But the arts in which the islanders were supreme were those of the potter and the metal-worker, the chief evidences of whose skill have been already discussed. The reputation of Crete as a centre of metal-working became legendary in ancient times, and, in all likelihood, the bronze-worker and his fellows, the gold- and silver-smiths, attained the height of their skill before their brethren the potters, since, as we have seen, many of the finest pottery specimens are obviously designed on bronze, or, at all events, on metal models, the resemblance even going so far as the copying of the seams and rivets of the metal originals. Bronze was smelted in furnaces, the remains of one of which still exist near Gournia; and was cast in moulds, many of which have survived. The tools and weapons which were made of the metal show an average alloy of about ten per cent. of tin. For beaten work, copper in an almost pure state appears to have been used. Gold was in extensive use for the best class of ornamental work, and the Vaphio cups, which are now held to have been imported to Laconia from Crete, are evidence of the marvellous skill which the Minoan goldsmiths had attained; while the necklaces and other articles of personal adornment found at Mokhlos and in the beehive tombs at Phaestos (Plate XXXII.), are only to be matched, among ancient work, by the diadems of the Twelfth Dynasty Princesses, found at Dahshur in Egypt. Silver is comparatively scarce on Minoan, as on other AEgean sites, though a number of fine silver vessels have been found at Knossos and elsewhere; and this scarcity is perhaps due, not only to the greed of the plunderers, but also to the fact that, during the greater part of the period covered by the Minoan Empire, the metal itself was actually scarcer and more valuable than gold. In Egypt, whose supplies of silver apparently came from Cilicia, it maintained a higher value than gold until the time of the Eighteenth Dynasty, or about the period of the fall of Knossos; but then and thereafter its value fell, owing to increasing supplies, below that of the more precious metal. It does not appear that the gold-silver alloy—'electrum,' of which the Egyptians were so fond—was used by the Minoans.



Of the social life of the people in these prehistoric times we know practically nothing. Only one inference, possibly precarious enough, may be made from one of the features of the architecture of Knossos. There is no attempt to seclude the life of the palace from that of the town and country around it. On the contrary, the building seems almost to have been arranged with the view of affording the citizens of the Minoan Empire every facility for intercourse with the royal household. The great West Court, with its portico and its seats along the palace wall, suggests considerable freedom of access for the populace to the immediate neighbourhood of royalty. It is perhaps rather a large inference to conclude that 'the very architecture of the Palaces of Knossos and Phaestos may testify to the power of the democracy';[*] but at least the thoughtfulness with which the comfort of the people visiting the palace was provided for, and the general openness and lack of any jealous seclusion, testified to by the whole style of the buildings, suggest that the relations between the Kings of the House of Minos and their subjects were much more human and pleasant than those obtaining in most ancient kingdoms.

[Footnote *: Mosso, 'The Palaces of Crete,' p. 163.]

From their art one would, on the whole, conclude the people to have been a somewhat attractive race, frankly enjoying the more pleasant aspects of life, and capable of a keen delight in all the beauties of Nature. Minoan art has little that is sombre about it; it is redolent of the open air and the free ocean, and a people who so rejoiced in natural beauty and delighted to surround themselves with their own reproductions and interpretations of it can scarcely have been bowed beneath a heavy yoke of servitude, or have lived other than a comparatively free and independent life. How much the Greeks of the Classic period imbibed of the spirit of this gifted and artistic race we can only imagine. The artistic standpoint of the Hellenic Greek is somewhat different from that of his Minoan or Mycenaean forerunner, and he has lost that keen feeling for Nature which is so conspicuous in the work of the earlier stock; but the two races are at least at one in that profound love of beauty which is the dominant characteristic of the Greek nature, and it may well be that something of that feeling formed part of the heritage which the conqueror took over from the conquered, and which, added to the virility and intellectual power of the northern race, made the historic Greek the most brilliant type of humanity that the world has ever seen.



CHAPTER XI

LETTERS AND RELIGION

Of all the discoveries yet made on Cretan soil, that which, in the end, will doubtless prove to be of the greatest importance is the discovery of the various systems of writing which the Minoans successively devised and used. As yet knowledge with regard to these systems has not advanced beyond the description of the materials and their comparison with those furnished by other scripts, a task which has so far been accomplished by Dr. Evans in the first volume of his 'Scripta Minoa.' An immense amount of material has been accumulated, and has been separated into various classes, which have been shown to be characteristic of different periods of Minoan history. It is possible to arrive at a general understanding of the matters to which certain items of the material refer, but the actual reading of the inscribed tablets has as yet proved to be impossible. To all appearance, moreover, a considerable proportion of the material appears to be not literary, in any true sense, but to consist of inventories and accounts, perhaps also of legal documents and other such records of purely business and practical interest. Even so it would be a matter of no small importance could it be found possible to decipher the records, let us say, of the War Office or Admiralty of Knossos, or to survey the details of royal house-keeping in those far-off days; and it may still be hoped that, when the ardently desired bilingual inscription at last turns up and makes decipherment possible, we may find that documents of more genuinely literary interest are not altogether lacking. One thing at least is abundantly clear—that, as Dr. Evans put it in the summary of his first year's results, 'that great early civilization was not dumb,' but, on the contrary, had means of expression amply adequate to its needs.

In 1894 M. Perrot wrote:[*] 'As at present advised, we can continue to affirm that for the whole of this period, nowhere, neither in the Peloponnese nor in Greece proper, no more on the buildings than on the thousand and one objects of luxury or domestic use that have come out of the tombs, has there anything been discovered which resembled any kind of writing.' The statement was perfectly true to the facts as then known; but it was obviously unthinkable that, while the Egyptians and Babylonians had their fully developed scripts, and while ruder races, such as the Hittites, had their systems of writing, the men who built the splendid walls and palaces of Tiryns and Mycenae, and wrought the diadems and decorations of the Shaft-Graves, should have been so far back in one of the chiefest essentials of human progress as to be unable to communicate with one another by means of writing. We have already seen how the discoveries of the first year's work at Knossos settled that question for ever, and revealed the existence of more than one form of writing. Since then the material has been rapidly accumulating, and at present the number of objects—tablets, labels, and other articles-inscribed with the various Cretan scripts can be counted by thousands.

[Footnote *: Perrot et Chipiez, 'La Grece primitive: l'Art mycenien,' p. 985.]

The earliest form of Minoan writing that can be traced consists of rude pictographic symbols engraved upon bead-seals and gems. This primitive pictographic writing is characteristic of the Early Minoan period, and throughout the succeeding period of Middle Minoan it was gradually developed into a hieroglyphic system which is believed to present some analogies to the Hittite form of writing. But in the latest phases of the Third Middle Minoan period there begins to appear, at Knossos and elsewhere, a series of inscriptions in a very different style. The characters are no longer hieroglyphic, but have become definitely linear, and are arranged very much as in ordinary writing. In general they are incised upon the clay tablets of which so many hundreds have been found, but there are several instances in which they have been written with ink, apparently with a reed pen, as in the case of the two Middle Minoan III. cups found at Knossos, which bear linear inscriptions executed before the clay was fired. While in the case of the hieroglyphic inscriptions the characters run indifferently from left to right, or from right to left, in this linear script their fixed direction is the usual one, from left to right. Suffixes were apparently used to indicate gender, and pictorial signs indicating the contents of the document are also in use, though more sparingly than they came to be in the later form of script. Such signs as occur seem to show that the documents in which they are found mainly related to matters of business. The saffron-flower, various vessels, tripods, and balances, probably for the weighing of precious metals, occur most frequently among these determinatives.

At Knossos this form of linear writing, Dr. Evans's Class A, appears to have had a comparatively short vogue. Documents belonging to it are only found in the particular stratum which is connected with Middle Minoan III., and are to be dated, according to Dr. Evans's latest revision of the chronology, not later than 1600 B.C., the period at which Middle Minoan III. closes. In the Late Minoan periods which follow, the linear script of Class A is superseded at Knossos by another form, Class B. In other parts of the island, however, Class A seems to have survived as a general form of writing much longer than at Knossos. At Hagia Triada the very large deposits of linear writing—larger, indeed, than the representation of Class A at Knossos—belong to the First Late Minoan period, and are contemporary with the wonderful work of the steatite vases and the fresco of the hunting-cat; while at Phaestos the final catastrophe of the palace took place at a time when the linear writing of Class A was still in full use. At Zakro, Palaikastro, Gournia, and elsewhere, examples of this script have been found, showing that it was prevalent, at all events, throughout Central and Eastern Crete; and in all cases it is associated with remains which belong to the close of Middle Minoan III. and the beginnings of the Late Minoan period. But it would appear that this form of writing was not confined to Crete, but was more widely diffused. Traces of it, or of a script very closely allied with it, have been found at Thera, while at Phylakopi in Melos evidence has come to light of a whole series of marks closely corresponding to the Cretan Class A. This would seem to suggest what in itself is entirely probable, that the language used in Minoan Crete was predominant, or at all events was understood and largely used, throughout the AEgean area. The inscription on the libation table found by Dr. Evans at the Dictaean Cave belongs to this class, and also that upon the similar object found by Mr. Currelly at Palaikastro.



