Advanced decomposition

If the case is one involving decomposition, the operator is confronted with the problem of dealing with flesh which is rotted or putrefied. The flesh may be soft or flabby and very fragile. If this is so, an examination is made of the finger tips to see if the outer skin is present. If the outer skin is present and intact, it may be possible, using extreme care, to ink and print in the regular manner. Sometimes, the outer skin, although present, will be too soft and fragile to ink and roll in the regular way. In such cases, when the ridge detail is discernible, the skin, if it is easily removed from the finger, or the finger itself may be cut off at the second joint and placed in a 10- to 15-percent solution of formaldehyde for approximately an hour to harden it. Skin placed in a formaldehyde solution usually turns a grayish white and becomes firm. However, it will be brittle and may split if not handled carefully. The skin is placed in the solution only until it hardens sufficiently, after which it is removed and carefully wiped dry with a piece of cloth. Then the skin, placed over the operator's own thumb or index finger and held in place by his other hand, is inked and rolled as though the operator were printing his own finger. If a legible print is not obtainable in this manner, the operator should examine the underside of the skin.



In many instances, where the ridge detail on the outer surface has been destroyed or is not discernible, the ridge detail is clearly visible on the underside (fig. 394). If this is the case, the skin is inverted (turned inside out) very carefully to prevent splitting or breaking and then is inked and printed in the usual way. It must be borne in mind, however, that when the underside of the skin is printed the resulting impression will be in reverse color and position; that is, the ink is actually adhering to what would be furrows of the pattern when viewed from the proper or outer side. If it is deemed inadvisable to try to invert or turn the skin inside out for fear of damaging it, a photograph of the inner ridge detail is made and the negative is printed to give an "as is" position photograph for proper classification and comparison purposes. In order to secure good photographs of the ridge detail it may be advisable to trim the skin, flatten it out between two pieces of glass, and photograph it in that position (fig. 395).

When the entire finger is placed in the solution during the hardening process, the skin, in absorbing the formalin solution, may swell and come loose from the finger. Should this occur, the skin must be removed carefully and the procedure outlined above followed. If, however, the skin still adheres to the finger and is not too wrinkled, ink is applied and prints made. Should the skin be too wrinkled to secure a satisfactory impression, consideration is given to the injection of the tissue builder under the skin as previously mentioned, in order to distend the pattern area. If successful, the finger is inked and printed. This, of course, can be done only when the skin is intact.

Should part of the skin be destroyed to the extent that tissue builder cannot be injected effectively, while examination discloses that the pattern area is present but wrinkled, cut off the entire pattern area from the joint to the tip of the finger (fig. 396). Care must be exercised to insure getting the complete fingerprint pattern as well as cutting deep enough to avoid injury to the skin.



After excision, the flesh is carefully and meticulously removed from the inside by scraping, cutting, and trimming until only the skin remains, or until the specimen is so thin it can be flattened out to remove most of the wrinkles. If the skin is fairly pliable, the operator should attempt to place it over one of his own fingers and try several prints. If the prints secured are not suitable, the piece of skin (exert care to avoid breaking or splitting) is flattened out between two pieces of glass and photographed (figs. 397, 398, 399).



The foregoing outline covers the procedures followed in cases involving decomposition in which the outer skin is still present. In many instances of decomposition the outer skin has been destroyed or is in such a condition as to be of no value. It must be emphasized again that the second layer of skin possesses the same ridge detail as the outer layer and this, though finer and less pronounced, is just as effective for identification purposes.

If, from examination, it is apparent that the outer layer of skin is missing and the second layer is intact, the finger should be cleansed, dried, inked, and printed in the usual manner. If the specimen is wrinkled but pliable it may be possible to inject tissue builder, as previously mentioned, to round out the finger, then ink and print it.

Occasionally, some of the outer skin is still attached but is of no value. This skin should be removed by carefully picking or prying it off with a scalpel in such a manner as not to destroy or injure the ridge detail of the second layer. After the outer fragments have been removed, the second layer is cleaned, inked, and printed. In the event the resultant impressions are not suitable for classification and identification purposes, the most likely reason for it is that the ridge detail is too fine to print even though there are few if any wrinkles in it. If this is the case, the finger should be cut off at the second joint and photographed. Should wrinkles which cannot be removed by injecting tissue builder, and which also preclude the taking of suitable photographs, be present, the pattern area is cut off with a scalpel from the first joint to the tip. The flesh is then cut and scraped out as previously described, until the specimen is thin enough to flatten out between two pieces of glass which may be held together by scotch tape. The skin is then photographed.

Occasionally, even after the flattening process it will be noted in the ground glass of the camera that the skin may be seen plainly but the ridge detail is very poor. This difficulty may be due to the poor contrast of the ridges and furrows when using direct lighting. If so, it can be overcome by scraping the skin to transparency and then photographing it by transmitted light (i.e., passing light through the skin). Sometimes, due to the condition of the skin, even though it is tissue thin, it will not be transparent. This can be overcome by soaking the skin in xylene for a few minutes and then photographing it by transmitted light while it is still impregnated with the xylene. If the substance dries too fast to permit proper photographing, the skin should be photographed while immersed in the xylene. (See subtopic of this chapter pertaining to "general photography.") Of course, after the skin has been photographed the negative should be printed to give a reverse position so that the print will be comparable with inked impressions on fingerprint cards.

Desiccation and charring

The problem confronting the fingerprint examiner in treating fingers which are desiccated or dried and shriveled is that of distending and softening the skin. Desiccated fingers are generally found to have the outer layer of skin intact and the ridge detail fairly clear. However, due to the shrinking, numerous wrinkles will be present, and as the drying process continues the skin and flesh harden until the fingers become almost as hard as stone.

It is sometimes possible to distend or swell the flesh by utilizing a 1- to 3-percent solution of sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide, sometimes referred to as caustic potash. As a matter of caution, this process should be tried with one finger before using it for the remaining fingers. This point of caution is made because of the reaction of the potassium or sodium hydroxide, which is actually one of destruction. While absorption and swelling of the flesh occur, the disintegrating action of the fluid may result in total destruction of the flesh.

The finger to be distended is cut from the hand at the second joint and placed in the hydroxide. When it has resumed its normal size by the absorption of the solution, it is inked and printed. There is no set time for this process. The procedure may require a few hours or as much as several days until suitable results are obtained.

After the finger has been in the solution for about 30 minutes, it should be removed and examined in order to note the extent of the swelling and the reaction of the flesh to the solution. If no material change is noted, the finger is returned to the solution. A close watch is maintained and the finger is examined from time to time.

The solution may cause thin layers of skin to peel from the finger. Should this occur, the loose skin is carefully scraped off and the finger rinsed in water for a few minutes. It is then returned to the hydroxide for continuation of the process.

If, during the course of an inspection, it is seen that the flesh is becoming too soft, the finger should be placed in a 1- to 3-percent solution of formaldehyde or alcohol for several minutes in order to harden it.

If, after several hours in the hydroxide, the finger has not reached its normal size, it should be placed in water for an hour or two. This has a tendency to hasten the swelling. When the finger is removed, it will be noted that a film has coated the surface. This coating is carefully scraped off and the finger is replaced in the hydroxide solution for an hour or so, again scraped if coated, soaked in clean water, etc. This process of alternating from solution to water, scraping, and replacing in hydroxide is continued until desirable results are obtained. The finger is then inked and printed.

The above process will so saturate the finger with solution that it may be too wet to print properly. Accordingly, the finger may be dipped into acetone for several seconds, removed, and be permitted to dry, after which it is inked and printed.

The complete process may take from several hours to as much as 10 days to secure suitable results. If the final results of the above procedure are satisfactory with the one finger being tested, the remaining fingers are given the same treatment. Care must be taken to identify each finger properly as to right index, right middle, etc., to avoid any mixup.

In the event that the reaction of the solution on the first finger treated is not satisfactory and the operator feels that it would be futile to continue the process, the finger should be removed from the solution immediately, washed carefully in water, and placed in formaldehyde to harden sufficiently for it to be handled without causing injury to the ridges. The pattern area is cut off in such a manner that sufficient surrounding surface permits the skin to be trimmed. Then from the cut side the skin is carefully scraped and cut to remove the excess flesh. While the cutting and scraping are being done, from time to time the skin should be soaked in xylene and massaged for purposes of softening to remove wrinkles. When the skin is thin enough and sufficiently pliable, the operator places the skin on his own finger, inks and prints it in the usual manner.

If the results are satisfactory, the same procedure is followed with the remaining fingers. In the event the resultant inked prints are not suitable, the skin should be scraped until it is sufficiently thin to be flattened between two pieces of glass and photographed.

Here again it is pointed out that should there be a poor contrast between the ridges and furrows when using direct lighting, the skin is scraped as thin as possible without tearing and it is then photographed by transmitted light.

There are also included, as cases of desiccation, bodies which have been burned or subjected to severe heat. Often there are cases where the skin has become loose but is hard and crisp, or where the finger has been severely burned and is reduced almost to carbon, yet is firm. In these instances the ridge detail usually has not been destroyed.

