 |
To obtain the primary for the prints in figure 347, the number of whorls appearing in the odd fingers is ascertained to be 2. Their positions are noted (1 in No. 1 and 1 in No. 7) and the values assigned to whorls appearing in those fingers are added together (16 plus 2 = 18). To this sum the arbitrary 1 is added, giving us the total of 19, which constitutes the denominator for this set of prints. To get the numerator, it is ascertained that there are 3 whorls appearing in the even fingers (2, 4 and 6), the values of which are added together (16 plus 8 plus 4 = 28). To this sum the 1 is added, giving a numerator of 29, and a complete primary of 29 over 19.
By the word "whorl" is meant all types of whorls, including plain whorls, central pocket loops, double loops and accidentals. The tracing of the whorl does not enter into the determination of the primary.
The method of obtaining the primary can probably be shown best by illustrations. For example, assume that there is a whorl in the right index finger only. The value of a whorl in this finger is 16. When 1 over 1 is added the resulting primary is 17 over 1. If a whorl appears in the right thumb and right index finger, the value is 16 over 16 plus 1 over 1 giving a primary of 17 over 17. If whorls appear in both index fingers, the value is 16 over 2 plus 1 over 1 giving a primary of 17 over 3. When whorls appear in both thumbs and both index fingers, the primary is 21 over 19 and is obtained by the addition 16 plus 4 plus 1 over 16 plus 2 plus 1. If whorls appear in all 10 fingers, the primary is 32 over 32 (16 plus 8 plus 4 plus 2 plus 1 plus 1 over 16 plus 8 plus 4 plus 2 plus 1 plus 1). It will be noted that the primary classifications extend from 1 over 1 in the no-whorl group to 32 over 32 in the all-whorl group, providing 1,024 possible combinations. This does not mean that there are 1,024 even subdivisions of prints according to these primaries. Just as there is a preponderance of loops when the types of patterns are considered, there is also a preponderance of certain primaries, notably: the 1 over 1 primary, or no-whorl group; the 17 denominator; the 19 denominator; the 28 denominator, of which the 31 over 28 group is the largest; and the 32 denominator, including 2 large primary groups namely, 31 over 32 and 32 over 32. As a matter of fact, the 1 over 1 group, as a whole, contains over 25 percent of the total number of prints filed in the FBI. On the other hand, there are a number of primaries which rarely appear. It follows, therefore, that when a print is classified in one of these larger groups it is necessary to complete the classification to a greater extent than is necessary in the more unusual primaries, so that the group to be searched is small enough for convenience.
In connection with the counting of whorl values to obtain the primary, it might be noted that when the whorls outnumber the other patterns more speed can be achieved by counting those patterns and subtracting rather than by adding the whorls. This procedure should not be followed until enough experience is acquired so that it may be noted at a glance where whorls are not present.
The experienced classifier can tell in what fingers whorls are present by a glance at a primary classification. For example, a primary of 5 over 17 could mean that there are whorls in the thumbs only.
LEAVE THIS SPACE BLANK SEX + + __ FBI No. RACE + + LAST NAME FIRST NAME MIDDLE NAME - + SIGNATURE OF PERSON CONTRIBUTOR ALIASES HT. WT. FINGERPRINTED AND ADDRESS (IN.) __ _ DATE OF - BIRTH RESIDENCE OF PERSON __ FINGERPRINTED HAIR EYES - - OCCUPATION ARREST NUMBER LEAVE THIS SPACE BLANK - - SCARS AND MARKS PLACE OF BIRTH 9 R - CLASS_____ - CITIZENSHIP 2 R SIGNATURE OF OFFICIAL DATE _ TAKING FINGERPRINTS _ CHECK IF NO CRIMINAL REF._____ RECORD IS DESIRED - 1. RIGHT THUMB 2. RIGHT INDEX 3. RIGHT 4. RIGHT RING 5. RIGHT LITTLE MIDDLE - R W - 1. LEFT THUMB 2. LEFT INDEX 3. LEFT M 4. LEFT RING 5. LEFT LITTLE 18 10 MIDDLE I I 13 - / R / W / -
THE SECONDARY CLASSIFICATION: After the primary classification, the fingerprints are subdivided further by using a secondary classification. Before going into detail, it should be noted that after the primary is obtained the entire remaining portion of the classification formula is based upon the arrangement of the impressions appearing in the right hand as the numerator over the impressions appearing in the left hand as the denominator. The arrangement of the even over the uneven fingers is discarded after the primary is obtained. The secondary classification appears just to the right of the fractional numerals which represent the primary. It is shown in the formula by capital letters representing the basic types of patterns appearing in the index fingers of each hand, that of the right hand being the numerator and that of the left hand being the denominator (fig. 348). There are five basic types of patterns which can appear.