When, at the beginning of the Late Minoan period, the Palace of Knossos was remodelled, another great change accompanied the architectural one. This was the entire supersession of the linear script, Class A, by another similar but independent form, which has been named Class B. Somewhat remarkably, although the specimens of the script discovered at the Palace of Knossos and its immediate dependencies are far more numerous than those of Class A, the use of Class B seems, so far as the evidence yet collected goes, to have been entirely confined to Knossos. The beginning of the use of this system may have been in the early part of the fifteenth century B.C., and it was in full service at the great catastrophe of Knossos, at the end of the fifteenth or beginning of the fourteenth century B.C. Its use still continued after the fall of the Minoan power, tablets inscribed with this form of writing being found in the Late Minoan III. House of the Fetish Shrine at Knossos. According to Dr. Evans, whose 'Scripta Minoa' sums up all that is at present known of these enigmatic Cretan writings, Class B is not a mere outgrowth of Class A. The scripts are certainly allied, and there are indications that B is the more highly developed of the two, having a smaller selection of characters and a less complicated system of compound signs; but at the same time several of the signs found in B do not occur in A at all, and some of those which belong to both scripts are found in a more primitive form in B. The language expressed in both scripts must, however, have been essentially the same. It is suggested, therefore, that in the supersession of Class A by Class B we have another indication of the dynastic revolution which is supposed to have caused that ruin of the palace which closed the Middle Minoan period.

The records of Class B give evidence of a very considerable advance in the art of writing. 'The characters themselves have a European aspect. They are of upright habit, and of a simple and definite outline, which throws into sharp relief the cumbrous and obscure cuneiform system of Babylonia. Although not so cursive in form as the Hieratic or Demotic types of Egyptian writing, there is here a much more limited selection of types. It would seem that the characters stood for syllables or even letters, though they could in most cases also be used as words.... The spaces and lines between the words, the espacement into distinct paragraphs, and the variation in the size of the characters on the same tablet, according to the relative importance of the text, show a striving after clearness and method such as can by no means be said to be a characteristic of Classical Greek inscriptions.'[*] A decimal system of numbers was in use, the highest single amount referred to being 19,000, and percentages were evidently well understood, as a whole series of tablets is devoted to them.

[Footnote *: 'Scripta Minoa,' pp. 39, 40.]

The tablets themselves were originally of unburnt, but sun-dried, clay, and their preservation, as we have seen, is probably due to the excessive heat to which they were exposed during the great fire which destroyed the palace. 'Fire itself, so fatal to other libraries, has thus insured the preservation of the archives of Minoan Knossos.' Great care was plainly bestowed upon the storage of the tablets. They were stored in chests and coffers of various materials, and were evidently carefully separated according to the different departments to which their contents referred. In one deposit near the northern entrance, which was the 'Sea-Gate' of the palace, the largest of the seatings which had secured the cases in which the tablets were stored bore a representation of a ship, possibly an indication of the fact that these tablets belonged to the Minoan Board of Admiralty. One set of tablets had been stored in a room which presents all the appearance of having been an office, and the frequent occurrence in this deposit of the figures of a horse's head, a chariot, and a cuirass, suggests that the store belonged to the Minoan War Office, and refers to the equipment of the Chariot Brigade of the Knossian army.

Further evidence of the business-like methods of the Minoan officials was given by the fact that many of the seals belonging to the various stores were countermarked on the face, and had their backs countersigned and endorsed, evidently by examining officials, while they appear to have been regularly filed and docketed for reference. Indeed, the Minoan methods have already borne the test of having been accepted as evidence in a modern court of law. 'In 1901,' says Dr. Evans, 'I discovered that certain tablets had been abstracted from the excavations, and had shortly afterwards been purchased by the museum at Athens. It further appeared that one of our workmen—a certain Aristides—had left the excavation about the same time for Greece, and had been seen in Athens offering "antikas" for sale under suspicious circumstances. On examining the inscriptions on the stolen tablets I observed a formula that showed that some or all of the pieces belonged to a deposit found in Magazine XV. A reference to our daybooks brought out the fact that the same Aristides had taken part in the excavation of this particular magazine a little before the date of his hasty departure. On his return to Crete, some months later, he was accordingly arrested, and the evidence supplied by the Minoan formula was accepted by the Candia Tribunal as a crowning proof of his guilt. Aristides—"the Unjust"—was thus condemned to three months' imprisonment.' Few criminals attain to the dignity of being convicted on evidence 3,500 years old.

Certain of the tablets contain lists of persons of both sexes, apparently denoted by their personal names, the signs which appear to stand for the name being followed in each case by an ideograph which is the determinative of 'man,' or 'woman,' as the case may be. It is, of course, impossible to say as yet to what rank or class the people thus catalogued may have belonged; but the conjecture may be hazarded that these lists may be the major-domo's records of the male and female slaves of the household, or perhaps of the artisans who appear to have dwelt within the precincts of the palace. Another type of record is given by tablets such as that represented in Plate XIV. The tablet contains eight lines of well-written inscription, and consists apparently of twenty words, divided into three paragraphs. In this case there are no determinatives and no numerals; and it is possible that the document may be a contract, or perhaps an official proclamation.



That such tablets were not the only form in which the Minoans executed the writing of their various documents is evident from the fact already noticed, that inscriptions have been found executed with a reed-pen, and, though those extant are written on clay vessels, it is obvious that the reed-pen was not a very suitable instrument for writing on such materials, and that its existence presupposes some substance more adapted to the cursive writing of a pen—parchment, possibly, or papyrus, which could be readily obtained from Egypt. Unfortunately, such materials, on which, in all probability, the real literary documents of the Minoans, if there were any such documents, would be written, can scarcely have survived the fire which destroyed the palace, or, if by any chance they escaped that, the subsequent action of the climate; so that whatever genuinely literary fragments may yet come to light must be looked for on the larger tablets, and at the best can scarcely be more than brief extracts. We cannot expect from Crete a wealth of papyri such as Egypt has preserved for the archaeologist.

Into quite a different category from any of the ordinary Minoan tablets comes the disc found at Phaestos in 1908. Its general character has been already described. The long inscription which covers both of its faces is written in a form of hieroglyphics which, to some extent, resembles the Minoan pictographic system, but is not the same. The crested helmets which occur frequently as signs, the round shields, the fashion of dress of both men and women, and the style of architecture depicted in the hieroglyphic rendering of a house or pagoda, are not Minoan; and, on the whole, the evidence seems to point to the disc being the product of some allied culture, perhaps Lycian, in which a language closely akin to that of Minoan Crete was used. The inscription on the disc is carefully balanced and arranged, and each side contains exactly the same number of sign-groups, with one additional group on face A, which is separated from the preceding part of the inscription by a dash. Certain sets of sign-groups recur in the same order, as though they constituted some kind of refrain. From these indications it has been suggested that the whole inscription is a metrical composition, a short poem or hymn—perhaps one leaf of an Anatolian Book of Psalms whose other pages have perished. It is agreed that the language and religion of the western coast of Asia Minor were closely allied to those of Crete, and it is possible that when the Minoans developed their own language on somewhat different lines from the mainlanders, they maintained in parts of their religious service the old form of the speech common to themselves and their Anatolian relatives, as a kind of sacred language.[*]

[Footnote *: See Appendix, p. 264.]

Thus, it is abundantly evident that the civilization of Minoan Crete, far from being dumb, had varied and perfectly adequate means of expressing itself. The old Cretan tradition that the Phoenicians did not invent the letters of the alphabet, but only changed those already existing, is amply justified; for this seems to have been precisely what they did. The Phoenician mind, if not original, was at all events practical. The great stumbling-block in the way of the ancient scripts was their complexity—a fault which the Minoan users of the Linear Script, Class B, had evidently already begun to recognize and endeavour to amend. What the Phoenicians did was to carry the process of simplification farther still, and to appropriate for their own use out of the elements already existing around them a conveniently short and simple system of signs. The position which they came to occupy, after the Minoan empire of the sea had passed away, as the great carriers and middlemen of the Mediterranean, gave their system a spread and a utility possible to no other system of writing; and so the Phoenician alphabet gradually came to take its place as the basis of all subsequent scripts. Unquestionably it was a great and important service which was thus rendered by them; but, all the same, the beginnings of European writing must be traced not to them, but to their predecessors the Minoans, and the clay tablets of Knossos, Phaestos, and Hagia Triada are the lineal ancestors of all the written literature of Europe.

In attempting to deal with the Minoan religion we are met by the fact that it is as yet quite impossible to present any connected view of the subject. As in the case of their literature we have the actual records but cannot read them, so in the case of their religion a considerable mass of facts is apparent, but we have no means of co-ordinating them so as to arrive at any definite idea of a religious system. Some of the ritual we can see, and even understand something of the Divinity to whom it was addressed, but the theology is lacking. Accordingly, nothing more can be done than to present the fragmentary facts which are apparent.

The Minoans, it seems fairly clear, were never, like their successors the Greeks, the possessors of a well-peopled Pantheon; nor was the chief object of their adoration a male deity like the Greek Zeus. There are, indeed, traces of a male divinity, who was adopted by the Greeks when they obtained predominance in the island, as the representative of their own supreme deity, and who became the Cretan Zeus. But in Minoan times this being occupied a very subordinate place, and undoubtedly the chief object of worship was a goddess—a Nature Goddess, a Great Mother—[Greek: potnia thaerou], the Lady of the Wild Creatures—who was the source of all life, higher and lower, its guardian during the period of its earthly existence, and its ruler in the underworld.

The functions of this great deity, it has been aptly pointed out, are substantially those claimed for herself by Artemis in Browning's poem, 'Artemis Prologizes':

'Through heaven I roll my lucid moon along; I shed in hell o'er my pale people peace; On earth, I, caring for the creatures, guard Each pregnant yellow wolf and fox-bitch sleek, And every feathered mother's callow brood, And all that love green haunts and loneliness.'

She was a goddess alike of the air, the earth, and the underworld, and representations of her have survived in which her various attributes are expressed. As goddess of the air, she is represented by a female figure crowned with doves; as goddess of the underworld, her emblems are the snakes, which we see twined round the faience figure at Knossos, or the terra-cotta in the Gournia shrine. Her figure is often seen upon seals and gems, standing on the top of the rock or mountain, with guardian lions in attendance, one on either side, and sometimes with a male votary in the background.