When a body which has been severely burned is located, the problems of identification should be anticipated. Accordingly, before the body is removed, a careful examination of the fingers should be made in order to determine if the removal would, in any way, cause damage to the fingers. Should it be felt that because of the condition of the body removal would cause injury to the ridge detail, securing of fingerprints at the scene, or possibly the cutting off of the hands or fingers to avoid destruction of the skin, should be considered. An examination of the fingers may disclose that the outer skin is hardened and is partially loosened from the flesh. It is sometimes possible, by twisting back and forth, to remove this outer skin intact. If this is done, the operator may place the skin on his own finger, ink and print in the usual way.

If the skin is intact on the finger and is not wrinkled, of course there is no problem and the usual method is employed to secure impressions.

Should wrinkles be present and the skin pliable, tissue builder is injected into the bulbs, which are then inked and printed.

In the event the wrinkles cannot be removed in this fashion, the pattern area is cut off and the excess flesh scraped out as before. While the scraping and cutting are being accomplished, the skin should be soaked and massaged in xylene to soften. The skin is then placed on the operator's finger, inked and printed. Should prints made in this manner be unsatisfactory, the next recourse is photography.

In some instances the fingers of burned bodies will be charred. Such cases require very careful handling as there is a probability of destroying or disturbing the ridge detail through mistreatment. In these instances the procedure is determined by the degree of charring. In extreme cases the only method of recording is by photographing, using side lighting to secure the proper contrast of ridges and depressions. Obviously, no attempt should be made to ink and roll as the pressure necessary to secure the prints would cause the skin to crumble.

In instances where the charring has not reached the extreme stage the procedures previously set forth should be applied; that is, treatment of the skin by cleaning, softening, inking and printing, or, finally, by photographing (fig. 400).



Water-soaked fingers

The third and final type of case which may confront the identification officer concerns the problem of maceration, that is, long immersion of the fingers in water.

One of the cardinal rules for securing legible impressions is that the fingers must be dry. Accordingly, in these cases it becomes a matter of drying the fingers in addition to contending with other difficulties. Usually the skin on the fingers absorbs water, swells and loosens from the flesh within a few hours after immersion.

If an examination discloses the skin to be water-soaked, wrinkled and pliable, but intact, the first step is to cleanse the skin carefully as previously described. Next, wipe the fingertip with alcohol, benzine or acetone, waiting a few seconds for it to dry. The skin is pulled or drawn tight across the pattern area so that a large wrinkle is formed on the back of the finger, then the bulb is inked and printed.

If the skin is broken and hanging loose, but its pattern area is intact, it should be removed from the finger, cleansed and placed in alcohol or benzine (not acetone) for about a minute, then stretched carefully over the operator's finger so as to remove any wrinkles. It may then be printed.

Sometimes the skin is intact on the finger but so wrinkled and hard that it is not possible to draw it tight for inking. In this case it may be advisable to inject tissue builder to round out the bulbs for inking and printing. Should this fail, the ridge detail is photographed on the finger; or the skin is cut off, flattened between two pieces of glass and then photographed. Here, again, it must be pointed out that when the ridge detail does not show on the surface of the outer skin the underside should be examined, for many times the detail can be seen clearly. Should this be true, of course, the underside is photographed.

In cases where it is noted that the outer skin is gone and the finger is not saturated with water, it is possible to dry the surface sufficiently for inking and printing purposes by rolling the finger on a blotter. If this fails, the finger is wiped off with a piece of cloth which has been saturated with alcohol, benzine or acetone, after which it may be inked and printed.

Drying the fingers

In many instances it will be found that the outer skin is gone and the fingers themselves are saturated with water. A quick method of drying out the fingers is to place them in full strength acetone for approximately 30 minutes. The fingers are then placed in xylene for about an hour or until the xylene has overcome the reaction of the acetone. After removal from the xylene the fingers should be placed on a blotter until the surface of the fingers appears dry. They are then ready to be inked and printed.

It will be noted in this procedure that when the fingers are removed from the acetone they dry and harden in a matter of seconds. The purpose of the xylene is to resoften the fingers. After this treatment, should the resulting inked impressions be unsuitable for classification purposes, the ridge detail should be photographed.

X-ray photography

The use of X-ray photographs (radiography) has been advocated by some for purposes of recording the ridge details in decomposed, desiccated, or macerated cases. Briefly, the procedure involves the covering of the fingers with heavy salts such as bismuth or lead carbonate, in a thin, even film over the pattern area and then, by the use of the X-ray, reproducing the ridge detail. This procedure necessitates the use of X-ray equipment and a technician skilled in making radiographs. It is, therefore, an expensive operation. The results of the radiograph in no way compensate for the expense, time, and skill required inasmuch as in those cases where many wrinkles and creases appear in the fingers, especially desiccated specimens, the results have been very poor. In instances where there are no wrinkles or only a few, and where the creases are not too deep, the ridge detail is reproduced very well in the radiograph. In these cases, however, it is usually possible to secure impressions by inking and rolling in the regular way or, should this fail, ordinary photography will certainly give satisfactory results. For economical and practical purposes the use of the X-ray is not recommended.

General photography

In the foregoing instances in which it has been impossible to obtain suitable inked impressions it will be noted that the last resort has always been photography. In all probability in advanced cases of decomposition, desiccation, and maceration it may not be possible to secure inked impressions which can be properly classified. Hence, it will be necessary to photograph the ridge detail. Accordingly, there are outlined below several methods of photographing the ridges which have been used with success.

In photographing the ridge detail on fingers it has been determined to be most practicable to photograph the finger natural, or 1/1, size inasmuch as comparisons will usually be made with inked impressions which are natural size. Any camera built or adjusted to taking 1/1 size pictures, and with which the lighting may be arranged to best advantage, may be used.

There is a wide choice of film which can be used for this purpose. The so-called soft films are all good for photographing ridge detail on fingers. Process film is not recommended inasmuch as the film presents too much of a contrast. Consequently, if it is used, some of the ridge detail will be lost, especially if wrinkles are present in the skin.

Lighting is accomplished by the use of gooseneck lamps, floodlights, or a spotlight. If a fingerprint camera is used, its lights may be sufficient.

The manner of lighting may be by direct light, side light, transmitted light or reflected light, depending upon the prevailing condition of the finger or skin.

Direct light is used in those cases in which the ridge detail is fairly clear and there are no wrinkles present; or, if wrinkles are present, they are not deep enough to interfere with photographing the ridges.

Side lighting is used when there are no wrinkles of any consequence and the ridge detail is clear but because of discoloration the ridges are not readily seen in the ground glass as there is lack of contrast between ridges and depressions. Accordingly, the lights, instead of being focused directly on the skin or finger, are placed to the side of the object so that the light is directed across the skin or finger, thus highlighting the ridges and shading the depressions.

In side lighting, two lights may be used. Better results are often obtained, however, by using only one light, such as a spotlight, the beam of which can be controlled to best advantage.

Transmitted light is used in cases in which the skin has peeled off or in which the dermis has been removed, cut, and scraped thin so that light will go through. The prepared skin is placed between two pieces of glass pressed together in order to flatten the skin or dermis and remove creases. By trimming some of the surplus skin or dermis, especially at the top, it may be more easily flattened. After the glass is properly mounted in front of the camera, the lights are placed behind it and light is directed through the skin. The ridge detail is brought into focus on the ground glass. Before the picture is actually taken it is suggested that the ground glass be checked by first using one light and then two lights to see which is more effective.

There will be instances in which the second layer of skin, cut and scraped thin enough to flatten out, fails when dry to have a sufficient contrast between ridges and depressions for purposes of photographing. The same piece of skin when soaked in xylene will show a marked contrast, which it loses on drying. This difficulty is overcome by photographing the skin while in solution, which can be done by placing the skin in a test tube or a small bottle of a size to keep the skin upright and the ridges toward the camera. The test tube or bottle is then filled with xylene.

If the skin is sufficiently thin, transmitted light may be used. Should it be found, however, that transmitted light is not effective, then direct light may be tried and the results checked in the ground glass (fig. 401).

When photographing a small curved surface such as a test tube, direct lighting will usually create a high light. If the high light as shown in the ground glass is over the ridge detail on the skin, a poor photograph will result. If the high light cannot be removed by rearranging the lights, then reflected light should be tried.

In order to effect reflected light a large piece of white paper, cardboard, or similar material is used. A hole is cut in the center of the paper or cardboard. This must be big enough for the camera lens to protrude through. The ends of the paper or board are curved toward the skin or finger to be photographed. The lamps which are to be used are placed facing the curved paper or cardboard in such fashion that the light will strike the paper or board and be reflected by the curved surface to the object.

The lamps should be close enough to the paper or board to give the maximum light. Care should be exercised, however, not to place them too close, because of the fire hazard.

Any arrangement of lamps and reflectors giving a similar effect as the above should prove suitable.