1. Arch A 2. Tented Arch T 3. Radial Loop R 4. Ulnar Loop U 5. Whorl W
LEAVE THIS SPACE BLANK SEX + + __ FBI No. RACE + + LAST NAME FIRST NAME MIDDLE NAME - + SIGNATURE OF PERSON CONTRIBUTOR ALIASES HT. WT. FINGERPRINTED AND ADDRESS (IN.) __ _ DATE OF - BIRTH RESIDENCE OF PERSON __ FINGERPRINTED HAIR EYES - - OCCUPATION ARREST NUMBER LEAVE THIS SPACE BLANK - - SCARS AND MARKS PLACE OF BIRTH 1 R - CLASS_____ - CITIZENSHIP 1 aU SIGNATURE OF OFFICIAL DATE _ TAKING FINGERPRINTS _ CHECK IF NO CRIMINAL REF._____ RECORD IS DESIRED - 1. RIGHT THUMB 2. RIGHT INDEX 3. RIGHT 4. RIGHT RING 5. RIGHT LITTLE MIDDLE - R - 1. LEFT THUMB 2. LEFT INDEX 3. LEFT M 4. LEFT RING 5. LEFT LITTLE 18 10 MIDDLE I I 13 - a / / / / -
SECONDARY CLASSIFICATION (SMALL-LETTER GROUP): Prints with an arch or tented arch in any finger or a radial loop in any except the index fingers constitute the small-letter group of the secondary classification. Such "small letters," with the exception of those appearing in the index fingers, are brought up into the classification formula in their proper relative positions immediately adjacent to the index fingers (fig. 349). A dash is used to indicate the absence of each small letter between the index fingers and another small letter or between two small letters, as
1 aUa-t 1 aU-t. ———- and ——— 1 R-a 1 U-a
Thus, if a radial loop appears in the right thumb, the small letter "r" would be brought up in the numerator column of the classification formula and placed just to the left of the capital letter representing the index finger. Similarly, if an arch or tented arch or a radial loop would appear in the middle, ring, or little finger of the hand, the small letter representing such a pattern would be placed on the classification line to the right of the secondary in the numerator column if the letter is present in the right hand, and in the denominator column if in the left hand. When two or more small letters of the same type occur immediately adjacent to each other, they are indicated thus:
1 rU-2a 1 aTa-a. ———- and ———- 1 tU3a 1 tA2at
The small-letter groups are of vital importance to the classification system, as they are of relatively infrequent occurrence, constituting approximately 7 to 10 percent of all patterns. Generally speaking, since these patterns are of such rare occurrence, their very presence often enables the classifier to dispense with the usual subsecondary classification and the major division which in the majority of cases are used in the larger groups.
THE SUBSECONDARY CLASSIFICATION (GROUPING OF LOOPS AND WHORLS): In classifying prints it is necessary to subdivide the secondary groups. This is accomplished by grouping according to the ridge counts of loops and the ridge tracings of whorls. The first of the groups filed in order, which it will be necessary to so subdivide, would ordinarily be the
1 R —- 1 R
group where no small letters appear. The Federal Bureau of Investigation, however, has found it necessary to extend this division to many of the small-letter groups which become cumbersome. The subsecondary is placed on the classification line just to the right of the secondary. Ridge counts are translated into small and large, represented by symbols I and O. The whorl tracings are brought up as I, M, or O denoting inner, meeting or outer ridge tracings of the whorl types. Only six fingers may be involved in the subsecondary—numbers 2, 3, 4, 7, 8, and 9.
A ridge count of 1 to 9, inclusive, in the index fingers is brought up into the subsecondary formula as I. A count of 10 or more is brought up as O. In the middle fingers a count of from 1 to 10, inclusive, is brought up as I, and 11 or more is O. In the ring fingers a count of from 1 to 13 is brought up as I, and 14 or more is O. A loop subsecondary could appear in the classification formula as
OIO. —- IIO
Analyzing this example of a subsecondary, one will know that in the index, middle, and ring fingers of the right hand there are counts of over 9, under 11, and over 13, while in the left hand there are in the index, middle, and ring fingers, counts of under 10, under 11, over 13, respectively. The subsecondary classification, therefore, relates to the groupings of the prints, and no difficulty should be experienced in ascertaining whether the I and O arrangement in the subsecondary relates to loops or whorls when analyzing a classification, because this information can be obtained from the primary classification. Figure 350 is an example illustrating the subsecondary in addition to other divisions of the classification formula.
LEAVE THIS SPACE BLANK SEX + + __ FBI No. RACE + + LAST NAME FIRST NAME MIDDLE NAME - + SIGNATURE OF PERSON CONTRIBUTOR ALIASES HT. WT. FINGERPRINTED AND ADDRESS (IN.) __ _ DATE OF - BIRTH RESIDENCE OF PERSON __ FINGERPRINTED HAIR EYES - - OCCUPATION ARREST NUMBER LEAVE THIS SPACE BLANK - - SCARS AND MARKS PLACE OF BIRTH 26 5 R OOO 12 - CLASS_____ - CITIZENSHIP 12 W MOI SIGNATURE OF OFFICIAL DATE _ TAKING FINGERPRINTS _ CHECK IF NO CRIMINAL REF._____ RECORD IS DESIRED - 1. RIGHT THUMB 2. RIGHT INDEX 3. RIGHT 4. RIGHT RING 5. RIGHT LITTLE MIDDLE 26 12 0 17 12 - R W - 1. LEFT THUMB 2. LEFT INDEX 3. LEFT 4. LEFT RING 5. LEFT LITTLE MIDDLE I M 18 I 15 - W W / W / -
The chart, figure 351, will illustrate the manner in which the ridge counts are translated into the symbols I and O so they may be grouped and sequenced with the whorl tracings I, M and O.
THE MAJOR DIVISION: The major division is placed just to the left of the primary in the classification formula. Where whorls appear in the thumbs the major division reflects the whorl tracings just as the subsecondary does. For example, a major division of I over M in the primary 5 over 17 would reflect an inner-traced whorl over a meeting-traced whorl in the thumbs. Where loops appear in the thumbs, however, a table is used to translate the ridge counts into the small, medium, or large groups, designated by the letters S, M, L. An expanding table is used for the right thumb when large-count loops appear in the left thumb, as shown in the chart (fig. 351). This table is used because it affords a more equitable distribution of prints as a whole, for filing purposes within the groups indicated.
