497] Shegadi.—The Telugu caste of toddy-drawers and distillers, of which a few representatives were returned from the Nagpur District in 1901. They will draw tari or palm-juice only from the sindi palm (Phoenix sylvestris) and not from the palmyra palm (Borassics flabelliformis). This is the occupation of a separate caste, the Yatas, from whom the Segidis will not even take water. At a Segidi marriage the bride is shown the polar star, which is believed to be the wife of Rishi Vasishtha, the model of conjugal excellence. She is then made to step on to a stone slab to remind her how Ahalya, the beautiful wife of Rishi Gautama, was turned to a stone for committing adultery. Widow-marriage is permitted, and, by a very curious exception to the ordinary rule, a widow may marry her deceased husband's elder brother but not his younger one. The usual prohibition on a widow marrying her husband's elder brother is based on the ground that he is looked on as her father; the Segidis say, on the other hand, that his younger brother is as her son. If an unmarried adult male dies, the ceremony of marriage is performed between the corpse and a plantain tree; and if an unmarried woman dies she is married to a sword. A corpse is always buried with the head to the east and the feet to the west. This peculiar practice may be a reminiscence of Vedic times, when the west was considered to be the abode of the departed, the sun being the first mortal who died and went to the west as recorded in the Rig-Veda. The Segidis are also cultivators, traders or soldiers. They have a method of divining a boy's proper calling in his infancy. When his mouth is touched with grain as food for the first time, they put a sword, a pen, a book, food and other articles, being the symbols of different professions, on the ground and place the child in front of them. And his vocation in life is held to be determined by the article which he touches first.

Senapati.—(General.) Honorific title of Sundi.

Sendia.—Title of caste headman of Panwar Rajput.

Sendur.—A section of Ahir or Rawat.

Senduria.—Subcaste of Nagasia. They mark the forehead of the bride with vermilion (sendur).

Sengar.—A clan of Rajputs belonging to Saugor and Jubbulpore.

Sesodia.—A famous clan of Rajputs.

Seth.—(Banker or moneylender.) A title of Bania.

Setti.—A corruption of the Sanskrit Shreshta, good. Title of Komti caste.

Sewak.—(Servant.) The name given to an inferior class of Brahmans who serve in Vaishnava temples.