Fingers or skin which have a mottled, reddish-brown color because of decomposition, exposure to severe heat, or diffusion with blood present a problem of lack of contrast between ridges and depressions for photographic purposes. This lack of contrast can be overcome to a large extent by the use of a yellow or light red filter. Sometimes, in those cases where the discoloration is due to the diffusion of blood throughout the tissues, the blood can be washed out by saturating and rinsing the specimen in a 10- to 20-percent solution of citric acid. If, of course, the blood is not removed satisfactorily, the photographing should be done with the filter.



As previously stated, the fingerprint camera can be readily adapted to the use of photographing fingers or skin specimens for ridge detail. Sometimes it is possible to photograph the skin or finger in the same manner as one does a latent print. There will be instances, however, in which the standard use of the fingerprint camera will not be possible or effective, such as for side light, reflected light, and sometimes transmitted light, or instances in which it is not possible to get the finger or skin flush with the opening of the camera. In these instances the lights of the camera are not used, so the batteries should be removed and gooseneck lamps or other suitable lighting equipment and ground glass utilized when the finger or skin is prepared for photographing (fig. 402).

The camera is opened either at the point where the lights are housed or at the lens point, whichever is most effective. Then, opening the shutter, the operator moves the camera either toward or away from the finger or skin to the point where the ridge detail is sharpest in the ground glass. The camera is held firmly, the ground glass is removed, the film is inserted and the photograph taken.



With respect to exposure time, it is possible only to generalize and point out that each case will have its own individual aspects. Controlling features for consideration will be the type of film, the type and size of lights, the method of lighting (direct, side, transmitted or reflected) and also whether or not filters are used. Accordingly, there may be a wide variation of exposure time in different cases.

The best approach for arriving at the proper exposure time is merely to make a test exposure, develop the film, and from an examination determine if it is underexposed or overexposed. Time the next exposure accordingly, until satisfactory results are obtained.

As has been mentioned previously, when photographing the ridges on fingers or skin, the ridge detail will be in reverse position, the opposite from an inked impression made from the same skin or finger. (This is true except in those cases in which the underside of the epidermis is photographed.) Accordingly, when the negative is printed, it should be printed gloss side to sensitive side of paper to give the position comparable to an inked print made from the same skin or finger. In order to avoid error or confusion a notation should be made on the photograph of each finger, or, if they are cut and mounted on a fingerprint card, point out that the position has been reversed and that the prints are in their correct position for classifying and searching. Otherwise, it is possible that the right hand may be mistaken for the left hand and vice versa.

If the underside of the epidermis or outer skin is being photographed, the negative should be printed in the normal manner, that is, emulsion side of negative to sensitized side of paper. Here, reversal of position is not necessary for when the ridge detail is viewed from the underside it appears to be in the same position as the inked impression normally is reflected on a fingerprint card.

Care should be taken to see that each photograph is labeled correctly to indicate the finger it represents, such as right thumb, right index, right ring, etc. It is imperative that no error occurs in such labeling, inasmuch as it is highly probable that the resultant classification would be incorrect and failure to make an identification might very easily follow.

Deceased infants

The foregoing has dealt with the securing of fingerprints of unknown deceased persons for identification purposes. The basis for such action is the presumptive possibility that the unknowns had been fingerprinted previously and through this medium might be identified.

Another type of problem, however, arises with the finding of a deceased infant. It can be safely assumed that the possibility of there being in existence a set of known fingerprints of the infant is extremely remote. Nevertheless, in view of the fact that many hospitals throughout the country, as part of the general routine of recording a birth, secure the infant's footprints, it would follow that there could be a remote possibility of identifying the deceased infant through its footprints. The foregoing principles and procedures would then apply in securing the foot impression of a deceased infant. It is fully realized that in practically all cases involving the finding of an abandoned infant corpse the infant is probably illegitimate issue and delivery did not occur in a hospital, but there have been instances where such was not the case.

The importance of securing footprints of deceased infants killed in a common disaster cannot be overemphasized. Such disasters may involve the death of infants of lawful issue, and in many instances there are hospital footprint records available which may prove of value as a positive means of identification.

Technical consideration

The methods described are intended to record, either by printing with ink or by photographing as legibly as possible, the ridge details of the tips of the fingers of unknown dead for identification purposes. The securing of the impressions enables the fingerprint examiner to classify and search them through a file. This "search," of course, means merely to make a comparison of the deceased's prints with the prints of known individuals.

It is well to bear in mind the fact that the dermis or epidermis may have undergone certain physical changes and that in order for the fingerprint examiner to make a proper comparison he must know the changes which can and do occur. Otherwise, he may fail to make an identification (fig. 403).



Consider first the epidermis or outer layer of skin in cases of maceration (the skin is water soaked). There may be considerable swelling. The ridges become broader and are more distinct. An inked impression in such an instance may show a pattern larger in area than a print made from the same finger when the person was alive. Also, if the skin is on the finger but is loose, inking and rolling could distort the impression so that some of the ridge formations would seem to be in a different alignment from corresponding details in a print made during life. When decomposition commences, what are really solid ridges may be broken, giving rise to the possibility that there appear to be more characteristics than there actually are (figs. 404 and 405).



The existence of wrinkles may also cause the impression to acquire an appearance of dissimilarity when compared with the original inked print.

With respect to cases of desiccation, there will probably be shrinkage, hence, the impressions made may appear smaller than in life and the ridges will be finer. In cases in which the epidermis has been lost and there remains only the dermis or second layer, there will usually be shrinkage with the same results. Here also, wrinkles, if present, may cause a difference in appearance from the normal print.



In addition to shrinkage and wrinkles in cases involving the second layer of skin, there is a radical change in the appearance of the ridges themselves. The second or dermal layer of skin is composed of what are called dermal papillae which have the appearance of minute blunt pegs or nipples. The dermal papillae are arranged in double rows (fig. 406). Each double row lies deep in a ridge of the surface or epidermal layer and presents the same variations of ridge characteristics as are on the outer layer of skin except that they are double. Accordingly, when the second layer of skin is printed or photographed, the ridge detail will appear in double. That is, the ridges will appear as though they were split. This may well confuse the fingerprint examiner in that what may be a loop having 10 ridge counts may appear to be a loop having 20 ridge counts when the impression is made from the second or dermal layer of skin. These double rows of ridges are finer and not as sharp as the detail on the outer skin, which adds to the difficulty of arriving at a correct classification and making a proper comparison.

FBI aid

The above techniques and procedures have been dealt with upon the basis that the law enforcement officers would, when a corpse has been found, attempt to secure a set of finger impressions in an effort to identify the unknown dead. If, however, the officer feels that the job is too difficult or is beyond his scope, consideration should be given to cutting off the hands or fingers of the deceased and forwarding them to the Identification Division of the FBI for processing. If this course is decided upon, it is reiterated that local statutes governing the cutting of the dead must be complied with and proper authorization must be secured.



In order to facilitate the transmission of such specimens to the FBI the following suggestions are made:

First, it is deemed most desirable, when possible, to have both of the hands, severed at the wrist, forwarded in their entirety (fig. 407). It is desired that the hands, rather than each separate finger, be sent inasmuch as it eliminates the possibility of getting the fingers mixed up or incorrectly labeled. If, however, it is not possible to send the hands for some reason, then, of course, the fingers should be cut off and forwarded. In cutting, the fingers should be cut off at the palm beginning with the right thumb, then the right index, ring, etc., just as though they were to be printed. As soon as each finger is cut off it should be placed in an individual container, such as a small glass jar, and immediately marked as to which particular finger it is.

In the event that the hands or fingers of more than one dead are being transmitted, it is absolutely necessary that not only the fingers be properly labeled but that each body also be given an identifying number or symbol which must be indicated on the hands or fingers cut from that body as well, in order to avoid the embarrassing situation of identifying the hands and not knowing from which body they were cut.

In shipping, the hands, fingers, or skins may be placed in preserving solutions such as 5-percent solution of formaldehyde, 5-percent solution of alcohol, or embalming fluid. When hands or fingers are desiccated (dried out), however, it is most desirable that they be placed in airtight containers and sent without any preservative. If glass containers are used, the specimens should be packed in such a manner as to avoid breakage. Dry ice is a suitable preservative for transmitting such specimens but it should not be used when shipping will take more than 24 hours.

In making up a package using dry ice, the hands or fingers, properly tagged, should be placed in cellophane or paper bags. A material such as sawdust, shavings or similar packing which acts as an insulation is placed around the specimens. A sufficient amount of dry ice is then placed in the package which is then packed tight with more sawdust or shavings. The dry ice should not be in direct contact with the cellophane or paper bags which contain the hands or fingers.

A letter covering transmittal of the specimens should be prepared in duplicate. It should, of course, indicate the sender. The names of any probable victims, sex, race and approximate age of the deceased should, if such information is available, be secured from the coroner or medical examiner and be included in the letter. A copy of the letter should be placed in the package. The original should be mailed separately. Both letter and package should be addressed as follows:

DIRECTOR FEDERAL BUREAU OF INVESTIGATION U.S. DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE WASHINGTON 25, D.C.

Attention: Identification Division—Latent Fingerprint Section.

If the package contains glass jars it should be marked "Fragile" to insure careful handling in transit.