RIGHT HAND - R THUMB R INDEX R MIDDLE R RING R LITTLE - WHEN LEFT THUMB 1-9 = I 1-10 = I 1-13 = I IS 16 OR LESS 10 AND OVER = O 11 AND OVER = O 14 AND OVER = O 1-11 = S 12-16 = M 17 AND OVER = L RIDGE COUNT OF SECOND SUBSECONDARY - WHEN LEFT THUMB 1-5 = S 1-8 = S 1-10 = S IS 17 OR OVER 6-12 = M 9-14 = M 11-18 = M 1-17 = S 13 AND OVER = L 15 AND OVER = L 19 AND OVER = L 19-22 = M 23 AND OVER = L -
LEFT HAND - L THUMB L INDEX L MIDDLE L RING L LITTLE - 1-11 = S 12-16 = M < VALUES SAME AS ABOVE -> 17 AND OVER = L -
Table for major divisions of loops:
Left thumb denominator Right thumb numerator
{ 1 to 11, inclusive, S (small). 1 to 11, inclusive, S (small) { 12 to 16, inclusive, M (medium). { 17 or more ridges, L (large).
{ 1 to 11, inclusive, S (small). 12 to 16, inclusive, M (medium) { 12 to 16, inclusive, M (medium). { 17 or more ridges, L (large).
{ 1 to 17, inclusive, S (small). 17 or more ridges, L (large) { 18 to 22, inclusive, M (medium). { 23 or more ridges, L (large).
The fingerprint card appearing in figure 352 shows a major division of L over L, which is obtained by counting the ridges (24 in the right thumb and 18 in the left thumb) which, according to the table, is translated into L in both thumbs.
THE FINAL: It is, of course, desirable to have a definite sequence or order of filing the prints within the subdivided groups. This order is attained through the use of the final, which is based upon the ridge count of the loop in the right little finger. It is indicated at the extreme right of the numerator in the classification. Note figure 352. If a loop does not appear in the right little finger, a loop in the left little finger may be used. It is then indicated at the extreme right of the denominator (fig. 353). If no loops appear in the little fingers, a whorl may be used to obtain a final, counting from left delta to core if in the right hand and from right delta to core if in the left hand. If there are two or more cores (usually applies to accidental whorls), the ridge count is made from left delta (right hand) or right delta (left hand) to the core which is the least number of ridges distant from that delta. An exception is made in the case of the double loop. The double loop is counted from the delta to the core of the upright loop. Where loops of a double loop are horizontal, the nearest core is used. Should both little fingers be a or t, no final is used. The use of a whorl in a little finger for a final is required only in connection with a large group or collection of prints, such as the 32 over 32 primary.
LEAVE THIS SPACE BLANK SEX + + __ FBI No. RACE + + LAST NAME FIRST NAME MIDDLE NAME - + SIGNATURE OF PERSON CONTRIBUTOR ALIASES HT. WT. FINGERPRINTED AND ADDRESS (IN.) __ _ DATE OF - BIRTH RESIDENCE OF PERSON __ FINGERPRINTED HAIR EYES - - OCCUPATION ARREST NUMBER LEAVE THIS SPACE BLANK LLL - - LMM SCARS AND MARKS PLACE OF BIRTH 24 L I R O O O 17 - CLASS_____ - CITIZENSHIP L I R O O O SIGNATURE OF OFFICIAL DATE _ TAKING FINGERPRINTS _ CHECK IF NO CRIMINAL REF._____ RECORD IS DESIRED - 1. RIGHT 24 2. RIGHT 13 3. RIGHT 31 4. RIGHT 21 5. RIGHT 17 THUMB INDEX MIDDLE RING LITTLE - R - 1. LEFT 18 2. LEFT 16 3. LEFT 13 4. LEFT 18 5. LEFT 20 THUMB INDEX MIDDLE RING LITTLE - / R / / / -
THE KEY: The key is obtained by counting the ridges of the first loop appearing on the fingerprint card (beginning with the right thumb), exclusive of the little fingers which are never considered for the key as they are reserved for the final. The key, no matter where found, is always placed to the extreme left of the numerator of the classification formula (fig. 353).
Extensions
THE SECOND SUBSECONDARY CLASSIFICATION: When a group of fingerprints becomes so large that it is cumbersome and unwieldy, even though fully extended, it can be subdivided further by using a second subsecondary division, which is brought up into the classification formula directly above the subsecondary, and for which the symbols S, M and L are used. The following table is used:
Index Middle Ring
1 to 5, inclusive, S. 1 to 8, inclusive, S. 1 to 10, inclusive, S. 6 to 12, inclusive, M. 9 to 14, inclusive, M. 11 to 18, inclusive, M. 13 or more, L. 15 or more, L. 19 or more, L.
If this table is referred to, a study of figure 352 will demonstrate the use of the second subsecondary.
LEAVE THIS SPACE BLANK SEX + + __ FBI No. RACE + + LAST NAME FIRST NAME MIDDLE NAME - + SIGNATURE OF PERSON CONTRIBUTOR ALIASES HT. WT. FINGERPRINTED AND ADDRESS (IN.) __ _ DATE OF - BIRTH RESIDENCE OF PERSON __ FINGERPRINTED HAIR EYES - - OCCUPATION ARREST NUMBER LEAVE THIS SPACE BLANK - - SCARS AND MARKS PLACE OF BIRTH 22 M 11 U OOO - CLASS_____ - CITIZENSHIP L 6 U OMI 13 SIGNATURE OF OFFICIAL DATE _ TAKING FINGERPRINTS _ CHECK IF NO CRIMINAL REF._____ RECORD IS DESIRED - 1. RIGHT THUMB 2. RIGHT INDEX 3. RIGHT 4. RIGHT RING 5. RIGHT LITTLE 22 11 MIDDLE 19 O O - W W - 1. LEFT THUMB 2. LEFT INDEX 3. LEFT M 4. LEFT RING 5. LEFT LITTLE 18 10 MIDDLE I I 13 - / / W W / -
WCDX EXTENSION: In the extension used in the Federal Bureau of Investigation for the large whorl groups, the type of whorl is designated by the symbols W, C, D, or X for the index fingers and w, c, d, or x for all other fingers, according to its classification as defined in figure 354. These symbols are used for subclassification purposes only and are brought up into the classification formula directly above the subsecondary in their respective positions, the right hand being the numerator, the left hand being the denominator.