The earliest form of her worship, and one which proved very persistent, was apparently aniconic. The divinity was not embodied in any graven image, but was inherent in such objects as the rude natural concretions found in the House of the Fetish Shrine, or was supposed to dwell in sacred trees, on which sometimes perch the doves which indicate that the goddess is present as ruler of the air, or which are twined with serpents, showing her presence as goddess of the earth and underworld. In the place of sacred trees we have often sacred pillars, which seem to have been objects of worship down to Late Minoan II. at least, since in the Royal Villa at Knossos, dating from this period, there is a pillar-room similar to the much earlier pillar-rooms of the Great Palace. The little group of three pillars found at Knossos evidently represents the divinity in her aspect as a heavenly goddess, for the pillars have doves perching upon their capitals. Sometimes, as in the case of the Lion Gate at Mycenae, and other representations, we have the pillar with the two supporting lions, an anticipation of the anthropomorphic figure of the goddess on the rock. It is possible that in some cases the figures of the Double Axes standing between horns of consecration were also looked upon as embodiments of the divinity. A similar mode of representing deity occurs in the earlier stages of many religions, and the sacred pillar set up by Jacob at Bethel may be instanced as an example of its presence in the beginnings of the Hebrew worship.

In general the Minoan Great Mother appears to have been looked upon as a being of beneficence, and as the giver of 'every good and perfect gift'; but her association with the lion and the snake shows that there was also a more mysterious and awful side to her character. When the later Greeks came into the island and found this deity in possession, she became identified, in the various aspects of her many-sided nature, with various goddesses of the Hellenic Pantheon. Foremost and specially she became Rhea, the mother of the gods, who had fled to Crete to bear her son Zeus. Otherwise she was Hera, the sister and the spouse of Zeus, and in this case the story of the marriage of the great goddess and the supreme god probably represents the fusion of religious ideas on the part of the two races, the conquerors taking over the deity of the conquered race, and uniting her with the Sky God whom they had brought with them from their Northern home. She also survived as Aphrodite, as Demeter, and, in her capacity as Lady of the Wild Beasts, as Artemis.

The suggestion of the association of Zeus with the Minoan goddess may have been given to the Northern conquerors by a feature of the Cretan religion which they found already in existence. On certain seal impressions and engraved gems there are indications that the great Nature Goddess was sometimes associated with a male divinity. This being, however, seems to have occupied an obscure and inferior position. In most of the scenes in which he is represented he, is either in the background, or reverentially stands before the seated female divinity. It would appear that the Achaeans appropriated this insignificant god as the representative of their own Zeus, attributed to him birth from the Great Goddess in her own cave-sanctuary of Dicte, and endowed him with many of the attributes which she had formerly possessed, including the Double Axe emblem of sovereignty, so that in Hellenic times the supreme deity of the island was always the Cretan Zeus, Zeus of the Double Axe, though in reality he was no Cretan god at all, or at best a secondary divinity, dressed in borrowed plumes and with greatness thrust upon him.

As to the forms of worship with which the Great Mother of Crete was served, comparatively little is known. The most striking feature is the seemingly total absence of what we should call temples. In this respect Crete presents a curious contrast to Egypt: in Egypt we have an abundance of vast temples, but practically no surviving palaces; in Crete the case is exactly reversed, and we have huge palaces but no temples. The reason of this appears to be, as Dr. Mackenzie has pointed out,[*] that the Minoan religion was of an entirely domestic character. 'At Knossos all shrines are either house-shrines or palace-shrines. The divinities are household and dynastic divinities having an ancestral character and an ancestral reputation to maintain.' To put it in a word, worship in the Minoan religion was essentially Family Worship. No doubt there were public ceremonials also, in which the King, who seems to have been Priest as well as King (if, indeed, he was not viewed as an incarnation of deity), performed the principal part; but there can have been nothing like the habitual publicity of parts of the worship of the god which was contemplated in the great peristyle courts of the Egyptian temples and the processional arrangements of part of their service. 'At Knossos,' says Dr. Mackenzie, 'we found, as a matter of fact, that there was a tendency for each house to have a room set apart for family worship. Of such shrines the palace was found to have more than one. Those shrines were found to be in a very private part of the house, and usually to have no thoroughfare through them.'

[Footnote *: Annual of the British School at Athens, vol. xiv., p. 366.]

What these shrines were like we may to some extent judge from the fragmentary fresco found at Knossos, representing one of the pillar-shrines where the Great Goddess was worshipped in her emblems of the sacred pillars. The structure consists of a taller central chamber, with a lower wing on either side of it. The material of which it is built is apparently wood, faced and decorated in certain parts with chequer-work in black-and-white plaster. The whole building rests upon large blocks of stone, immediately above which in the central chamber comes a solid piece of building, adorned first with the chequer-work, and then, above this, with two half-rosettes bordered with kuanos. Over this rises the open chamber of the shrine, which contains nothing but two pillars of the familiar Minoan-Mycenaean type, tapering downwards from the capitals. These rise from between the sacred horns, which occur in practically every religious scene as emblems of consecration (cf. the 'horns of the altar' in the Hebrew temple worship). The lower chambers on either side contain each a single pillar, again rising from between the horns of consecration. A Minoan lady, dressed in a gown of bluish-green, sits with her back to the wall of the right-hand lower chamber, and the scale of the shrine is given by the fact that, her seat being on the same level as the floor of the chamber, her head is in a line with the roof beam which rests on the capital of the sacred pillar. The remains of an actual shrine discovered in 1907 close to the Central Court at Knossos show that the fresco does not exaggerate the smallness of the sacred buildings. The Gournia shrine, situated in the centre of the town, is about twelve feet square, and its discoverer believes that the walls of the sacred enclosure may never have stood more than eighteen inches high. Here, again, were the horns of consecration, the doves, and the snakes twined round the image of the goddess.

Of what sort were the acts of worship in connection with the Minoan Religion? Sacrifice was certainly prominent, and the bull was probably the chief victim offered to the goddess. In one of the scenes on the Hagia Triada sarcophagus, a bull is being sacrificed, and his blood is dripping into a vessel placed beneath his head. Behind is the figure of a woman, whose hands are stretched out, presumably to hold the cords with which the victim is bound. Two kids crouch on the ground below the bull, perhaps to be offered in their turn. Libation also formed part of the ceremonial, and on the same sarcophagus there are two scenes in which it occurs. In the one instance (Plate XXVIII.), the vessel into which the offering is being poured stands between two sacred Double Axes with birds perched upon them; in the other the libation-vessel stands upon an altar with a Double Axe behind it. The three receptacles of the Dictaean Libation Table suggest a threefold offering like that of mingled milk and honey, sweet wine, and water, which, in the Homeric period, was made to the Shades of the Dead and to the Nymphs.

As was perhaps natural in the cult of a goddess, the chief part in the ritual seems to have been taken by priestesses. Men share in the ceremonies also, but not so frequently, and apparently in subordinate roles. Part of the ritual evidently consisted of dancing, and music also had its place, as is evident from the figures of the lyre and flute players on the sarcophagus of Hagia Triada. The question of whether the Minoans had any worship of ancesters or sacrifice to the dead is raised by several relics. Above the Shaft-Graves at Mycenae stood a circular altar, where offerings must have been made either to the Shades of the Dead or on behalf of them, and the scenes on the Hagia Triada sarcophagus, resembling so curiously those of the Egyptian ceremony of 'the Opening of the Mouth,' suggest a belief in the continued existence of the spirit, either as an object to be propitiated by sacrifice, or as a being which needed to be sustained in its disembodied state by offerings of meat and drink.

The relation of the Minoan King to the religion of his country is a point of some interest, though the facts known are scarcely sufficient to afford ground for more than surmise. The very structure of the palace at Knossos gives evidence of the importance of the part which he played in spiritual matters, and of the intimate connection which existed in the Minoan, as in so many other ancient faiths, between Royalty and Religion. There are not only several shrines and altars in the palace, but it is probable, as Dr. Mackenzie has pointed out,[*] that the so-called bathrooms at Knossos and Phaestos are not bathrooms at all, but small chapels or oratories, so that altogether religion bulks very largely in the arrangements of the Royal dwelling. In fact, the Kings and Queens of Knossos were Priest-Kings and Priest-Queens, the heads of the spiritual as well as of the material life of their people; and it is not at all unlikely, from what is known of the religious views of other ancient peoples, that the Priest-King was looked upon as an incarnation of divinity. If so, of what divinity? It is here that, in all likelihood, we get near the heart of the Minotaur legend. 'The characteristic mythical monster of Crete,' says Miss Jane Harrison,[**] 'was the bull-headed Minotaur. Behind the legend of Pasiphae, made monstrous by the misunderstanding of immigrant conquerors, it can scarcely be doubted that there lurks some sacred mystical ceremony of ritual wedlock ([Greek: ieros gamos]) with a primitive bull-headed divinity.... The bull-Dionysos of Thrace, when he came to Crete, found a monstrous god, own cousin to himself.... Of the ritual of the bull-god in Crete, we know that it consisted in part of the tearing and eating of a bull, and behind is the dreadful suspicion of human sacrifice.' The actual evidence found on Minoan sites for the existence of such a bull-headed divinity is somewhat slight, the clearest instance being a seal-impression from Knossos, representing a monster who bears an animal head, possibly a bull's, upon a human body, and who is evidently regarded as divine, since he is seated and reverently approached by a human worshipper; but, taken in connection with the universal currency of the Minotaur legend, it is probably sufficient. What relation this monstrous divinity held to the other objects of Minoan worship is not apparent.