The package should be sent railway express, prepaid, or, where there is need for speed, by air express, prepaid. When they are received by the Identification Division, the specimens will undergo various treatments which may necessitate further cutting, scraping, etc. In all cases, regardless of condition, the specimens will be returned after examination.

All of the foregoing matter has dealt with instances in which it has been assumed that all ten fingers are available, or a sufficient number of the fingers of a deceased have been secured and impressions suitable for searching through the fingerprint files of the FBI have been recorded.

There will be cases, however, where only a few, or possibly only one, of the fingers has sufficient ridge detail for identification. In such instances a search through the FBI files would be impractical. This, however, does not preclude the possibility of making a positive identification by the use of the one finger. Though a search through the file is not possible, a comparison can be made with the fingerprints of individuals who it is thought the deceased may be or, in some instances, with the fingerprints of missing persons.

In this connection, where one or only a few fingers are forwarded to the FBI, the names of all possible victims should also be submitted. The fingerprints of those individuals, if available, will then be taken out of file and compared with the ridge detail on the finger of the deceased in an endeavor to establish a positive identification. Many such identifications have been effected.

In conjunction with the usual services afforded authorized law enforcement agencies, the services of an FBI fingerprint expert are also made available in those cases where expert testimony is necessary to establish the identity of the deceased through fingerprints, providing, of course, such an identification has been made.

Extreme caution should be exercised in the case of the chemicals previously mentioned in this article. Acetone, alcohol, benzine, and xylene are highly inflammable and should neither be used near open flames nor while the operator is smoking. The fumes given off by acetone, benzine, xylene, and formaldehyde are toxic and may cause sickness. They should be used in a well-ventilated room only. It is also suggested that the fingerprint examiner wear rubber gloves when using acetone, benzine, xylene, formaldehyde, potassium hydroxide, or sodium hydroxide. These chemicals will cause the skin to peel. Strong concentrations may cause burns.

In conclusion, it is pointed out that the procedures and techniques which have been described are those currently being used by the fingerprint experts of the FBI. These methods are fast and the results have been most satisfactory. This Bureau does not claim, however, that satisfactory results cannot be achieved through variations thereof or different methods.



CHAPTER XI

Establishment of a Local Fingerprint Identification Bureau

For the information and assistance of officials who desire to establish a local fingerprint identification bureau, the following suggestions are being made to indicate the principal materials necessary to equip such a bureau:

Fingerprinting equipment

For the purpose of taking fingerprints there should be a stand with a clamp for holding the fingerprint cards steady. This latter item is necessary to prevent smudging the prints. A tube of printer's ink is used. The ink is applied by a roller to a glass plate upon which the fingers are inked before being rolled on the cards. The complete equipment for the above process may be secured from a number of commercial sources or it can be made. Figure 408 depicts an inking stand.

Fingerprint files

It is suggested that the fingerprint card be white, light cardboard, 8 by 8 inches, slightly glazed. This size is convenient, as it allows all the space necessary for recording the classification of the prints and general descriptive information concerning the individual. In the event the new bureau desires to contribute copies of its fingerprints to the Federal Bureau of Investigation, the latter will, upon request, gladly furnish fingerprint cards for the purpose together with envelopes and instructions on how to take fingerprints. It is suggested that the new bureau design its cards similar to those furnished by the Federal Bureau of Investigation, as these have been designed after special study and have been found to be satisfactory over a long period of time. Figures 409 and 410 show the fingerprint side and reverse side of the criminal fingerprint card used by the Federal Bureau of Investigation.

In classifying and comparing fingerprints it is necessary to use a magnifying or fingerprint glass. Such instruments can be obtained from various commercial sources. Figure 411 shows the type of magnifying glass used by the Federal Bureau of Investigation.



The fingerprint cards should be filed according to fingerprint classification sequence in cabinets, preferably steel. It is further suggested that the cabinets be three drawers high, with each drawer divided into three rows for filing. Such cabinets or similar ones can be obtained from various commercial sources. Figure 412 shows the type of fingerprint cabinet used in the Federal Bureau of Investigation.

In order to facilitate the location of classification groups, it is suggested that guide cards be placed in the rows of fingerprint cards at frequent intervals. These guide cards should be slightly longer and heavier than the fingerprint cards and should have small tabs on the top to hold classification identifying symbols. Figure 413 shows the type of guide card used by the Federal Bureau of Investigation.



LEAVE THIS SPACE BLANK TYPE OR PRINT SEX RACE LAST NAME FIRST NAME MIDDLE NAME - HT. WT. (Inches) - CONTRIBUTOR AND ALIASES HAIR EYES ADDRESS - DATE OF BIRTH SIGNATURE OF PERSON FINGERPRINTED PLACE OF BIRTH - - YOUR NUMBER LEAVE THIS SPACE BLANK SCARS AND AMPUTATION MARKS CLASS PLACE FBI NUMBER - - HERE SIGNATURE OF DATE REF. OFFICIAL TAKING CHECK IF NO FINGERPRINTS REPLY IS DESIRED - 1. RIGHT THUMB 2. RIGHT INDEX 3. RIGHT 4. RIGHT RING 5. RIGHT MIDDLE LITTLE - - 1. LEFT THUMB 2. LEFT INDEX 3. LEFT MIDDLE 4. LEFT RING 5. LEFT LITTLE - - LEFT FOUR FINGERS TAKEN LEFT RIGHT RIGHT FOUR FINGERS TAKEN SIMULTANEOUSLY THUMB THUMB SIMULTANEOUSLY

A practice which has been of the utmost benefit in the Federal Bureau of Investigation is as follows: When a fingerprint card is taken out of its regular file for any reason, a substitute card is put in its place, to remain until the return of the card. This substitute card, or "charge-out" card, is of a different color from the fingerprint card and slightly longer. On it are recorded the name, the classification formula, and peculiar characteristics, such as scars and peculiar pattern formations, appearing on the original card. By indicating the date and reason for charging out the original card, the Bureau is able to keep an accurate check on the whereabouts of all prints at all times. It is suggested that the local bureaus adopt a practice of this kind whenever a fingerprint card is drawn from the files and it is known that it may be out for a period of time longer than the remainder of the day on which it is drawn. Figure 414 shows the type of charge-out card used in the FBI.



FEDERAL BUREAU OF INVESTIGATIONS, UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE WASHINGTON, D.C. CURRENT ARREST OR RECEIPT DATE ARRESTED CHARGE OR OFFENCE DISPOSITION OF SENTENCE OR RECEIVED (If code citation is used (List final disposition only. it should be accompanied by If not now available charge) submit later on FBI Form R-54 for completion of record.) - - OCCUPATION RESIDENCE OF PERSON FINGERPRINTED - If COLLECT wire reply or COLLECT telephone reply is desired, indicate here Wire reply Telephone reply FOR INSTITUTIONS USE ONLY Telephone number Sentence expires - INSTRUCTIONS 1. FORWARD ARREST CARDS TO FBI IMMEDIATELY AFTER FINGERPRINTING FOR MOST EFFECTIVE SERVICE. 2. TYPE or PRINT all information. 3. Note amputations in proper finger squares. Please Paste Photograph in This Space 4. REPLY WILL QUOTE ONLY NUMBER APPEARING IN THE Since photograph may become detached BLOCK MARKED "CONTRIBUTOR'S indicate name, FBI number, and arrest NO." number on reverse side whether attached to fingerprint card or submitted later. 5. Indicate any additional copies for other agencies in space below include their complete mailing address. - SEND COPY TO: FD-249

Each fingerprint card handled by the bureau should receive a fingerprint number and these numbers can be assigned in consecutive order.

As the bureau increases in size, it will be found a source of much convenience to have fingerprints of males and females kept in separate files.

Name files

There will be times when it may be necessary to locate an individual's fingerprints when no current fingerprints are available, but the name with a police number or the classification is known. In order to facilitate work of this nature, as well as to keep a complete record and check on each set of fingerprints, it is necessary that the files be indexed in a manner similar to that in which books in a library are indexed.



In this connection, for each fingerprint card there is prepared an index card. On this the name of the individual is placed, with all known aliases, the fingerprint classification formula, the police or arrest number, the date of arrest or other action. It is desirable, also, to have on this card such general information as age, height, weight and race. Figure 415 shows the front of a suggested type of 3- by 5-inch index card.



FBI NUMBER Followed + + + + + -+ -+ ASSEMBLY POST G N-IDENTS DOC. LAB MISC. + + + + + -+ Searched Thru + -+

................................. Classification.................... MASTER PRINT NAME

................................. Reference......................... CURRENT PRINT NAME

- - - 1. Right Thumb 2. Right Index 3. Right Middle 4. Right Ring 5. Right Little - - - 6. Left Thumb 7. Left Index 8. Left Middle 9. Left Ring 10. Left Little - - - TYPE OF CURRENT PRINT Number and Initials of Criminal Non-Criminal Employee Charging Out: Date.................. Date................... ............................ 16-58188-1 U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE

Figure 416 shows the reverse side of the 3- by 5-inch index card. These are filed alphabetically in special cabinets. An index card also should be made for every alias which an individual has used. Figure 417 shows an electrically operated file cabinet in which the index cards are filed. It is suggested that the alias cards be of a different color from the one bearing the correct name, known as the "Master." Each alias card also should have typed on it the correct name of the individual, for purposes of reference and cross-checking. For convenience and accuracy these files, as in the fingerprint files, should also have suitable guide cards.