SPECIAL LOOP EXTENSION: In the all-loop group
(1R-U) ——— (1R-U),
the following special loop extension may be used, utilizing the ridge counts in fingers Nos. 2, 3, 4, 7, 8, 9, and, if necessary, No. 10:
Ridge Counts Value
1 to 4, inclusive 1 5 to 8, inclusive 2 9 to 12, inclusive 3 13 to 16, inclusive 4 17 to 20, inclusive 5 21 to 24, inclusive 6 25 and over 7
The resulting values in this extension are brought up into the classification formula directly above the subsecondary in their respective positions, the right hand being the numerator, the left hand being the denominator.
In addition to the extensions already mentioned, fingerprint groups may be divided into male and female, and by age (either by year or by arbitrarily setting an age limit, beyond which a print bearing such an age would be filed separately in a "Reference" or a "Presumptive Dead" file).
In the files of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, all prints bearing an age of 55 through 74 are filed in the "Reference" group and all prints bearing an age of 75 years or more are filed in the "Presumptive Dead" file. Persons 75 years of age or older, in regard to crime, may be considered as generally inactive and thus are filed as "Presumptive Dead." Such a group provides for removing from the other files the cards concerning those of whom no notice is ever received as to death.
A separate file should be maintained for deceased persons, for possible future reference.
A separate file should be maintained for all prints bearing amputations and which have an unequivocal statement or marking from the contributor to that effect.
Permanent scars also may be utilized for this purpose, giving three more groupings: those prints having permanent scars in the right hand, those having a scar in the left, and those in which scars appear in both hands. A separate file may be maintained for mutilated prints whether or not the permanent-scar division is used. This is usually composed of prints so badly mutilated, or so mutilated about the cores and deltas, that intentional mutilation is suspected.
WHORL CENTRAL POCKET DUAL LOOP ACCIDENTAL -W- LOOP -D- -X- PATTERN HAVING PATTERN HAVING TWO SEPARATE TWO OR MORE ONE CORE. LINE ONE CORE. LINE AND DISTINCT DIFFERENT TYPES DRAWN FROM DRAWN FROM LOOPS IN ONE PATTERN. DELTA TO DELTA DELTA TO DELTA ANY UNUSUAL CUTS ONE OR CUTS NO PATTERN NOT MORE RECURVES RECURVES DEFINED IN OTHER CLASSIFICATIONS
CHAPTER V
Classification of Scarred Patterns—Amputations—Missing at Birth
Classification of scarred patterns
Emphasis should be placed upon the necessity for fully referencing all scarred patterns. In connection with their proper classification, the following rules should be observed:
- When an impression is so scarred that neither the general type of pattern nor the ridge tracing or count can be determined with reasonable accuracy, the impression should be given both the general type value and the subclassification value of the corresponding finger of the other hand.
- When an impression is partially scarred, i.e., large scars about the core so that the general type cannot be determined with reasonable accuracy, but the ridges allow reasonably accurate subclassifications by ridge tracings or counting, the impression should be given the primary value of the pattern of the corresponding finger and the subclassification value as indicated by the ridges of partially scarred impressions.
- When an impression is partially scarred and the general type of pattern can be determined with reasonable accuracy, but the ridges cannot be traced or counted so as to fall within the proper subsecondary classification, the impression should be given the ridge count or tracing value of the corresponding finger of the other hand, if the corresponding finger is of the same general type. If the corresponding finger is not of the same general type, the scarred impression should be given the probable value and referenced to all other possibilities.
- When an impression is so scarred that neither the general type of pattern nor the ridge tracing or count can be determined with reasonable accuracy, and it so happens that the corresponding finger of the other hand is similarly scarred, both patterns are given the arbitrary value of whorls with meeting tracings.
In figure 355, the pattern is entirely obliterated. It could have been a small whorl, a small ulnar or radial loop, an arch, or a tented arch. If the opposite finger were an arch or tented arch or whorl, this impression would be classified as arch, tented arch, or whorl (with the same tracing). If the opposite finger were a small-count loop, this would be classified as a loop of the same count. If the opposite finger were a large-count loop, this impression would be given the count of the opposite finger even though it could never have had that count. If the opposite finger were scarred in the same fashion or were amputated or missing, both impressions would be classified as whorls with meeting tracings.
In figure 356, the general type of the pattern could have been loop (ulnar if in the right hand) or whorl. If the opposite finger were a whorl this would be classified as a whorl, and with the same tracing. If a radial loop were opposite, this would be classified as an ulnar loop (if in the right hand). The ridge count can be obtained with a fair degree of accuracy. If an arch or tented arch were opposite, this impression would be classified as a loop because it looks as if it had been a loop.
In figure 357, the ridge count cannot be determined accurately but it would be classified as a loop, no matter what the opposite finger might be. If the opposite finger were a loop with a count of from 6 to 17, this impression would be given that count. If the count of the opposite loop were less or more than 6 to 17, the count for this finger would be given I or O in the subsecondary classification depending upon whether the opposite finger was I or O, but would not be given less than 6 nor more than 17 counts as its possibility is limited to those counts.
A pattern with a scar similar to either scar in figures 358 and 359 would always be given a loop as it could be seen readily that there was no possibility of its having been any other type of pattern.
Classification of amputations and fingers missing at birth
When one or more amputations appear upon a fingerprint card, it may be filed separately from those having no amputations in order to facilitate searching. It is to be noted that before it may be filed in the amputation group, the card must contain a definite and unequivocal statement or marking by the contributor to the effect that a certain finger or fingers have been amputated or were missing at birth. This prevents the appearance on later cards of impressions of fingers thought to have been amputated but which in reality were merely injured and bandaged when previous prints were submitted.