[Footnote *: Annual of the British School at Athens, xiv., p. 366. The suggestion is also made by Mosso, 'The Palaces of Crete,' pp. 64-66.]

[Footnote **: 'Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion,' pp. 482, 483.]

It may be, then, that this deity was the one of whom the King was supposed to be the representative and incarnation, and in that case the bull-grappling, which was so constant a feature of the palace sports, had a deeper significance, and was in reality part of the ceremonial associated with the worship of the Cretan bull-god. In this connection Professor Murray has emphasized[*] certain facts in connection with the legendary history of Minos, which would seem to link the Cretan monarchy with a custom not infrequently observed in connection with other ancient monarchies and faiths. It will be remembered that the legend of Minos states variously that he 'ruled for nine years, the gossip of Great Zeus,' and that every nine years he went into the cave of Zeus or of the bull-god, to converse with Zeus, to receive new commandments, and to give account of his stewardship. The nine-year period recurs in the account of the bloody tribute of seven youths and seven maidens who were offered to the Minotaur every ninth year. May we not, therefore, have in these statements a distorted recollection of the fact that the Royal Incarnation of the Bull-God originally held his office only for a term of nine years, and that at the end of that period he went into the Dictaean Cave, the sanctuary of his divinity, and was there slain in sacrifice, while from the cave his successor came forth, and was hailed as the rejuvenated incarnation of divinity, to reign in his turn, and then to perish as his predecessor had done? In this case the seven youths and seven maidens who were offered to the Minotaur at the end of the nine-year period may have been slain with him to be his companions and servants in the underworld, or, as is perhaps more likely, they may, in a later stage of the custom, have been accepted as his substitutes, so that the death of the King was merely a ritual one.

[Footnote *: 'The Rise of the Greek Epic,' pp. 127, 128.]

Of course, this explanation of the Minos legend and the story of the human tribute is in the meantime only a supposition, and not susceptible of absolute proof; but the constant recurrence of the nine-year period is, at least, very striking, and it is worth remembering that a custom precisely similar to that suggested has existed in connection with several ancient monarchies, and, indeed, survives to the present day. In the ancient Ethiopian kingdom the King was obliged to slay himself when commanded to do so by the priests. A similar custom prevailed in Babylonia and among the ancient Prussians, while several modern African tribes slay their King when the first sign of age or infirmity begins to show itself in him. Professor Flinders Petrie has shown[*] that the greatest of the Egyptian feasts, the 'Sed' Festival, was a ceremonial survival of a time when the Pharaoh, the Priest-King and representative of God on earth, was slain at fixed intervals. The object in all such cases is manifestly to secure that the incarnation of divinity shall always be in the prime of his vigour, and shall never know decay. It is impossible, no doubt, to say that such a feature belonged to the Minoan religious polity; the evidence is not such as to admit of certainty, yet it is not unlikely that in a custom similar to this lies the interpretation of the main features of the Minotaur legend.

[Footnote *: 'Researches in Sinai,' pp. 181-185.]

Such, then, was the Empire of the Minoan Sea-Kings as it has been revealed to us by the excavations and researches of the last ten years. Apart from the actual information gained of this great race, which must henceforward be regarded as one of the originating sources of Greek civilization and learning, and therefore, to a great extent, of all European culture, perhaps the most striking and interesting result that has been attained is the remarkable confirmation given to the broad outlines of those traditions about Crete which have survived in the legends and in the narratives of the Greek historians. The fable of the Minotaur is now seen to be no mere wild and monstrous imagining, but a reflection, vague and grotesque as seen through the mist of centuries, of customs which did actually exist in the palace life of Knossos, and were very probably parts of the religious practice of the country. The slaying of the Minotaur by the Athenian Theseus may well be an echo of the conquest of the Minoan Empire by the mainland tribes. The story which makes Theseus bring up from the Palace of Amphitrite the ring which Minos had thrown into the sea, seems almost certainly to be a symbolic expression of the passing over of the sea-power of the AEgean from the once-omnipotent Minoans to the Achaeans and the other restless tribes who for generations after the fall of Knossos held the dominion of the ocean, and were the terror of all peaceful nations, and a menace to the existence of even so great a power as Egypt. No one now dreams of hesitating to accept the statements of Herodotus and Thucydides as to the great sea-empire of Crete. Whoever the Minos to whom they allude may have been—whether he was actually a single great historical monarch who brought the glory of the kingdom to its culmination, or whether the name was the title of a race of Kings, is a matter of small moment. In either case the sea-power of Minoan Crete was a reality which endured, not for one reign, but for many reigns; and it is practically certain that, during a long period of history, the whole sea-borne trade of Europe, Asia, and Africa, was in the hands of these, the earliest lords of the ocean.



The recollections of the fallen power that survived in the Greek mind were chiefly those connected with the oppressive aspect of the dominion which the Lord of Knossos exercised over the AEgean area; but in Egypt there lingered for centuries a tradition which did more justice to the glories of Minoan Crete. In the Timaeus, Plato tells a story of how Solon went to Egypt, and was told by a priest at Sais that long ago there had been a great island in the western sea, where a wonderful central power held sway, not only over the whole of its own land, but also over other islands and parts of the continent. In an attempt at universal conquest, this island State made war upon Greece and Egypt, but was defeated by the Athenians, and overwhelmed by the sea as a punishment for its sins, leaving only a range of mud-banks, dangerous to navigation, to mark the place where it had been. In the Timaeus and Critias, Plato describes with considerable detail the features of the island State, and the details are such that he might almost have been describing what the Egyptian priest who originally told the story was no doubt endeavouring to describe—the actual port and Palace of Knossos, with the life that went on there. 'The great harbour, for example, with its shipping and its merchants coming from all parts, the elaborate bathrooms, the stadium, and the solemn sacrifice of a bull, are all thoroughly, though not exclusively, Minoan; but when we read how the bull is hunted "in the temple of Poseidon without weapons but with staves and nooses," we have an unmistakable description of the bull-ring at Knossos, the very thing which struck foreigners most, and which gave rise to the legend of the Minotaur.'[*]

[Footnote *: 'The Lost Continent,' Times, February 19, 1909. The anonymous writer was the first to identify Crete with the 'Lost Atlantis.']

The boundaries which Plato assigns to the Empire of the lost State are practically identical with those over which Minoan influence is now known to have spread, while the description of the island itself is such as to make it almost certain that Crete was the original from which it was drawn. 'The island was the way to other islands, and from these islands you might pass to the whole of the opposite continent which surrounded the true ocean.' So Plato describes Atlantis; and when you set beside his sentence a modern description of Crete—'a half-way house between three continents, flanked by the great Libyan promontory, and linked by smaller island stepping-stones to the Peloponnese and the mainland of Anatolia'—there can be little doubt that the two descriptions refer to the same island.

The only difficulty in the way of accepting the identification is that it is stated that the lost Atlantis lay beyond the Pillars of Hercules; but doubtless this statement is due to Solon's misinterpretation of what was said by his Egyptian informant, or to the Saite priest's endeavour to accommodate his ancient tradition to the wider geographical knowledge of his own time. The old Egyptian conception of the universe held that the heavens were supported on four pillars, which were actual mountains; and probably the original story placed the lost island beyond these pillars as a metaphorical way of stating that it was very far distant, as indeed it was to voyagers in those early days. But by Solon's time the limits of navigation were extended far beyond those of the early seafarers. The Phoenician trader had pushed at least as far west as Spain; Necho's fleet had circumnavigated Africa; and so 'the island farthest west,' which naturally meant Crete to the Egyptian of the Eighteenth Dynasty who first recorded the catastrophe of the Minoan Empire, had to be thrust out beyond the Straits of Gibraltar to satisfy the wider ideas of the men of Solon's and Necho's time.

Almost certainly then, Plato's story gives the Saite version of the actual Egyptian records of the greatness and the final disaster of that great island state with which Egypt so long maintained intercourse. Doubtless to the men of the latter part of the Eighteenth Dynasty the sudden blotting out of Minoan trade and influence by the overthrow of Knossos seemed as strange and mysterious as though Crete had actually been swallowed up by the sea. The island never regained its lost supremacy, and gradually sank into the insignificance which is its characteristic throughout the Classical period. So, though neither the priest of Sais nor his Greek auditor, and still less Plato, dreamed of the fact, the wonderful island State of which the Egyptian tradition preserved the memory, was indeed Minoan Crete, and the men of the Lost Atlantis whose portraits Produs saw in Egypt were none other than the Keftiu of the tombs of Sen-mut and Rekh-ma-ra.



CHRONOLOGICAL SUMMARY

Prior to 1580 B.C. the dates in the summary must be regarded as merely provisional, and the margin of possible error is wide. The tendency on the part of the Cretan explorers has been to accept in the main the Berlin system of Egyptian dating in preference to that advocated by Professor Flinders Petrie ('Researches in Sinai,' pp. 163-185), on the ground that the development of the Minoan culture can scarcely have required so long a period as that given by the Sinai dating. It must be remembered, however, that the question is still unsettled, and that the longer system of Professor Petrie must be regarded as at least possible.

CRETE. EGYPT (BERLIN). EGYPT (PETRIE).