LAST NAME FIRST NAME MIDDLE NAME F.P. CLASS IDENT NO. ALIAS RACE SEX AGE

_____________ ADDRESS __ __ __ __ ___ ____ HEIGHT WEIGHT EYES HAIR COMPLEXION OCCUPATION _______ _______ DATE AND PLACE OF BIRTH SCARS AND MARKS _____________ (SEE OTHER SIDE FOR ARREST RECORD)



DATE NUMBER CHARGE DISPOSITION _ __ __ ____ _ __ __ ____ _ __ __ ____ _ __ __ ____ _ __ __ ____ _ __ __ ____ _ __ __ ____ _ __ __ ____ _ __ __ ____ _ __ __ ____ _ __ __ ____

It is advisable to make use of charge-out cards when original index cards are drawn from the files. Figure 418 shows a charge-out card.

To supplant the 3- by 5-inch index cards mentioned above, many law enforcement agencies have found it desirable to use a separate sheet, sometimes referred to as a "History Sheet" or "Information Sheet," containing the complete case history of the subject involved. These separate sheets can be filed by fingerprint number sequence and contain not only the data such as the known aliases, the fingerprint classification formula, the arrest number, and other essential items which are set out on the 3- by 5-inch cards as heretofore described, but also contain a concise summary of the subject's arrest history, particularly with reference to his criminal activities in the particular city. They may also contain a summarized case history with respect to each arrest or commitment, including such items as the date and place of arrest, complete home address, relatives, the essential facts concerning the prosecution of charges, and the ultimate disposition.



Jacket folder file

When an identification bureau receives prints of individuals on whom it already has prints, it is not practical to keep more than one set of prints per person in what may be called the active fingerprint file. In these instances the better print should be designated a "Master" print by having the word "Master" stamped thereon. It should be given a number, to be known as the master number, which number should also be placed on all other sets of prints which may be found to be identical with the "Master" print. The "Master" print is placed in the active files. The extra prints are placed together in a heavy folder with their master number stamped thereon. This jacket folder is then filed in a separate cabinet. Also, if copies of all information regarding an individual, photographs, and FBI transcript of record are kept in this folder, his complete record will always be assembled in an easily accessible unit. The "Master" number should also be placed on the index card and all the alias cards of the individual. Also, each new alias and arrest number should be placed on the original index card. The additional records are kept in folders which are arranged in numerical order, beginning with Nos. 1, 2, 3, and so on.



1-154 - GPO: 1962 OF 663475 - - POSTING - - DOB - - - - ASSEMBLY MISC. DESCRIPTION -

NAME

_________

NAME

_____________ (ARREST NUMBER) (DEPARTMENT) (CITY) (STATE)

A further suggestion in connection with the maintenance of this folder file, besides the use of a separate "Master" numbering system, is the use of the arrest fingerprint number. As indicated previously, each person arrested and fingerprinted is assigned a number. This number appears on the fingerprint card, name-index card, and photograph. The practice of handling every new arrest fingerprint card in the bureau should include searching the fingerprint card in the fingerprint file to ascertain if the subject has a previous record. If the subject does not have a previous record, a new number should be assigned. In this connection it is noted that only one copy of the fingerprint card should be maintained in the file by fingerprint classification. To indicate the new arrest on the old index card, the date of the new arrest can be shown. Whether the bureau follows the "Master" numbering system or the "previous arrest" numbering system should make very little difference in the ultimate purpose. All extra copies of fingerprint cards, complete record sheets, photographs, and all information pertaining to the individual are filed away in the folder file. This complete record is readily accessible at all times. It will now be found that the bureau has a complete record of each individual who has an arrest record on file, with provision made for accurate cross-referencing and checking between names and fingerprints.

Dispositions

It is important to the bureau to have complete information concerning the ultimate disposition on each arrest fingerprint card. If the disposition of a charge is known at the time the person is fingerprinted, this fact should be indicated in the space provided on the fingerprint card. For example, in the case of an individual who is arrested, fingerprinted, and turned over to the county jail, this disposition can be indicated on the fingerprint card which is forwarded to the Federal Bureau of Investigation. The fingerprint card should not be held by the bureau pending final disposition of the charge.

In those cases where the disposition is pending prosecutive or court action, a separate 3- by 5-inch disposition file can be maintained. On these cards information concerning the name, fingerprint number, race, sex, charge, name of the arresting officers, and the fingerprint classification should appear. These cards are filed in a pending-disposition file. The 3- by 5-inch disposition cards are made at the time the fingerprints of the person are taken. When the final disposition is obtained it should be noted on the card. In those cases where there is only one fingerprint card in the bureau, the disposition can be noted on the name-index card or the reverse side of the bureau's fingerprint card. In those cases where there is a jacket-folder file for the individual this disposition card can then be placed in the folder.

"Disposition Sheets" (No. R-84) can be obtained from the Federal Bureau of Investigation for forwarding this information so that the files of the FBI will have complete information concerning the arrests. At the time the final disposition is obtained, these disposition sheets can be completed and forwarded to the Federal Bureau of Investigation.

Death notices

When persons whose fingerprints are on file are reported as deceased, the prints should be taken from the active file and assembled with any other prints of the person concerned. These should be plainly marked "Dead" and filed in a separate cabinet or section. All the index cards on this individual should also be marked "Dead" and filed in a separate section. These should be retained for possible future reference.

In this connection, "Death Notice" forms (No. R-88) can be obtained from the Federal Bureau of Investigation so that information concerning these deaths can be properly noted in its fingerprint file.

Record of additional arrest

It is not necessary for a bureau to send a regular fingerprint card to the Identification Division of the Federal Bureau of Investigation on individuals who have been arrested repeatedly and whose previous records are known to the local law enforcement agency. In such cases the "Record of Additional Arrest" form should be used.

Complete information must be given on this form. It is imperative that the FBI number and the finger impressions be placed on this form. The Identification Division of the Federal Bureau of Investigation will send no answer upon receipt of this form.

The form will be placed in the FBI number folder on the individual and later when a regular fingerprint card is received the arrest information from all the forms will be compiled and included on the subject's record as "supported by fingerprints."

"Record of Additional Arrest" forms (No. 1-1) can be obtained from the Federal Bureau of Investigation.

Wanted notices

All wanted notices containing fingerprints, including the wanted notices inserted in the FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, should be filed in the fingerprint file by classification formula, and the names appearing on these wanted notices should be indexed and placed in the name files. Concerning the small wanted notices inserted in the FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, a suggested procedure would be to paste each individual notice on a blank 8- by 8-inch white card. The wanted notices are filed by the fingerprint classification and the names indexed and placed in the name file. When an apprehension notice is received concerning the wanted notice, a proper notation should be made on the name card and the wanted notice in the fingerprint file. If these canceled wanted notices endanger the efficiency of the file, it is suggested that the name-index card and the fingerprint-wanted notice be destroyed. Should the bureau adopt this practice it is suggested that the 8- by 8-inch cards be used again for other wanted notices. In this manner it would be possible to use the blank card for eight of these notices.

The Federal Bureau of Investigation will make available to law enforcement agencies a special "Wanted Notice" form (No. 1-12) in order that they can place wanted notices against the fingerprints in the files of the FBI.

Photographs

Arrangements should be made to procure a camera for taking photographs of the persons fingerprinted. This is known as a "mugging" camera and various types are on the market. It is believed that the photographs should include a front and side view of the person. In most instances a scale for indicating height can be made a part of the picture even though only the upper portion of the individual photographed is taken. Of course, if the scale is used, the person photographed should be standing even though only the upper portion of the body appears in the photograph. The necessary lights should be provided for obtaining photographs. A standard set of scales should be obtained in order that the correct weight can be ascertained.



The negatives and photographs can be filed by fingerprint number in a separate file. In those cases where the individual has more than one arrest all the photographs can be placed in the jacket-folder number file. The negatives, in these instances, can remain in the photograph file.

Latent fingerprints

To adequately develop the latent prints at crime scenes, it is necessary that the proper equipment be provided. This equipment includes latent fingerprint powders, brushes, lifting tape, fingerprint camera, searchlight, and scissors. All of this equipment can be obtained from commercial fingerprint supply companies. Figure 419 shows some of the equipment used by the FBI. The techniques of developing latent fingerprints and their uses are more fully explained in the following chapters.

It is believed that by following the basic ideas outlined, the officials of law enforcement agencies can be assured of best results in establishing and maintaining a small identification bureau. For further information, the Federal Bureau of Investigation will furnish to duly constituted law enforcement officials any additional data which may be of material assistance in the maintenance of such a bureau.