If one finger is amputated, it is given a classification identical with that of the opposite finger, including pattern and ridge count, or tracing, and referenced to every other possible classification.
If two or more fingers are amputated, they are given classifications identical with the fingers opposite, with no additional references.
If two amputated fingers are opposite each other, both are given the classification of whorls with meeting tracings.
When a fingerprint card bearing a notation of fingers missing at birth is classified, the missing fingers should be treated as amputations in that they are given the identical classifications of the opposite fingers and are filed in the amputation group. As these fingers are missing from a prenatal cause, they would have always received the identical classification of the opposite finger on any previous occasion.
If all 10 fingers are amputated or missing at birth, the classification will be
M 32 W MMM. —————- M 32 W MMM
If both hands are amputated or missing at birth, the footprints should be taken as they, too, bear friction ridges with definite patterns. A footprint file is maintained by the FBI for identification purposes in instances where the subject has all fingers amputated or missing at birth.
Partially amputated fingers often present very complex problems and careful consideration should be given to them. The question often arises as to the appropriate groups in which they should be filed, i.e., amputations or nonamputations. As no definite rule may be applied, it is a matter of experience and judgment as to their preferred classification.
In those instances in which a partially amputated finger has half or more than half of the pattern area missing, it is given the classification of the opposite finger. It will be filed in the amputation group under the classification of the opposite finger and reference searches should be conducted in all possible classifications in the nonamputation groups. If two or more of the fingers are amputated in this manner, they are given the classification of the opposite fingers only and are governed by the rules concerning amputations.
Generally, a "tip amputation," or one which has less than half of the first joint amputated, will always be printed in the future. Therefore, a partially amputated finger with less than half of the pattern area missing is classified as it appears and is referenced to the opposite finger. It will be filed in the nonamputation group and reference searches should be conducted under the classification of the opposite finger, and in the amputation group. It must be referenced this way even though it never could have originally had the classification of the opposite finger.
Classification of bandaged or imprinted fingers
As noted in the chapter pertaining to "Problems in the Taking of Inked Fingerprints," an indication to the effect "recently injured, bandaged" is not sufficient to file a fingerprint card. It is obvious that a fingerprint card bearing these notations cannot be properly classified or filed. If the injury is temporary, and if possible, these prints should not be taken until after healing.
If fingers are injured to the extent that it is impossible to secure inked impressions by special inking devices, the unprinted fingers are given classifications identical with the classifications of the fingers opposite. If only one finger is lacking, reference searches should be conducted in every possible classification. If more than one finger is lacking, they should be given the classifications of the opposite fingers, but no reference searches should be conducted. If there are two lacking, opposite each other, they should be classified as whorls with meeting tracings.
If, however, in the case of an injured finger, observation is made of the ridges of the finger itself and indicated on the print, this classification should be, insofar as it is possible, utilized. For example, a missing impression labeled "ulnar loop of about 8 counts" by the individual taking the prints, should be searched in the subsecondary as both I and O but should not be referenced as a pattern other than a loop. If the finger is used as the final, or key, it should be searched enough counts on each side of 8 to allow for possible error in the counting by the contributor using his naked eye.
CHAPTER VI
Filing Sequence
The sequence must be arranged properly at all times to make possible the most accurate work. Prints are sequenced and filed in this order, according to:
I. Primary:
1 32. - to — 1 32
In the primary classification the denominator remains constant until all numerator figures have been exhausted from 1 to 32. All prints with the primary 1 over 1 are filed together. These are followed by 2 over 1, 3 over 1, 4 over 1, etc., until 32 over 1 is reached. The next primary is 1 over 2, then 2 over 2, etc., until 32 over 2 is reached. Eventually, through the use of each denominator figure and the elimination of each numerator over each denominator, the 32 over 32 primary will be reached.
Even in the smaller collections of fingerprints, it will be found that the groups which are arranged under the individual primaries filed in sequence, from 1 over 1 to 32 over 32, will be too voluminous for expeditious searching.
II. Secondary:
A. Secondary small-letter group:
A rW3r. - to —— A rW3r
Most intricate of all the individual sequences is the small-letter sequence. It is less difficult if the following method is used:
1. Sequence according to the patterns in the index fingers, grouped
A W. - to - A W
When small letters are present, there are 25 possible combinations which can appear in the index fingers. They are as follows:
A T R U W - - - - - A A A A A
A T R U W - - - - - T T T T T
A T R U W - - - - - R R R R R
A T U R W - - - - - U U U U U
A T U R W - - - - - W W W W W
2. Within each group sequence:
a. The denominator, by—
(1) Count of the small letters (lesser preceding the greater).
(2) Position of the small letters (those to the left preceding those to the right).
(3) Type of small letter (sequence a, t, r).
b. The numerator, by—
(1) Count.
(2) Position.
(3) Type.
Thus
A T - precedes - A A
A A —- precedes —- rAt A3t
A A — precedes — aA Aa
A A — precedes — At Ar
aA aAa —- precedes —- aAr aAr
rA Ar —— precedes —— aA2a aA2a
aAtat aAtar ——- precedes ——- tA3r tA3r
The following table represents the full sequence of the denominator of the group having A over A in the index fingers. The full sequence as listed may be used as the numerator for each denominator as set out below. Following the group with A over A in the index fingers is the group with T over A in the index fingers, the sequence being the same otherwise. Then R over A, U over A, A over T to rW3r over rW3r.