B.C. 10000-3000, Neolithic Age. c. 3000-2600, Early Minoan I. Dynasties I.-V., 3400-2625 B.C. Dynasties I.-V., 5510-4206 B.C. c. 2600-2400 " " II. Dynasty VI., 2625-2475 " Dynasty VI., 4206-4003 " c. 2400-2200 " " III. Dynasties VII.-X., 2475-2160 " Dynasties VII.-X., 4003-3502 " c. 2200-2000, Middle Minoan I. (earlier palaces at Knossos and Phaestos). Dynasty XI., 2160-2000 " Dynasty XI., 3502-3459 " c. 2000-1850, Middle Minoan II. (pottery of Kamares Cave; at end of period destruction of Knossos). Dynasty XII., 2000-1788 " Dynasty XII., 3459-3246 " c. 1850-1600, Middle Minoan III. (Later Palace Knossos; first Villa Hagia Triada; early in period, statuette of Sebek-user; late, Alabastron of Khyan). Dynasties XIII.-XVII., 1788-1580 B.C. Dynasties XIII.-XVII., 3246-1580 B.C. (Period of confusion and of Hyksos domination.) 1600-1500, Late Minoan I. (Later Palace Phaestos begun). 1500-1400, Late Minoan II. (Later Palace Knossos completed; c. 1400, fall of Knossos). Dynasty XVIII., 1580-1350 B.C. Dynasty XVIII., 1580-1322 B.C. (Keftiu on walls of tombs of Sen-mut and Rekh-ma-ra.) 1400——, Late Minoan III. (period of partial reoccupation and decline). Dynasty XIX., 1350-1205 B.C. Dynasty XIX., 1322-1202 B.C. c. 1200 (?) Homeric Age. Dynasty XX., 1200-1090 " Dynasty XX., 1202-1102 " (Cretan tribes mentioned and portrayed by Ramses III., Medinet Habu.) Dynasty XXI., 1090-945 B.C. Dynasty XXI., 1102-952 B.C. (Zakru pirates mentioned by Wen-Amon, Golenischeff Papyrus.)



BIBLIOGRAPHY

In the following short list will be found the volumes on the Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations which are most accessible to the ordinary reader:

Annual of the British School at Athens, vols. vi.- . (Reports of excavations by Evans, Hogarth, and others, and many articles of interest on the results of discovery. Well illustrated.)

Journal of Hellenic Studies, vols. xx.- . (Articles by Evans, Hall, Mackenzie, Rouse, and others. Admirable illustrations.)

BROWNE, H.: Homeric Study. (Relations of Homeric and Minoan civilizations).

BURROWS, R. M.: The Discoveries in Crete. (An able discussion of the results of excavations).

EVANS, A. J.: Cretan Pictograms and Pre-Phoenician Script. (Dr. Evans's earlier volume on the Minoan writing.) Essai de Classification des Epoques de la Civilisation Minoenne. (Short summary of the Minoan periods.) Mycoenean Tree and Pillar Cult. (Reprint from Journal of Hellenic Studies, vol. xxi.) Prehistoric Tombs of Knossos. (Isopata, etc.). Scripta Minoa. (Latest and fullest discussion of Minoan script.) Articles in the Times newspaper and the Monthly Review.

HALL, E. H.: The Decorative Art of Crete in the Bronze Age.

HALL, H. R.: Egypt and Western Asia. (Relations of Crete and Egypt.) The Oldest Civilization of Greece. (Deals with Mycenaean discoveries up to 1901.) Various articles in the Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archaeology, the Journal of Hellenic Studies, etc.

HARRISON, J. E.: Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion. The Religion of Ancient Greece.

HAWES, C. H. and H.: Crete the Forerunner of Greece. (Concise and interesting manual.)

HAWES, H. B.: Gournia, Vasiliki, and other Prehistoric Sites on the Isthmus of Hierapetra, Crete.

HOGARTH, D. G.: Authority and Archoeology; (Contains summary of earlier Mycenaean discoveries.) Ionia and the East. (Relations of Oriental and early Greek civilizations.) Articles in Cornhill Magazine and Fortnightly Review.

LANG, A.: Homer and his Age.

MOSSO, A.: The Palaces of Crete and their Builders. (Chiefly useful for its numerous illustrations.)

MURRAY, G.: The Rise of the Greek Epic. (Exceedingly vivid and suggestive.)

RIDGEWAY, W.: The Early Age of Greece.

SCHUCHHARDT, C.: Schliemann's Excavations. (Useful summary of the work of Schliemann, translated by E. Sellers.)

SEAGER, R. B.: Excavations on the Island of Pseira, Crete. Philadelphia, 1910. (Finely illustrated.)

TSOUNTAS AND MANATT: The Mycenaean Age.

For the chronology of Ancient Egypt see—

BREASTED, H.: History of Egypt. (1906. Abridged issue, 1908.)

PETRIE, W. M. F.: History of Egypt, vols. i.-iii. Researches in Sinai.

For the topography of Crete, Pashley's Travels in Crete and Spratt's Travels and Researches in Crete will still be found interesting and useful, though published in 1837 and 1865 respectively. For the history of the island in mediaeval and modern times A Short Popular History of Crete, by J. H. Freese, may be consulted.

Antiquites Cretoises, by G. Maraghiannis, Candia, Crete, gives fifty excellent plates of Minoan relics, chiefly from Phaestos and Hagia Triada, with a short introduction by Signor Pernier, of the Italian Archaeological Mission.



APPENDIX

TRANSLATIONS OF THE PHAESTOS DISK

Two translations of the Phaestos disk have been put forward. The first is by Professor George Hempl, of Stanford University, U.S.A., and appeared in Harper's Magazine for January, 1911, under the title, 'The Solving of an Ancient Riddle.' The second, by Miss F. Melian Stawell, of Newnham College, appeared in the Burlington Magazine of April, 1911, under the title, 'An Interpretation of the Phaistos Disk.'

Both are characterized by considerable ingenuity; but the trouble is that they do not agree in the very least. Professor Hempl maintains that the disk is the record of a dedication of oxen at a shrine in Phaestos, in atonement of a robbery perpetrated by Cretan sea-rovers on some shrine of the great goddess in Asia Minor. Miss Stawell, on the other hand, believes that the disk is the matrix for casting a pair of cymbals, and that the inscription is the invocation which the worshippers had to chant to the goddess.

A comparison of portions of the two renderings will at least show that certainty can scarcely be said to have been reached. Professor Hempl thus renders the opening lines of Face A:

'Lo, Xipho the prophetess dedicates spoils from a spoiler of the prophetess. Zeus, guard us. In silence put aside the most dainty portions of the still unroasted animal. Athene Minerva, be gracious. Silence! The victims have been put to death. Silence!'

Compare Miss Stawell's translation of the same lines:

'Lady, 0 hearken! Cunning one! Ah, Queen! I will sing, Lady, oh, thou must deliver! Divine One, mighty Queen! Divine One, Giver of Rain! Lady, Mistress, Come! Lady, be gracious! Goddess, be merciful! Behold, Lady, I call on thee with the clash! Athena, behold, Warrior! Help! Lady, come! Lady—keep silence, I sacrifice—Lady, come!'



INDEX

A

Aahmes, founder of Eighteenth Dynasty, 147 Abnub, 82, 155, 203 Abydos: First Dynasty graves at, 142, 191; Twelfth Dynasty grave at, 150, 199 Achaeans: position of, in Homeric poems, 23; manners of, 26; invasion of Greece, 62; influence of, on Cretan customs, 178; conquest of Mycenae, 182; modifications of Minoan religion by, 247 Achilles: arms of, 27; shield of, 27, 28, 58, 74 AEgean, 13 AEgeus, King of Athens, 10-13 Agamemnon, Tomb of, 37, 42, 43, 45, 46 Agriculture, Minoan, 226 Aigaios, Mount, 136 Aithra, mother of Theseus, 11 Akhenaten, 163, 173, 174, 185, 208 Alabastron of Khyan, 93 Alcinous, Palace of, 25, 26, 47, 49, 56 Altar: in Dictaean Cave, 137; at Shaft-Graves, 251 Amaltheia, 7, 111 Amenemhat III., 150; Labyrinth of, 150-155; pyramid of, 47; cylinders of, 199 Amenhotep, II., 174 Amenhotep III., 158, 162, 173, 174, 184, 185, 208 Amen-Ra, statuette of, in Dictaean Cave, 137 Amor, Amorites, 165 Amorgos, 193 Anatolia, 6; Minoan settlements in, 184 Androgeos, son of Minos, 10 Andromache, 24, 41 Aniconic worship, 245, 246 Aphrodite: aspect of Cretan goddess, 104, 122; identified with Minoan goddess, 247 Aqayuasha invade Egypt, 164 Archon, the King, 108 Argives, 166 Argolid: place of, in Greek history, 22; conquest of, by Achaeans, 182 Ariadne, 3, 179; flees with Theseus and deserted by him, 13; Choros of, at Knossos, 103; title of Cretan goddess, 104, 122 Aristides, 'The Unjust,' 240 Armour: Homeric, 26-28, 61; Mycenaean, 61 Army, Minoan, 225, 226 Arrows, deposits of, at Knossos, 110, 225 Artemis Dictynna, aspect of Cretan goddess, 122, 247 Asia, community of religious conceptions between Crete and, 141 Athens: conquered by Minos, 10, 170; place in Homeric poems, 21 Atlantis, Plato's legend of, 257-259 Atreus, Treasury of, 43, 46-48 Axos, 166