CHAPTER XII

Latent Impressions

Each ridge of the fingers, palms, and soles bears a row of sweat pores which in the average person constantly exude perspiration. Also, the ridges of the fingers and palms are in intermittent contact with other parts of the body, such as the hair and face, and with various objects, which may leave a film of grease or moisture on the ridges. In touching an object, the film of moisture and/or grease may be transferred to the object, thus leaving an outline of the ridges of the fingers or palm thereon. This print is called a latent impression, the word "latent" meaning hidden, that is, the print many times is not readily visible.

Latent impressions, regardless of the area of the ridges present, are of the greatest importance to the criminal investigator as identification of them may solve the crime and result in successful prosecution of the subject. Consequently, every effort should be made to preserve and identify them.

Visible prints in mediums such as blood, grease, dirt, or dust are equally important to the investigator but, strictly speaking, are not latent impressions.

A search of the crime scene should be conducted in a logical manner. Points of entry and exit should be examined, along with surfaces or objects disturbed or likely touched during the commission of the crime. The examiner should wear a pair of light cloth gloves and handle an object only insofar as is necessary and then only by edges or surfaces which are not receptive to latent impressions. A record of the exact location of a print on an object and of the object itself should be made, since these facts may be of the utmost importance in any trial resulting from the investigation. No one should handle an object other than the examiner himself.

Portable articles removed should be labeled or marked so that they may be readily identified thereafter.

The beam of a flashlight played over the surface of an object will frequently show the location of latent impressions, although this is not an infallible test for their presence.

Evidence should be examined as soon as feasible after its discovery.

Following the location of any latent prints at the scene of a crime, the prints of all persons whose presence at the place under inspection has been for legitimate purposes must be excluded from further attention. It is advisable, therefore, during the initial stages of an investigation where latent prints are found, to secure the inked prints of all members of the household, the employees, and any police or other officials who may have touched the objects on which the latent impressions were found. Inked prints taken for this purpose are referred to as elimination prints.

Due to the fragmentary nature of most latent prints it is not possible to derive a classification which makes a file search practicable. A latent impression may be identified, however, by comparison with the prints of a particular suspect.

Inked fingerprints taken for comparison with latent impressions should be as legible and as complete as possible, including the areas not essential to classification, since identifications are often made with these areas. Inked palm prints taken should likewise be complete and clear and should include impressions of the finger joints. Persons not experienced in latent print comparisons should not attempt to evaluate latent fragments, since the area necessary for an identification may be extremely small compared to that of an average inked fingerprint.

Articles which are to be transported by mail or express should be so packed that the surfaces bearing latent impressions are not in contact with other surfaces. This may be accomplished by mounting the articles on a piece of fiber board or plywood. The board should then be secured in a box so that the objects will not touch or be shaken against the sides in transit. The package should be plainly marked "Evidence," to prevent inadvertent handling on opening. Cotton or cloth should never be placed in direct contact with any surface bearing latent prints.

Any number of paper or cardboard specimens may be placed in a single protective wrapper, since contact with other surfaces does not harm latents on such objects. Lifts, negatives and photographs are readily enclosed with letters.

An explanatory letter should accompany all evidence. If it is necessary to pack the evidence separately, a copy of the letter should be placed in every package so that the recipient will know immediately the import of the contents. All items of evidence should be marked and described exactly in the accompanying letter so that they will not be confused with packing material of a similar nature, and to provide a check on what the package should contain.

In addition, the letter should include for record purposes a brief outline of the crime, i.e., type, date and place of occurrence, and names of victims and subjects. If suspects are named for comparison, sufficient descriptive data should be set out to permit location of their fingerprint records. This information, in preferential order, comprises the individual's complete name, aliases, FBI number, date of prior arrest or fingerprinting, fingerprint classification, date and place of birth, and physical description.

Evidence is preferably forwarded by registered mail or railway express, as these means provide records of dispatch and receipt.

Elimination or suspect fingerprints are best enclosed with the evidence itself, with a notation as to the type of prints forwarded.



CHAPTER XIII

Powdering and Lifting Latent Impressions

The sole purpose in "developing" a latent impression is to make it visible so that it may be preserved and compared. Various powders and chemicals are used for this purpose. When a latent print is plainly visible, it should be photographed before any effort is made to develop it.

No attempt should be made to brush or apply powder to prints in dust, obviously greasy prints, or bloody prints, as this will almost surely destroy them. Objects which have been wet or immersed in water may still bear identifiable latent impressions. Before any examination is attempted, however, the object must be dried.

Powder brushed lightly over a latent-bearing surface will cling to grease or moisture in the ridges of a latent print, making it visible against the background. Obviously, a powder should be used which will contrast with the color of the surface. Photographic contrasts should also be considered.

A gray powder and a black powder are adequate for latent print work. Many fingerprint powders of various colors and compositions are available from fingerprint supply houses but none are superior to the gray and black.

A very small amount of powder is placed on the brush for application to the surface. Once the contour of a print is visible, the brush strokes should conform to the direction of the ridges. All excess powder should be brushed from between the ridges. Too much powder and too little brushing are the chief faults of beginners.

Gray powder is used on dark-colored surfaces. It is also used on mirrors and metal surfaces which have been polished to a mirrorlike finish, since these surfaces will photograph black with the fingerprint camera.

Black powder should be applied to white or light-colored surfaces.

Aluminum powder affords the same contrast as the gray. Gold and red bronze powders, although of a glittering appearance, will photograph dark and should consequently be used on light-colored surfaces. Dragon's blood powder is a photographically neutral powder and may be dusted on either a light or dark surface.

On clear transparent glass, either gray or black powder may be used, it being necessary only to use a contrasting black or white background when photographing.

Prints should be lifted after photographing. Both rubber and transparent tape are available for this purpose. Rubber lifting tape is procurable in black or white 4" x 9" sheets and has the adhesive surface protected with a celluloid cover. A black powder print should obviously be lifted on white tape and a gray powder print on black tape.

Gold bronze and red bronze powders should be lifted on white tape, aluminum on black. Dragon's blood may be lifted on either black or white.

After cutting a piece of tape sufficiently large to cover the entire latent print, the celluloid covering is removed and the adhesive side applied to the latent. The tape should be pressed evenly and firmly to the surface, taking care not to shift its position. It is then peeled gently from the surface and the piece of celluloid placed over the print to protect it. The operator should handle the lift in such a manner that he will leave no prints of his own on the adhesive surface. A small paper identification tag bearing the initials of the operator, date, and object from which lifted should be placed under one corner of the celluloid, or this information may be written on the back of the lift itself if it can be done in a permanent, legible manner.

If an excessive amount of powder adheres to the latent print, a more legible print may sometimes be obtained by lifting a second time (on a new piece of tape, of course).

It should be noted that a print lifted on rubber tape is in a reverse position. Consequently, in preparing a photograph of a print on such a lift, it will be necessary to print the negative from the reverse side in order for the print to appear in its correct position for comparison. Preparation of such photographs should not be attempted by persons of inadequate knowledge and experience.

Transparent tape with a durable adhesive surface is available in 1" to 2" widths for fingerprint work. The common variety of transparent tape is not suitable due to the deterioration (drying) of the adhesive surface. The print on a piece of transparent tape is in correct position. Transparent lifts should be affixed to a smooth, grainless, opaque background of a black or white color contrasting with the powder used. Every effort should be made to avoid air bubbles under such lifts. In no instance should a transparent lift ever be folded back on itself or stuck to another piece of such tape as a backing, since it is generally not possible to determine the correct position of such a print.

Groups of latent impressions, such as those of adjacent fingers or fingers and palms which appear to have been made simultaneously, should be lifted as units, that is, on a single piece of tape, as this may facilitate the task of making comparisons.



CHAPTER XIV

Chemical Development of Latent Impressions

Chemical treatment in the development of latent finger impressions on paper, cardboard, and newly finished or unpainted wood may involve a slightly more complicated technique than that in which powders are utilized, but the results justify the additional effort.

It is very strongly recommended that powders not be applied to articles of the above types. This recommendation is made for several reasons. First, powders cannot be removed from paper and possibly may interfere with some types of document examinations. In this connection, they are likely to prevent restoration of the specimen to a legible condition. Powders will not develop as many latent impressions as chemicals on paper or cardboard. In some cases they will obscure latent impressions subsequently developed chemically.

Neither scientific training nor complete knowledge of the chemical processes involved is necessary for one to become proficient in the use of chemical developers, two of which will be discussed more fully. These two, iodine and silver nitrate, are the most commonly used, inasmuch as they are relatively inexpensive, readily procurable, effective, and easy to apply.

All specimens which are treated should be handled with tweezers or gloves.

When iodine crystals are subjected to a slight amount of heat they vaporize rapidly, producing violet fumes. These fumes are absorbed by fatty or oily matter with which they come in contact. If the specimen treated bears latent impressions which contain oil or fat, the print is developed or made visible by the absorption of the iodine fumes and the ridges of the print appear yellowish-brown against the background.

Iodine prints are not permanent and begin to fade once the fuming is stopped. It is necessary, therefore, for the operator to have a camera ready to photograph the prints immediately.

Control of the fumes is achieved by using the crystals in an iodine gun or fuming cabinet. The iodine gun may be assembled by the individual examiner, by a druggist, or it may be purchased through a fingerprint supply house.