A tAra aA2at tA2tr aA tArt aA2ar tAtra tA tA2r aAata tAtrt rA rA2a aAa2t tAt2r Aa rAat aAatr tAr2a At rAar aAara tArat Ar rAta aAart tArar aAa rA2t aAa2r tArta aAt rAtr aAt2a tAr2t aAr rAra aAtat tArtr tAa rArt aAtar tA2ra tAt rA2r aA2ta tA2rt tAr A3a aA3t tA3r rAa A2at aA2tr rA3a rAt A2ar aAtra rA2at rAr Aata aAtrt rA2ar A2a Aa2t aAt2r rAata Aat Aatr aAr2a rAa2t Aar Aara aArat rAatr Ata Aart aArar rAara A2t Aa2r aArta rAart Atr At2a aAr2t rAa2r Ara Atat aArtr rAt2a Art Atar aA2ra rAtat A2r A2ta aA2rt rAtar aA2a A3t aA3r rA2ta aAat A2tr tA3a rA3t aAar Atra tA2at rA2tr aAta Atrt tA2ar rAtra aA2t At2r tAata rAtrt aAtr Ar2a tAa2t rAt2r aAra Arat tAatr rAr2a aArt Arar tAara rArat aA2r Arta tAart rArar tA2a Ar2t tAa2r rArta tAat Artr tAt2a rAr2t tAar A2ra tAtat rArtr tAta A2rt tAtar rA2ra tA2t A3r tA2ta rA2rt tAtr aA3a tA3t rA3r
B. Secondary loop and whorl group:
R W. - to - R W
When no small letters are present, there are 9 possible combinations which can appear in the index fingers. They are as follows:
R U W - - - R R R
R U W - - - U U U
R U W - - - W W W
At this point it is well to note that it may be preferable in some instances where small files are concerned to use only a portion of the classification formula in the filing sequence. In such cases, only those parts of the filing sequence which are necessary should be used along with the final and key.
III. Subsecondary:
III OOO. —- to —- III OOO
The sequence of the subsecondary is as follows:
III IIM IIO IMI IMM IMO IOI —- —- —- —- —- —- —- III III III III III III III
IOM IOO MII MIM MIO MMI MMM —- —- —- —- —- —- —- III III III III III III III
MMO MOI MOM MOO OII OIM OIO —- —- —- —- —- —- —- III III III III III III III
OMI OMM OMO OOI OOM OOO OOO, —- —- —- —- —- —- etc., to —- III III III III III III OOO
each numerator in turn becoming the denominator for the complete sequence of numerators as listed above.
IV. Major:
The following sequence is used when loops appear in both thumbs:
S M L S M L S M L - - - - - - - - - S S S M M M L L L
When whorls appear in both thumbs the sequence is:
I M O I M O I M O - - - - - - - - - I I I M M M O O O
When a whorl appears in the right thumb and a loop in the left, the sequence is:
I M O I M O I M O - - - - - - - - - S S S M M M L L L
When a loop appears in the right thumb and a whorl in the left, the sequence is:
S M L S M L S M L - - - - - - - - - I I I M M M O O O
V. Second Subsecondary:
SSS LLL. —- to —- SSS LLL
The sequence for filing the second subsecondary is as follows:
SSS SSM SSL SMS SMM SML —- —- —- —- —- —- SSS SSS SSS SSS SSS SSS
SLS SLM SLL MSS MSM MSL —- —- —- —- —- —- SSS SSS SSS SSS SSS SSS
MMS MMM MML MLS MLM MLL —- —- —- —- —- —- SSS SSS SSS SSS SSS SSS
LSS LSM LSL LMS LMM LML —- —- —- —- —- —- SSS SSS SSS SSS SSS SSS
LLS LLM LLL, LLL, —- —- —- etc., to —- SSS SSS SSS LLL
each group of the numerator becoming in turn the denominator for the complete sequence of numerators as listed above.
VI. W C D X Extensions:
W xX3x. - to —— W xX3x
The sequence is as follows: Prints with c, d, or x in any finger other than the index fingers constitute the small-letter group. A sample of the sequence follows:
W cWc xWd Wdx cW cWd xWx Wxc dW cWx W2c Wxd xW dWc Wcd W2x Wc dWd Wcx cW2c Wd dWx Wdc cWcd Wx xWc W2d cWcx
As may be readily seen, the sequence proceeds in the same fashion as the a, t, r, small-letter sequence.
VII. Special Loop Extension used by the Federal Bureau of Investigation:
111 777. —- to —- 111 777
The following is a partial sequence for filing this extension:
111 112 113 114 115 116 117 —- —- —- —- —- —- —- 111 111 111 111 111 111 111
121 122 123 124 125 126 127 —- —- —- —- —- —- —- 111 111 111 111 111 111 111
131 132 133 134 135 136 137 —- —- —- —- —- —- —- 111 111 111 111 111 111 111
141 142 143 144 145 146 147 —- —- —- —- —- —- —- 111 111 111 111 111 111 111
151 152 153 154 155 156 157 —- —- —- —- —- —- —- 111 111 111 111 111 111 111
161 162 163 164 165 166 167 —- —- —- —- —- —- —- 111 111 111 111 111 111 111
171 172 173 174 175 176 177 777. —- —- —- —- —- —- —- etc., to —- 111 111 111 111 111 111 111 777
No matter how many of these divisions may be used, the order should remain the same; and no matter how many of these divisions are used, each individual group should be sequenced by:
VIII. Final:
Filed in numerical sequence from 1 out. For example, assume that there are 15 prints in a group having a final of 14. All of these should be filed together and followed by those prints in the same group having a final of 15, etc.
IX. Key:
All prints appearing in a designated final group are arranged by key in numerical sequence from 1 out. For example, assume that there are 5 prints in a group having a key of 14. All of these should be filed together and followed by those prints in the same group having a key of 15, etc.