B

Babylonia, relations with Crete, 139-142 Bacchylides, legend of Theseus and the ring of Minos, 13 Basilica, origin of, 108 Bathroom of Queen's Megaron, 95 Beak-jugs=schnabelkanne, q.v. Beehive chamber at Knossos, 113, 114 Beehive tombs: at Mycenae, 46-48, 56; at Orchomenos, 48, 56; at Phaestos, 229 Bliss finds Minoan pottery at Telles-Safi, 167 Boghaz-Keui, treaty between Hittites and Egyptians discovered at, 162 Bosanquet, Mr.: Minoan purple, 133; marine decoration, 204 Boxer Vase, the, 124, 169, 172, 204 Boxing, Minoan, 103 Breasted, H., Egyptian chronology, 148 Britomartis, 122 Bronze, use of, for weapons, 27, 60, 228 Browne, H., 'Homeric Study,' 30-32, 62 Bucchero: deposit of, at Knossos, 66, 189, 191; at Abydos, 142, 143 Buegelkanne=stirrup-vases, q.v. Bull: fresco of, at Tiryns, 49, 90; at Knossos, 66; relief of, at Knossos, 77, 78, 172; fresco, 88, 89 Bull-god, 105, 252, 253 Bull-grappling, 88-91, 257, 258 Bunarbashi, supposed site of Troy, 38 Burial, 58-60 Burrows, Professor: quoted, 88, 98, 99, 108, 109, 122, 174, 177; Minoan art in Egypt, 185 Button seals, 143, 194 Byblos, Wen-Amon at, 186

C

Callimachus, character of Cretans, 8 Carians expelled by Minos, 9 Carpenter, tools of, 221, 222 Chariots, 225 Cherethites=Cretans, 168 Chieftain Vase, the, 125, 126, 172, 204, 213 Choros built by Daedalus at Knossos, 14 Chronology, Egyptian and Minoan, 147 et seq. Cilicia, 229 Circle-Graves=Shaft-Graves, 43-46, 172, 205; steles of, 182; altars at, 251 Cists in Temple Repositories, 105 Colonnades, Hall of, 85 Cooking utensils, 218 Copper: export of, 223; use of, in beaten work, 229 Corinth in Homeric poems, 21 Cornaro describes ruins at Knossos, 63 Court: Western, Knossos, 66, 83, 84; Central, Knossos, 68, 70, 85; of the Olive Spout, 88 Cremation, 58-60 Critias, the, legend of Atlantis, 257-259 Cross in Snake Goddess shrine, 107 Cuirass. See Armour Cuneiform, 81, 142 Cup-Bearer: Fresco of, 67, 68, 173, 206; dress of, 213, 214 Currelly, Mr., 124, 133, 236 Curtius on Treasury of Atreus, 48 Cyclades, 9; influence on Minoan art, 193 Cyprus, 51, 157; Minoan civilization in, 145, 185; export of copper, 223

D

Daedalus, 3; builds Labyrinth, 10, 14; flees to Sicily, 14, 15; makes Choros at Knossos, 103 Daggers from Shaft-Graves, 57, 58 Dahshur, Egyptian jewellery from 229 Danaos, King of Argos and Rhodes 166 Danauna=Danaoi invade Egypt, 165, 166 Dancing, Minoan, 103 Dancing-girls, fresco of, 220 Danubian civilization, 181, 182 David, 167, 168 Dawkins, Mr., 126 Dead, disposal of, 58-60, 178 Decimal system, Minoan, 238 Deir-el-Bahri: Eleventh Dynasty temple at, 154; Hatshepsut's temple at, 160; tomb of Senmut, 160 Demeter identified with Minoan goddess, 247 Determinatives in Minoan writing, 235, 240 Diana, of Ephesus, 111 Dictaean Cave, 7, 8, 64, 70, 136, 137, 247, 254 Dionysius of Halicarnassus, 136 Dionysos, 252 Disc, hieroglyphic, of Phaestos, 121, 241, 242 Dolphin Fresco, 224 Dor, 187 Dorian (Dorians): conquest, 2, 4, 33, 62; invasion of Crete, 178, 210 Doerpfeld, Professor, discovers Sixth City of Troy, 40, 41, 50, 51 Double Axe, 246; pillars of, at Knossos, 70; emblem of Divinity, 70; of Zeus of Labraunda, 70; at Gournia, 130; in Dictaean Cave, 137; on sarcophagus, 250; Hall of the, 86, 120; in shrines at Knossos, 100, 105 Drainage: at Knossos, 98, 99; at Hagia Triada, 129 Dress: of Minoan women, 73; of men, 74, 213-216 Dungeons of Knossos, 90, 91, 104 Dynasties, Egyptian: First, date of, 148; Third, 146; Fifth, 146; Sixth, 143, 149; Twelfth, 148, 150-155, 199; Thirteenth, 200; Seventeenth, 158, 200; Eighteenth, 158-163; Nineteenth, 163

E

Egypt: relations of, with Crete, 139; chronology of, 147 et seq. Electrum, 229 Enkomi, 51 Epeus, 103 Erman Egyptian chronology, 148 Ethiopia, King of, obliged to slay himself at command of priests, 254 Europa, mother of Minos, 7, 8, 136 Euryalus, 103 Evans, A. J., 1, 2; purchases hill of Kephala, 64, 65; discoveries at Knossos, 65-116; derivation of Labyrinth, 71; on relief of bull's head, 77, 78; on tablets of Knossos, 79, 80; drains at Knossos, 99; bull's head rhyton, 113; restoration of Queen's Megaron, 115; 'Scripta Minoa' quoted, 121; excavations at Zafer Papoura, 134; at Isopata, 135; Minoan chronology, 149; first destruction of Knossos, 171; date of sack of Knossos, 174; growth of Cretan legends, 179, 180; classification of Minoan periods, 190; origin of spiral, 194; decline of Minoan oil-trade, 222; Minoan writing, 232, 233, 235, 236, 237-238, 239, 240

F

Fetish shrine at Knossos, 111, 237, 245 Fibula, use of, in late Minoan III., 178 Fig-tree, 227 Figurines: ivory, at Knossos, 96; faience, 105, 106, 156; banjo, 193 Flute on Hagia Triada sarcophagus, 127, 128 Fortifications: of Knossos, 74, 75, 76; of Tiryns and Mycenae, 75, 138 Fresco (Frescoes): bull at Tiryns, 49; at Knossos, 66; Procession at Knossos, 66; Cup-Bearer, 67, 68, 173, 206; of Throne Room, 71, 72; Blue Boy, 73, 90, 172, 202; miniature, 73, 74, 172, 173, 206; toreador, 88, 89; bird, 95, 220; dancing-girls, 220; Dolphin, 224. Frieze (Friezes): at Tiryns, 49, 56; at Knossos, 56

G

Gallery, the Long, 68-70 Gaming Board, the King's, Knossos, 87, 88, 204 Garstang, Professor, Kamares vase at Abydos, 150, 199 Gath=Tell-es-Safi, q.v. Gaza, 10 Gezer, Minoan pottery at, 140 Gillieron, M., reconstruction of relief, 93 God, Minoan: insignificance of, 247; identified with Zeus, 247 Goddess: seal-impression of, 94; Dove Goddess, 100, 107, 245; Snake, 105-107, 130, 156, 245; Minoan supreme deity, 244; representations of, 245, 246; identified with Greek goddesses, 246, 247 Gold: abundance of, in Shaft-Graves, 44, 45 ; absence of, at Knossos, 77 Goldsmith's work at Mokhlos, 134 Gortyna, stele of, 182 Gournia: Minoan houses at, 97, 130, 131, 216; shrine at, 107, 130, 245; Minoan town, 129-132; sack of, 131; stirrup-vases at, 205; furnace near, 228; linear script at, 236 Grote denies historicity of Greek legends, 3, 17

H

Haa-ab-ra, 169 Hagia Triada: Boxer rhyton, 103; villa at, 122; artistic work, 122, 203; vases of, 123-126; sarcophagus, of, 127-129; sanitation of, 129; sack of, 175, 176; bee-hive tomb at, 192; dress on fresco from, 215; linear script at, 235, 236 Hagios Onouphrios, deposita at, 192 Halbherr, Professor: work at Phaestos, 118; discovery of copper at Hagia Triada, 223 Hall of Colonnades, Knossos, 85; of Double Axes, Knossos, 86 Hall, H. R., 155; origin of spiral, 48, 143, 193; sea-route to Egypt, 145; on Labyrinth, 153; Keftiu in tomb of Rekh-ma-ra, 161; identification of Uashasha, 166; Minoan influence on Egyptian art, 185 Hall, Miss, origin of spiral, 193 Harrison, Miss J., on the Minotaur legend, 252 Harvester Vase, the, 124, 125, 129, 172, 204, 213, 226 Hatshepsut, 158, 160, 208, 223 Hawara, Labyrinth at, 150-155 Hawes, Mrs.: carpenters' tools at Gournia, 222; discoveries at Gournia, 97, 107, 129, 130; sack of Knossos, 174 Hector, 41; slays Periphetes, 61; shield of, 61 Helmet. See Armour Hephaestos makes arms of Achilles, 27, 28 Hera identified with Minoan goddess, 247 Herakleids, return of, 2 Her-hor, 186, 187 Herodotus: on sea-power of Minos, 9, 76, 256; Labyrinth at Hawara, 151, 152; Greek settlement in Crete, 180 Hesiod: legend of Kronos, 111, 136 Hieroglyphics: Minoan, 64, 78; Egyptian and Hittite, 64, 80, 81 Hilprecht, 141 Hissarlik, site of Troy, 37, 51 Hittites: Treaty with Egypt, 162; absorbed in advance of sea-peoples, 164 Hogarth, D. G.: quoted, 20; duration of Mycenaean civilization, 51, 52; on bull's head rhyton, 113; excavations at Zakro, 133, 224; at Dictaean Cave, 136, 137; Greek settlement in Crete, 180; geometric vases of Iron Age, 183, 184; Minoan craftsmanship, 207 Homeric civilization, 21-33; houses, 25, 55; crafts in, 56-58; disposal of dead, 58 Homeric poems, 20; geography of, 54; houses in, 25, 55; crafts in, 56-58 'Horns of consecration,' 94, 95, 100, 130, 246, 249, 250 Horse on seal-impression at Knossos, 112 Houses: Minoan, 97, 216-218; at Gournia, 130, 131; fabric of, 217 Hyksos, 93, 94, 155, 157, 200, 203 Hyria, foundation of, 15