Material for making the iodine gun, as well as iodine crystals, may be procured from a chemical supply house or through a druggist. The gun itself consists essentially of two parts. One tube (the end of the gun through which the breath is blown) contains a drying agent such as calcium chloride, to remove moisture from the breath. Without this, the moisture from the breath and saliva would condense at the end of the gun, drip onto the specimen and cause stains which might prove indelible. The second tube contains a small amount of iodine crystals which are vaporized by the heat of the breath, augmented by the warmth of the hand cupped around the tube containing the iodine. This vapor is blown onto the specimen (fig. 420). Glass wool serves to hold the calcium chloride and iodine in place.



Due to the amount of physical exertion involved, the gun is generally limited to the examination of a few small specimens. Where a large number of specimens are to be treated, the fuming cabinet, a box-shaped wooden receptacle with a glass front and top permitting the operator to control the amount of fumes in the cabinet and observe the development of the latent impressions, is used (fig. 421). The fumes are generated by placing a small alcohol burner under an evaporating dish containing the iodine crystals. This is set in a hole cut in the bottom of the cabinet. As soon as the fumes begin to appear in sufficient amounts, the burner is removed. The specimens may be hung in the cabinet by wooden clothes pins fastened to a removable stick which is supported by wooden strips affixed near the top edges of the cabinet. The top of the cabinet is removable to permit access. Diagrams for the construction of the iodine gun or fuming cabinet will be furnished on request to members of the law enforcement profession.

Many specimens bear small, greasy areas which, in addition to any latent impressions of a greasy nature, will also appear yellowish-brown after exposure to iodine fumes. All these stains will eventually disappear if the specimen is placed in a current of air from a fan or vent. All latent impressions on an object will not be developed by the iodine process but only those containing fat or oil. Due to this fact and the fact that iodine evaporates from the surface, it is used prior to (it cannot be used afterward), and in conjunction with, the silver nitrate process.



No ill effects have been noted from contact with small amounts of iodine vapor but prolonged or excessive contact will produce irritation of the skin and respiratory passages. To prevent gradual loss of the chemical through evaporation and the corrosion of surrounding metal surfaces, iodine crystals should be kept in an airtight container when not being used.

The development of latent impressions with silver nitrate is dependent on the fact that the sodium chloride (the same substance as common table salt) present in the perspiration which forms the ridges in most latent impressions reacts with the silver nitrate solution to form silver chloride. Silver chloride is white but is unstable on exposure to light and breaks down into its components, silver and chlorine. The ridges of the fingerprints developed in this manner appear reddish-brown against the background. Immersion in the silver nitrate solution will wash traces of fat and oil from the paper; consequently, it is necessary to fume the specimen for latents of such a nature prior to treatment with silver nitrate.

Once the requisite equipment is assembled, the steps in the process are these:

Dip the specimen in the solution, blot and dry it, expose to light, and photograph latents when contrast is good.

Chemically standardized solutions are not required for the successful application of this process. It has been determined through long practice that a 3-percent solution of silver nitrate is adequate for the purpose, although concentrations up to 10 percent are sometimes used. A solution of approximately 3 percent may be prepared by dissolving 4 ounces of silver nitrate in 1 gallon of distilled water. Smaller quantities of 3-percent solution are made by using the components in the same proportion. For instance, one quart of water will require 1 ounce of the crystals. For a 10-percent solution, use 13-1/3 ounces of crystals per gallon.

An alcohol solution may be preferred. This is prepared by mixing 4 ounces of silver nitrate crystals, 4 ounces of distilled water, and 1 gallon of grain alcohol, 190 proof. The alcoholic solution dries faster, and when treating paper bearing writing in ink, it is less likely to cause the ink to run. On the other hand, the alcoholic solution is much more expensive and there is some loss by evaporation while in use.

The solutions may be used several times before losing their strength and when not in use should be kept in brown bottles in cupboards to retard deterioration. If the strength of the solution is doubtful, the operator should attempt to develop test latent impressions before proceeding on evidence.

Silver nitrate crystals and distilled water in small amounts are obtainable from druggists or in large amounts from chemical supply houses. Dealers in distilled water are located in many communities.

Tap water should not be used in the preparation of the solution because it generally contains chemicals which will partially neutralize the silver nitrate.

It is suggested that the solution be placed in a glass or enamelware tray approximately 18 by 12 by 5 inches for use, a size used in photographic development. Treatment with this solution is called "silvering." The specimen is immersed in the solution so that the surfaces are completely moistened, then taken out, placed between blotters to remove the excess solution, and dried. The drying is readily accomplished with an electric hair dryer. Blotters may be dried and used several times before discarding. It is not necessary to work in a dark room. Work in an illuminated room but not in direct sunlight. Soaking the specimen in the solution does not aid development and is actually undesirable as it requires a longer drying time. The specimen should be reasonably dry before exposing to the light, otherwise the latent prints may be developed while the paper is still wet, thus necessitating drying in subdued light to prevent darkening.

Development of the latent impressions occurs rapidly when the specimen is exposed to a blue or violet light source. A 1,000-watt blue or daylight photographer's lamp, a mercury arc (most ultraviolet lamps are of this type), or carbon arc is excellent for the purpose (fig. 422). If a weaker light is used, a stronger mixture of the solution should be prepared. For instance, if a 300-watt bulb is used, the 10-percent solution would be preferable. Direct sunlight will cause the latent impressions to appear very rapidly and if several specimens are exposed at once it is not possible for a single operator to properly control the development. Sunlight coming through a window pane will serve for development. Where fingerprints containing sodium chloride (normally exuded from the sweat pores in the ridges) have been deposited, the silver chloride formed will darken against the background.



As soon as the ridge detail of the prints is clearly visible, the paper should be removed from the light. Continued exposure will darken the paper and the contrast will be lost.

Paper so treated should be kept in darkness; that is, in a heavy envelope or drawer until ready to photograph.

Immediate photographing, as in the case of iodine prints, is not always essential, since the prints are permanent and become illegible only through eventual clouding of the background. Prompt photographing is recommended, however, as, in exceptional instances, silver-nitrate prints have become illegible in a matter of hours. Darkening ordinarily will occur slowly if the paper is preserved in absolute darkness, and silver-nitrate prints so preserved more than 10 years have been observed to be quite clear.

Items such as cardboard cartons, newspapers, road maps, large pieces of wrapping paper, or smooth, unpainted wood surfaces, too large for dipping, may be treated by brushing the solution over the surface with a paint brush (fig. 423). Brushing does not damage or destroy latent impressions on surfaces of this type. Cardboard boxes may be slit down the edges and flattened out to permit easy placement under the light.



Wet paper should be handled with extreme care to prevent tearing. In treating very thin types of paper the solution is best applied with a cotton swab or brush.

Photographs, Photostats, and blueprints of any value should not be treated with silver nitrate, since the developed prints or stains cannot be removed without destroying them.

In working with silver nitrate, wear rubber gloves or handle all specimens with tweezers; avoid spilling it on clothing. It will cause dark brown stains on clothing, skin, and fingernails. Such stains are not easily removed. Areas of the skin subjected to prolonged contact are deadened, will turn black and peel.

If removal of silver nitrate prints (called "de-silvering") is desired, this may be accomplished by placing the specimen in a 2-percent solution of mercuric nitrate in a tray similar to that used for the silver nitrate.

To prepare a small amount of this solution, dissolve two-thirds of an ounce of mercuric nitrate crystals in 1 quart of distilled water and add one-third of a fluid ounce of nitric acid. Shake well. This solution, too, may be used several times before losing its strength and is not necessarily discarded after each use. It is not necessary to keep it in a dark bottle.

The specimen bearing silver nitrate prints is immersed in this solution until all traces of the prints disappear. It should then be rinsed thoroughly in water to remove all mercuric nitrate. If this is not done the paper deteriorates, becoming brittle and crumbly. A tray of distilled water may be used for rinsing or a tray of ordinary tap water changed several times during the rinsing. The specimen is then laid out flat to dry.

Wrinkles, such as are left in paper after ordinary drying, may be prevented by ironing with a moderately hot iron. An electric iron with a temperature control is desirable. If kept too hot it will scorch or wrinkle the paper somewhat. The bottom of the iron should be clean so that unremovable smudges will not be left on the paper.

No ill effects have been noted from working in the 2-percent mercuric nitrate solution with bare hands for very short periods, but it is a caustic solution and it is suggested that the specimens be handled with tweezers or that rubber gloves be worn if contact is prolonged.



CHAPTER XV

The Use of the Fingerprint Camera

If a fingerprint is visible, an effort should be made to photograph it before any attempt is made to develop it. In every case a print developed with powder should be photographed before lifting. It sometimes happens that the print does not lift properly although it may be quite clear after development.

The camera which is especially adapted to the purpose and which is easiest to handle and operate is the fingerprint camera, one type of which is shown in figure 424. This camera has several advantages in photographing fingerprints:

It photographs the prints in natural size. It contains its own light source. It has a fixed focus.