CHAPTER VII
Searching and Referencing
Searching
When searching a print through the fingerprint files in order to establish an identification, it should be remembered that the fingerprint cards are filed in such a way that all those prints having the same classification are together. Thus, the print being searched is compared only with the groups having a comparable classification, rather than with the whole file.
After locating the proper group classification, the searcher should fix in his mind the one or two most outstanding characteristics of the patterns of the current print and look for them among the prints in file. If a print is found which has a characteristic resembling one upon the current print, the two prints should be examined closely to determine if identical. To avoid making an erroneous identification, the searcher should be exceedingly careful to ascertain that the prints being compared are identical in all respects before identifying one against the other.
To establish identity, it is necessary to locate several points of identity among the characteristics of the prints. The number of identical characteristics is left to the discretion of the individual but he should be absolutely certain that the prints are identical before treating them as such. Characteristics need not appear within the pattern area, since any ridge formation is acceptable. Quite often excellent ridge detail appears in the second joint of the finger. The characteristics used to establish an identification are shown in figure 102.
The final and the key may be considered control figures for searching prints. They limit the number of prints it is necessary to search in a group to those prints having finals and keys closely related to the final and key of the print being searched.
Due to the possibility of visual misinterpretation, distortion by pressure, or poor condition of the ridge detail of the prints in file, it is advisable to allow a margin for such discrepancies. Except in cases where the ridge count of the final and/or key is questionable on the print being searched, the following procedure is used:
Of the prints within any group classification, only those prints are examined which have a final within 2 ridge counts on each side of the final of the print being searched. For example, if the print to be searched has a final of 17, all prints bearing a final 15 through 19 will be compared with it.
Within the final of any group classification, only those prints are examined which have a key within 2 ridge counts on each side of the key of the print being searched. For example, if the print to be searched has a key of 20, all prints bearing a key of 18 through 22 will be compared with it.
In figure 352, it will be noted that there are 17 ridge counts appearing in the right little finger and this number is used as the final. It will also be noted that there is a loop of 24 ridge counts in the right thumb and this number is used as the key inasmuch as it is the first loop. In this example, the print is searched in the group classification which has finals ranging from 15 through 19. Within this group of finals the prints which have keys ranging from 22 through 26 are examined.
Referencing
Too much stress cannot be placed upon the necessity of referencing questionable patterns, whether it be in the interpretation of the type of pattern, the ridge count, or the tracing.
The factors which make it necessary are: variation in individual judgment and eyesight, the amount of ink used, the amount of pressure used in taking the prints, the difference in width of the rolled impressions, skin diseases, worn ridges due to age or occupations, temporary and permanent scars, bandaged fingers, crippled hands, and amputation.
For the highest degree of accuracy, all rolled impressions should be checked by the plain impressions, which generally are not distorted by pressure. This also helps prevent error caused by the reversal or mixing of the rolled impressions out of their proper order. For the same reason, as much of the counting and tracing should be done in the plain impressions as it is possible to do.
If there is any doubt as to which of two or more classifications should be assigned to a given pattern, it is given the preferred classification and reference searches are conducted in all other possible classifications. For example, if on a print with the preferred classification
1 A —— 1 Aa
it is questionable whether the left middle finger should be a plain arch, a tented arch, or a radial loop, the print is searched in the
1 A —— 1 Aa
group, and reference searches are conducted in the
1 A —— 1 At
and
1 A —— 1 Ar
groups. For further illustration, a print is given a preferred primary classification of
1, - 1
although the ridge detail on the right thumb is so formed as to resemble a whorl. The search is completed first in the preferred
1 - 1
primary classification and a reference search is then conducted in the
1 — 17
primary.
All ridge counts that are "line counts," i.e., when one more or one less count would change the designation of the loop from I to O or from S to M, etc., must be searched in both groups. For example, in a print classified
16 M 1 U III 10, ———————- M 1 U III
if the ridge count of the right middle finger is 10 and the count in the right thumb is 16 (as indicated by the key), the print would be searched first as classified, then reference searches would be conducted in the following groups:
M 1 U IOI, L 1 U III, L 1 U IOI ————- ————- and ————- M 1 U III M 1 U III M 1 U III
When there is doubt concerning the tracing of a whorl, it should be treated in the same fashion. For example, if in the classification
O 5 U ——— I 17 U
doubt existed as to whether the tracing of the right thumb might not be a meeting tracing, the print would be searched as classified, and a reference search would be conducted in
M 5 U. ——— I 17 U
If there is no doubt concerning the ridge count used for the final, it is enough to search out of the group only those prints containing a final within 2 ridge counts on each side of the final on the print being searched. When, however, there is doubt concerning the ridge count of the final, the print should be searched 2 ridge counts on each side of the two extremes of possibility. For example, if it were possible for a final to be 6, 7, 8, or 9 ridge counts, the print should be searched through that part of the group bearing finals of from 4 through 11.
The above explanation pertaining to the final also applies to the key.
All prints bearing amputations should be referenced to the necessary files containing prints other than amputations for reference searches.
In instances where only one finger is amputated, reference searches are conducted in all possible classifications, including all possible ridge counts or tracings. For example, a print containing the classification:
AMP
4 S 1 U III 6 ——————- S 1 U III
with the right index finger amputated, the left index finger being an ulnar loop, would be searched first in the amputation group for the classification, then reference searches would be conducted in the following groups in the nonamputation files:
S 1 U III S 1 T II S 17 W III ————- ————- ————— S 1 U III S 1 U III S 1 U III
S 1 U OII S 1 R III S 17 W MII ————- ————- ————— S 1 U III S 1 U III S 1 U III
S 1 A II S 1 R OII S 17 W OII ————- ————- ————— S 1 U III S 1 U III S 1 U III
All prints bearing unprinted or badly crippled fingers are filed in the nonamputation files, and reference searches are conducted in the amputation group.