I

Ialysos, Late Minoan III. work at, 209 Icarus, son of Daedalus, 14 Ida, Mount, 92; Kamares cave on, 197 Idaean Cave, 7; bronzes of, 183, 184 Idomeneus in Iliad, 22 Illahun, 97 Imadua, tomb of, 163 Incised ornament, 189, 192, 193 Iron: use of for weapons, 27, 60; in Late Minoan III., 178 Irus, 103 Isopata, royal tomb at, 135, 136, 156, 203 Ittai, Captain of David's bodyguard, 168

J

Jacob, sacred pillar of, at Bethel, 246 Jade, white, discovered at Troy, 140 Juktas, Mount: tomb of Zeus on, 7, 63; springs on, 110

K

Kahun: Twelfth Dynasty town at, 116; papyrus, 148; Kamares ware at, 150, 199 Kairatos River, 76, 176 Kalochaerinos, excavations at Knossos, 64 Kamares ware, 92, 118, 120, 137, 150, 172, 197-199 Kamikos besieged by Minos, 15 Kaphtor=Crete and Kefti, 166 Karnak, 151 Kaselles at Knossos, 69 Keftiu, the, 158-163, 259 Kephala, site of Palace of Knossos, 64, 65 Kerkuon slain by Theseus, 11 Khyan: alabastron of, 93, 157, 203; lion of, 157 King, Minoan, relation to religion, 248, 251-255 Kokalos, King of Kamikos, 14 Klytemnestra, Treasury of, 48 Knossos, 5; in Iliad, 22; Palace of, 63-116; ruins at, 63, 64; Neolithic remains at, 66; fortifications of, 74, 75; sack of, 86; Royal Villa, 107-109; Minoan road, 110; Little Palace, 110-113; beehive chamber, 113, 114; Queen's Megaron, 115, 116; sack of, 173-176; reoccupation of, 176, 177, 210; first sack of, 199 Kouphonisi. See Leuke Kronos, 6, 7, 111 Kuanos, 25, 49, 56, 58

L

Labrys: name of Double Axe, 70; derivation of Labyrinth, 71, 100 Labyrinth, 3, 10, 11, 13, 14, 18; derivation of name, 71, 153; beehive chamber, Knossos, 114; Minoan and Egyptian Labyrinths, 150-155 Lamp, stone, in Royal Villa, 108, 221 Lang, Mr. A., Minoan swords, 135 Layard, 140 Legends of Crete, 6-18 Leuke, deposit of purple shell at, 133 Libation table: of Dictaean Cave, 64, 236, 251; of Palaikastro, 236 Light-wells, 217, 220 Linear Script: Class A, 202, 204, 234-236; Class B, 205, 207, 236, 238 Lion Gate, 42-43, 94, 100, 246 Loin-cloth, 213 Loom-weights, 228; at Gournia, 131 Lotus, Minoan use of, 204 Lucian, 136 Lucretius, 136 Luqsor, 151 Lycian pirates, 184 Lyre on Hagia Triada sarcophagus, 127, 128 Lyttos, 136

M

Macalister finds Minoan pottery at Tell-es-Safi, 167 Mackenzie, Dr.: decay of Minoan art, 177; naturalism in Minoan art, 196, 201; character of Minoan religion, 248, 249; Minoan bathrooms, 252 Magazines at Knossos, 68, 69 Mahler, Egyptian chronology, 148 Manetho, history of, 147 Manolis, 68 Mecca, 111 Medinet Habu, reliefs at, 121, 164, 165, 181 Mediterranean race, 212 Megara conquered by Minos, 10, 170 Megaron: Queen's, 95, 115, 116, 220, 221; of Phaestos, 120 Melos, 51, 193 Menelaus, 15, 23; Palace of, 25 Mentuhotep Neb-hapet-Ra, Temple of, 78, 154 Merenptah, 164 Meriones in Iliad, 22 Messara Valley, 117 Metal-working: Homeric and Mycenaean, 56-58; at Knossos, 109 Meyer, Egyptian chronology, 148 Middle Kingdom of Egypt, 82, 93, 94, 150-155 Minoa, 10, 15 Minoan culture: date of beginning of, 147-149; periods of—Early Minoan I., Middle Minoan II., 149, 150-155; Middle Minoan III., 155-157; Late Minoan I., 158; Late Minoan III., pottery of, in Palestine, 167; Middle Minoan II., catastrophe at close of, 170; Early Minoan I., 190, 191; Early Minoan II., 191, 192; Early Minoan III., 192-194; Middle Minoan I., 194-197; Middle Minoan II., 197-200; Middle Minoan III., 200-203; Late Minoan I., 203-205; Late Minoan II., 205-208; Late Minoan III., 208-210; wide diffusion of products of, 209 Minoans: physical characteristics, 211-213; dress, 213-216; houses of, 216-218 Minos: legends of, 3-18; birth of, 7; association with Zeus, 8, 253; Sea-King, 9; conquers Megara and Athens, 10; pursues Daedalus, 14; death of, 15; and Zeus, 105, 136; laws of, 136 Minotaur, 3, 10, 49, 258; relation of legend to Minoan religion, 256 Minyas, Treasury of, 48 Mitanni, 185 Mokhlos: excavations at, 40; necropolis at, 133, 134, 143; gold ring from, 223 Mortars, 227 Mosso, 112, 120; drainage at Hagia Triada, 129; Minoan democracy, 230; Minoan bath rooms, 252 Mother: the Great, at Rome, 111; Anatolian, 122; Minoan, 244-247 Mouliana, tombs at, 59 Murex, 133, 222 Murray, Professor: name of Minos, 8; worship of bull-god in Crete, 253 Mycenae, 1, 5; in Homeric poems, 22; Lion Gate of, 42, 43; Treasuries of, 42, 43, 46-48; Shaft-Graves, 43-46 Mycenaean civilization, 5, 6; extent of, 50, 51; duration of, 51, 52; inspiration of, 52-54; relation to Homeric civilization, 54-62; crafts of, 56-58; disposal of dead, 58-60 Myres, Mr. J. L.: discovery of Kamares ware, 92, 197; figurines at Petsofa, 132

N

Naturalism, development of, 196, 201 Nausicaa, 24, 26 Naville, excavations at Deir-el-Bahri, 78 Necho, fleet of, circumnavigates Africa, 259 Neolithic Period at Knossos, 188-190 Nestor, 22; cup of, 56 Niffur, 1; drainage at, 141 Nimrud, carved ivories at, 140

O

Odysseus, 22; palace of, 25; versatility of, 26; brooch of, 56; defeats Irus, 103 Olive-oil, export of, 222 Olive Press, Room of the, 222 Olive Spout, Court of the, 88 Olive-tree, 227 Olympiad, First, 2, 52 Opening the mouth, Egyptian funerary ceremony, 128, 251 Orchomenos, 5; in Homeric poems 22, Treasury of Minyas, 48

P

Palace, Homeric, 25, 55 Palace, the Little, 111 Palaikastro, 124; Minoan town at, 132; deposit of purple shell at, 133; houses at, 216, 217; Linear Script at, 236 Papyrus: Turin, 148; Kahun, 148; Golenischeff, 186 Pashley describes ruins at Knossos, 63 Pasiphae, wife of Minos, 10, 18, 252 Paul, St., Epistle to Titus, 8 Pausanias, on Tomb of Agamemnon, 37, 42, 43 Pelasgi, 161, 167 Pelethites=Philistines, 168 Peloponnese, 6 Pen, the, used in Minoan writing, 241 Penelope, 24 Pepy, statue of, 113 Percentages on Minoan tablets, 238 Perdix slain by Daedalus, 14 Periphetes slain by Hector, 61 Pernier, Dr., stele at Gortyna, 182; work at Phrestos, 118 Perrot, M., Minoan writing, 233 Petrie, Professor: discovers AEgean remains in Egypt, 51; plan of Egyptian town, 97; Egyptian Sed Festival, 255; identification of Zakkaru, 166; Egyptian chronology, 194, 199; Minoan pottery at Abydos, 142, 191; sea-route between Crete and Egypt, 144, 145; Egyptian chronology, 148; Kamares ware at Kahun, 150 Petsofa: figurines, 126, 132, 195, 213, 215; votive offerings at, 168 Phaestos, 5; in Homeric poems, 117; discovery of Palace, 118; Theatral Area, 118, 119; destruction of palace, 119; staircase, 120; Megaron, 120; Central Court, 120; hieroglyphic disc, 121, 122; lords of, destroy Knossos, 171; sack of, 175, 176; earliest buildings at, 197; first sack of Knossos, 200; beehive tombs at, 229; Linear Script at, 236 Philistines: on reliefs at Medinet Habu, 121; invade Egypt, 165, 166, 186; settle in Palestine, 166-169 Phoenicians: relation to Minoan culture, 53; invention of alphabet, 64; writing, 81, 243; purple dye of, 132, 133; not the Keftiu, 159 Phylakopi, 51; Linear Script at, 236 Pictographs: beginnings of, 194; decline of, 202, 204; development of, 234 Pillars, sacred, 70, 246 Piracy in Homeric poems, 22 Pithoi, 64, 69, 202, 206 Pits. See Dungeons Plato, legend of Atlantis, 257-259 Pliny, Labyrinth of Hawara, 152 Plutarch, story of Theseus, 103 Polychrome ware, 104, 132, 172; beginnings of, 194, 195; development of, 197-199 Polycrates, sea-power of, 9 Polyphemus, 22 Porcelain plaques on chest, 97 Portico: southern, Knossos, 68; western, 66, 83, 84 Potter's wheel, introduction of, 193 Praesians, account of Greek settlement in Crete, 180 Praesos, 15 Priam, Palace of, 25, 39; Treasure of, 38, 39, 40, 41 Priestesses (Priests) in Minoan religion, 251 Procession, Corridor of the, Knossos, 67 Proclus, portraits of men of Atlantis in Egypt, 259 Procrustes slain by Theseus, 11 Psamtek I., 152, 169 Psychro, 136 Pulosathu = Philistines, q.v. Punt, Egyptian voyages to, 146 Purple, 133, 222