Cameras of this type are available in models operated by batteries and 110-volt current. It is believed that the battery-operated type has the greater utility, since house current may not be available at the crime scene. When not in use the batteries should be removed as they will eventually deteriorate and corrode the brass contacts in the camera.



The camera is of the box type and has three button controls which will open: (1) The metal flap covering the aperture, (2) the front portion of the frame providing access to the self-contained light bulbs, and (3) the camera in half, providing access to the batteries and the shutter as shown below in figure 425.



A 2-1/4 x 3-1/4 film pack adapter or a 2-1/4 x 3-1/4 cut film holder holds the film in the camera. The film pack adapter will hold a pack of 12 sheets of film, and accordingly, will permit the taking of 12 pictures. The cut film holder is a unit which holds two sheets of film utilizing each side of the holder.

It is pointed out that the FBI uses the film pack exclusively in view of the fact that practically all latent examinations will necessitate the taking of more than two pictures. Further, the film pack is made so that it may be loaded into the adapter in the open light. Also, the films are numbered 1 through 12, which is a valuable feature in that in maintaining notes concerning the latent examinations it is a simple matter to note by the number of the negative where the latent impression was developed and photographed. Should it happen that during a latent examination all twelve of the films are not used, the film pack, with the slide in place, is taken into the darkroom and only those films which have been exposed are removed and developed. The unexposed films remain in the film pack adapter with the slide in and may be used later.

As was previously mentioned, the camera has a fixed focus; that is, the camera will take a legible picture only when the latent print is at the focal point, or exactly flush with the opening of the camera. The latent print must not be inside the open end of the camera, nor must it be beyond; otherwise, the picture will be blurred.



Since the camera has its own light source, any leakage of outside light will cause overexposure of the film. Consequently, if the surface of the object bearing the latent print which is to be photographed is uneven or does not cover the entire front of the camera opening, it will be necessary to use some opaque material such as a focusing cloth or heavy dark material to cover the front of the camera so as to exclude all outside light (fig. 426). If a latent print on a pane of glass or an automobile window is being photographed, it will be necessary to back up the latent so that there will be no light leakage. Material showing a pattern or grain should not be used for this purpose as any such pattern will photograph in the background and possibly obliterate the ridges of the latent print.

To insure an equal distribution of the light over the latents being photographed, the impressions should be centered in the opening of the camera. This is accomplished by opening the angular front section of the camera after the metal plate covering the front has been opened, and setting the aperture over the latent impressions so that they will be as near the center as possible. Then, holding the camera firmly in place, it is carefully closed (fig. 427).

During exposure the camera must be held perfectly still. Any movement of the camera or object will result in a fuzzy or double image.

In photographing a small, movable object such as a bottle or tumbler, the camera should not be placed on its end and an attempt made to balance the object across the opening. Instead, the camera should be placed on its side and the bottle or tumbler built up to the opening so that there is no necessity for holding the object (fig. 428). There will be, of course, instances where the camera will have to be held, such as to the side of a wall, cabinet or automobile. Here an extreme effort should be made to avoid moving the camera or permitting it to slip during exposure.



Anticipating the possible use of the photographic negatives in a court proceeding, it becomes of paramount importance to be able to identify them. This is done by using what is called an identification tag. The tag consists of a small piece of paper bearing the date, initials of the examiner, and possibly a case number, and it should be hand-written. The tag is placed near the latent prints being photographed so that it will appear in the picture. It should be borne in mind that concentration should be on the latent impressions, which must be centered, and the identification tag should be to one side and not covering any of the latent prints. Another method of identification, if the surface permits, is to write the above-mentioned data on the surface of the object bearing the latents so that the information set out will also be a part of the picture. Too much emphasis cannot be placed on the importance of the identification tag. The lack of such data, by discretion of the court, may exclude the latents as evidence, in the absence of the original specimen bearing the latents.



The following are suggested exposure times for Tri-X film (available in 2-1/4" x 3-1/4" film packs) with battery-operated cameras having lenses without diaphragms:

Black powder print on white or light background—snapshot Gray or white powder print on black or dark background—1 second

These same exposure times can be used on some cameras having lenses with diaphragms, provided the lens opening is set at f6.3.

The above exposure times are for cameras with batteries in average condition. If batteries become weak the exposures may be increased slightly.

In making snapshots the shutter mechanism should be manipulated as rapidly as possible since slow motion will appreciably lengthen the exposure. In making time exposures the camera shutter must be held open for the desired time. Personnel with photographic experience may desire to use cut film with the fingerprint camera. A few tests will determine the optimum exposure times for any particular type of film.

Briefly, the procedure for taking photographs of latents is as follows: The film pack is placed into the film pack adapter with the safety paper side of the film pack to the slide side of the adapter, care being taken to see that all of the paper tabs are outside of the adapter. The adapter is placed on the camera in its proper position by opening a slide clamp attached to the camera, fitting the side of the adapter into the slot away from the clamp and pushing it down flat into the opening. Don't try to slide the adapter into the opening from the top. The adapter is locked in position by closing the clamp. Next the slide is removed and the tab marked "Safety Cover" pulled out as far as it will come and torn off. The camera is placed in position and the first exposure made; then the tab marked "1" is pulled and the next film is in position for exposure. This procedure is followed with each succeeding film until all have been exposed.

When the last tab has been pulled out, the pack can be removed from the adapter in daylight. If all of the films have not been exposed the slide is replaced into the adapter and the film pack removed from it in a darkroom, as previously stated.

As a matter of regular policy, it is recommended that more than one exposure be made of each latent, varying the normal exposure time to insure satisfactory results, especially when the contrast is not a good black on white or gray on black.

Before starting to photograph, note the following:

- Check shutter action.

- Check bulbs, batteries, and lights.

- Center latents in opening of camera.

- Latent being photographed must be flush with opening of camera.

- Outside light must be excluded.

- Include identification tag in photograph.

- Remove slide and pull safety tab of film pack before making exposure.

- Hold camera still while making exposure.

- Pull correct number tab after each exposure (be careful not to pull more than one).

- Do not use grained or uneven material as a backing when photographing latents on transparent glass.

- Mirrors, polished chrome, and nickel plate will photograph black in the fingerprint camera.

The foregoing has dealt with the standard use of the fingerprint camera when the direct light afforded by the camera gives suitable results. There will be cases, however, where the results from the use of the direct light may not be adequate. Such cases may involve molded or embedded prints, such as prints in putty, wax, soap, etc. Should direct light give poor results, side lighting may prove effective. This can be done by loosening two of the bulbs on one side so that they will not light. The light given by the other two bulbs is directed so as to pass at right angles, as much as possible, across the ridges of the embedded latent print. Adjustment of the exposure time must be made when this is done.



CHAPTER XVI

Preparation of Fingerprint Charts for Court Testimony

In testifying to fingerprint identification, the expert often prepares charts to visually aid the court and jury in understanding the nature of his testimony. Many times it is undoubtedly difficult for the layman to perceive, from a vocal explanation alone, the full import of an expert's testimony, due to its technical nature; consequently, some graphic representation of the facts presented is amply justified and rewarded. The preparation of the charts is ultimately the sole responsibility of the expert using them. As a matter of interest to law enforcement personnel engaged in fingerprint work, a brief explanation of the preparation of such charts follows, along with suggestions and remarks based on long experience in these matters.

To do the work conveniently, it will be necessary to have available, in addition to the ordinary photographic developing and printing materials, a projection enlarger which will enlarge preferably to at least ten diameters. In the projection method of enlargement, the image is printed directly from the original negative, and the preparation of an enlarged negative is unnecessary.

Aside from the photographic equipment, the needed materials are: a roll of scotch photographic tape 1 inch wide to outline the areas of the fingerprints on the negatives to be used; some stiff cardboard approximately 1/32 inch thick on which to mount the prepared charts; a tube of rubber cement; and a bottle of translucent ink, other than black or white.

A light-box on which to view the negatives while blocking, and a lettering set to draw the lines and numbers uniformly on the charts, while not absolutely essential, are helpful conveniences. A light-box is basically a frosted pane of glass with a light beneath it to produce soft, even, non-glaring illumination. If no light-box is available, a clear window may be utilized in "blocking" the negatives.

If the expert finds it necessary to have an outside source prepare his photographs, he should retain personal custody of the evidence during the operation.

The original latent print and inked print with which it is identical should be photographed actual size. This procedure eliminates guesswork in enlarging both to the same degree. Whatever areas of the two prints are deemed requisite to illustrate the method of identification are then outlined (blocked) on the negatives with the masking tape, so that only those areas will show in the subsequent enlargements. Generally, if the legible area of the latent print is small, it is well to show the complete print. If the area is large, however, as in a palm print, an area which will not make the chart too bulky or unwieldy may be selected.

In blocking, the negative is affixed to the window pane or light-box by means of strips of photographic tape across the corners, with the side to be blocked up. This prevents constant shifting of the negative while it is being prepared. The latent print should be blocked first. Corners of the blocked areas should be square. Care should be exercised to have as nearly as possible the same ridge formations shown and the ridge formations in the same upright or horizontal positions. This may be facilitated by fixing a negative, bearing ruled squares, between the negative being blocked and the glass to which it is attached.