Q

Querns, Minoan, 227

R

Rahotep, statue of, 113 Ramesseum, 151 Ramses II., Treaty with Hittites, 162 Ramses III.: reliefs of, 121, 181; victory over sea-peoples, 164-166 Rekh-ma-ra, tomb of, 160-162, 207, 208, 214, 223, 259 Religion, Minoan: supreme goddess in, 244, 245; representations of goddess, 245-246; identification of, with Greek goddesses, 246, 247; Minoan god identified with Zeus, 247; absence of temples, 248; family worship, 248; shrines 249, 250; sacrifice and ritual, 250, 251; place of King in, 251-255 Rhea, 6, 7, 111, 122, 136; identified with Minoan goddess, 247 Rhiphaean Mountains, 3 Rhodes, Late Minoan III. work in, 209 Rhyton: from Hagia Triada, 103; bull's head, from Knossos, 113 Ripple ornament, 190 Road, Minoan at Knossos, 110 Rosetta Stone, 80, 162

S

Sack of Knossos, 86 Sacrifice in Minoan worship, 250, 252 Sagalassians=Shakalsha (?), 166 Sahura, King of Fifth Dynasty, 146 Sais, legend of Atlantis at, 257-259 Salamis, late Mycenaean graves at, 59 Samson, 167 Sarcophagus, the, Hagia Triada, 127-129, 213, 250, 251 Sardinia relics of Minoan civilization, 51 Sardinians, 212 Sat-Hathor, 155 Scaean Gate, 39 Schliemann, 1, 2, 5; youth of, 34-36; excavates ancient Troy, 38-41, 227; Mycenae, 42-48; discovers Shaft-Graves, 43-46; excavates Treasury of Atreus, 46-48; excavates at Orchomenos, 48; at Tiryns, 48, 49; considers excavations at Knossos, 64 Schnabelkanne, 39, 192 Script, Minoan, 64, 78-81; Linear, at Gournia, 131 Sculptor's workshop, 86, 87 Scylla betrays Megara, 10 Seager, excavations at Mokhlos, 40, 133, 134, 143 Seal-impressions at Zakro, 133 Seals: Minoan, 143; button, 143 Sea-power: of Minos, 9, 76; of Knossos, 76, 77 Seats, Minoan, 102 Sebek-user, statuette of, 82, 93, 155, 156, 203 'Sed' Festival in Egypt, 255 Sen-mut, tomb of, 160-162, 207, 208, 259 Senusert (Usertsen), II., III., 150; III., 199 Shakalsha invade Egypt, 165, 166 Shield. See Armour Ships: Minoan, 112, 223; Egyptian, 144 Shoes, Minoan, 213, 214 Shrines: at Gournia, 130, 131, 250; at Knossos, 249, 250, 252 Sicilians, 212 Sicily, 10; relics of Minoan civilization in, 51, 184 Sickles, 226 Sikels=Shakalsha (?), 166 Sinnis slain by Theseus, 11 Sistrum on Harvester Vase, 125 Sitia, 214 Snake Goddess, 105-107, 245, 250; dress of votaress of, 215 Sneferu, King of Third Dynasty, 146 Socrates, 17 Solon, legend of Atlantis, 257-259 Spain, relics of Minoan civilization in, 51, 184, 210 Sparta in Homeric poems, 21 Spratt describes ruins at Knossos 63 Spiral, origin of, 48, 143, 144, 193, 194 Staircase: at Knossos, 85, 86; at Phaestos, 120 Steles of Shaft-Graves, 43 Stillman, 64 Stirrup vases: at Knossos, 81, 108; at Zafer Papoura, 134; tomb of Ramses III., 163; at Gournia and Hagia Triada, 205, 210; prevalence of, in Late Minoan III., 210 'Stoa Basilike,' 108 Suffixes in Minoan Script, 235 Swords: in Shaft-Graves, 44; iron, 60; bronze, at Zafer Papoura, 134, 135; iron, in Late Minoan III., 178; bronze, in Late Minoan I., 204; from Zafer Papoura, 206

T

Tablets, clay, of Knossos, 78-81, 110, 238 et seq. Tahuti, 69 Tahutmes III., 158, 161, 208 Tahutmes IV., 174 Talent, Babylonian, at Knossos and Hagia Triada, 141 Tarentum, Late Minoan work at 209 Telemachus, 22, 23 Tell-el-Amarna: tablets of, 79; capital of Akhenaten, 163; Minoan pottery at, 185 Tell-es-Safi, Minoan pottery at, 140, 167 Temple repositories, 104-107, 172, 200 Temples: Egyptian, 25; absence of, in Minoan religion, 248 Terpander, invention of lyre, 128 Teumman, 225 Theatral Area: Knossos, 100-104; Phaestos, 101, 197 Thera, Linear Script at, 236 Theseus, 3, 9; adventures of, 11; vanquishes Minotaur, 12, 13; marries and deserts Ariadne, 13; brings up ring of Minos, 13, 256 Throne, palace of Knossos, 72 Throne Room: decorations of, 72; impluvium in, 72; date of, 206 Thucydides on sea-power of Minos, 9, 76, 256 Timaeus, the, legend of Atlantis, 257-259 Tiryns, 1, 5; in Homeric poems, 22; wall of, 49; frieze, 49; fresco of bull, 49 Tomb paintings, Egyptian, 74 Tools, carpenters' and smiths', at Gournia, 131, 221, 222 Torcello, Late Minoan work at, 209 Toreadors, 88-91; figurines of, 96 Trees, sacred, 245 Trickle ornament, 202, 203 Troy, I; siege of, 22; site of, 37; First City, 38; Second City, 39, 40, 140; Sixth City, 40, 41, 51 Tsountas, 50 Tyi, Queen, 185

U

Uashasha invade Egypt, 165, 166

V

Vaphio cups, 51, 109, 123, 161, 229 Vases: stone, at Knossos, 81, 86, 143; stirrup, 81, 108, 134; Kamares, 92; stone, at Mokhlos, 134, 143; at Isopata, 136 Vases a Etrier=stirrup vases, q.v. Vasiliki, mottled ware of, 192 Venetian occupation, 63 Villa, Royal, at Knossos, 107-109, 246 Vine, 227 Virgil, 136

W

Water-lily cup, 198 Weaving, 227, 228 Wen-Amon, adventures of, 186, 187 Windows, 217 Women, position of, in Homeric poems, 24 Writing: beginnings of, in AEgean area, 80, 81; Phoenician, 81; Minoan, 234-243

Z

Zafer Papoura, swords from, 206 Zakkaru invade Egypt, 165, 166, 186, 187 Zakro: lotus vase from, 204; seals at, 133, 205, 224; houses at, 216; Minoan town at, 133; pottery at, 133; Zakkaru from, 166, 187; Linear Script at, 236 Zakru pirates, 187 Zeus: birth of, marriage of, to Europa, death and burial of, 7, 8; association with Minos, 8, 105, 136; Double Axe emblem, 70; of Labraunda, 70; fetish idol of, 111; associations with Dictaean Cave, 136, 247; identified with Minoan god, 247

THE END



[Illustration: PLAN OF THE PALACE OF KNOSSOS.

KEY TO NUMBERS

1. Northern Entrance and Portico. 2. Bastion and Guard-House. 3. Northern Piazza. 4. Room of the Flower Gatherer. 5. Room with Stirrup Vases, Walled Pit beneath. 6. Ante room to Throne Room. 7, 7. Throne Room with Tank. 8. Temple Repositories. 9, 9. East and West Pillar-Rooms. 10. Court of the Altar. 11. South Propylaeum. 12. Corridor of the Cup Bearer. 13. Corridor of the Procession. 14. West Portico. 15. Long Gallery with Magazines on West Side. 16. North-West House with Bronze Vessels. 17. Northern Bath. 18. Deposit of Pictographic Tablets. 19. North-Eastern Magazines. 20. Corridor of the Draught-Board. 21. Room of the Olive Press. 22. Great Staircase. 23, 23. Hall of the Colonnades, with Light-Well. 24, 24, 24. Hall of the Double Axes, with Light-Well. 25, 25, 25, 25. Queen's Megaron, with Light-Wells. 26. Deposit of Ivory Figurines. 27, 27. Built Drains. 28. Court of the Sanctuary. 29. South-East House with Pillar-Room. 30. Court of the Oil-Spout. 31. Magazines with large Pithoi. 32. East Bastion. 33. Early Buildings, partly in continuous use. 34. Sculptor's Workshop (on upper floor). A. Altar-Base in Central Court. B. Shrine of the Snake Goddess. C, D. Altar-Bases in West Court. E. Shrine of Dove Goddess and Double Axes. F. Altar-Base in Court of the Sanctuary. G. Altar Base in Court of the Altar.

PLAN ACCOMPANYING 'THE SEA-KINGS OF CRETE' BY THE REV. JAMES BAIKIE, F.R.A.S. (A. AND C. BLACK, LONDON.)]

THE END