For the purpose of determining if it is feasible to conduct reference searches in all possible classifications, the method of referencing amputations is applied to completely scarred patterns (Chapter titled "Scarred Patterns—Amputations—Missing at Birth"). For example, a print bearing the preferred classification:
13 O 17 W OOO 14 ———————— L 17 U OOI
with the left middle finger completely scarred, the right middle finger being an ulnar loop with a ridge count of 13, would be searched first in the group for that classification, then reference searches would be conducted in the following groups:
O 17 W OOO O 17 W O 19 W OOO ————— ———- ————— L 17 U OII L 17 Ur L 17 U OOI
O 17 W O 19 W OOO ———- ————— L 17 Ua L 17 U OII
O 17 W O 19 W OOO ———- ————— L 17 Ut L 17 U OMI
The referencing of partial scars is a problem in which many factors are present. A full explanation of the scars, their preferred classifications and their references is made in the chapter, "Classification of Scarred Patterns—Amputations—Missing at Birth."
When the age extension is utilized and a "Reference" group and a "Presumptive Dead" file are maintained, it is suggested that a general allowance of 5 years be considered to allow for a discrepancy in prints bearing the ages of 50 years or older.
In the files of the Federal Bureau of Investigation the various age groups are as follows:
1-54 "Regular" file. 55-74 "Reference" file. 75 and over "Presumptive Dead" file.
Reference searches for the preceding groups are conducted in the following manner:
50-54 Referenced to "Reference" file. 70-74 Referenced to "Presumptive Dead" file and "Regular" file. 75-79 Referenced to "Reference" file and "Regular" file. 80 and older Referenced to "Regular" file only.
If no age is given, it should be searched first in the regular file and reference searches should be conducted in the "Reference" group and the "Presumptive Dead" file.
When separate male and female files are maintained, there may be doubt as to the sex of a subject due to a discrepancy between the sex indicated and the name and the description and picture. In such case try to determine the sex from the description and the size of the prints, then reference the print to the other file. A Photostat copy can be made and placed in the other file until the true sex can be determined.
CHAPTER VIII
How To Take Inked Fingerprints
The equipment required for taking fingerprints consists of an inking plate, a cardholder, printer's ink (heavy black paste), and a roller. This equipment is simple and inexpensive.
In order to obtain clear, distinct fingerprints, it is necessary to spread the printer's ink in a thin even coating on a small inking plate. A roller similar to that used by printers in making galley proofs is best adapted for use as a spreader. Its size is a matter determined by individual needs and preferences; however, a roller approximately 6 inches long and 2 inches in diameter has been found to be very satisfactory. These rollers may be obtained from a fingerprint supply company or a printing supply house.
An inking plate may be made from a hard, rigid, scratch-resistant metal plate 6 inches wide by 14 inches long or by inlaying a block of wood with a piece of glass one-fourth of an inch thick, 6 inches wide, and 14 inches long. The glass plate by itself would be suitable, but it should be fixed to a base in order to prevent breakage. The inking surface should be elevated to a sufficient height to allow the subject's forearm to assume a horizontal position when the fingers are being inked. For example, the inking plate may be placed on the edge of a counter or a table of counter height. In such a position, the operator has greater assurance of avoiding accidental strain or pressure on the fingers and should be able to procure more uniform impressions. The inking plate should also be placed so that the subject's fingers which are not being printed can be made to "swing" off the table to prevent their interfering with the inking process. A fingerprint stand such as that shown in figure 360 may be purchased from fingerprint supply companies. The stand is made of hardwood and measures approximately 2 feet in length, 1 foot in height and width. This stand contains a cardholder and a chrome strip which is used as the inking plate. Two compartments used to store blank fingerprint cards and supplies complete the stand. This equipment should be supplemented by a cleansing fluid and necessary cloths so that the subject's fingers may be cleaned before rolling and the inking plate cleaned after using. Denatured alcohol and commercially available cleaning fluids are suitable for this purpose.
PERSONAL ROE RICHARD RANDOLPH SEX IDENTIFICATION MALE LAST NAME FIRST NAME MIDDLE NAME RACE - W FINGERPRINTS SUBMITTED BY HT. WT. (Inches) SIGNATURE OF PERSON FINGERPRINTED 71 170 1655 Grant Avenue DATE OF BIRTH 6/6/42 - Chicago, Illinois FINGERPRINTED BY - HAIR EYES RESIDENCE OF PERSON FINGERPRINTED BR BR - - DATE FINGERPRINTED LEAVE THIS SPACE BLANK PERSON TO BE NOTIFIED IN 8/12/62 CASE OF EMERGENCY CLASS NAME Thomas L. Roe PLACE OF BIRTH - Omaha, Neb. ADDRESS 1655 Grant Avenue - CITIZENSHIP Chicago, Illinois American REF. - See Reverse Side for SCARS AND MARKS Further Instructions Appendectomy - 1. RIGHT THUMB 2. RIGHT INDEX 3. RIGHT 4. RIGHT RING 5. RIGHT MIDDLE LITTLE - - 1. LEFT THUMB 2. LEFT INDEX 3. LEFT MIDDLE 4. LEFT RING 5. LEFT LITTLE - - LEFT FOUR FINGERS LEFT RIGHT RIGHT FOUR FINGERS TAKEN SIMULTANEOUSLY THUMB THUMB TAKEN SIMULTANEOUSLY
The fingerprints should be taken on 8- by 8-inch cardstock, as this size has generally been adopted by law enforcement because of facility in filing and desirability of uniformity. Figure 361 shows fingerprints properly taken on one of the standard personnel identification cards from the Federal Bureau of Investigation. From this illustration, it is evident there are two types of impressions involved in the process of taking fingerprints. The upper 10 prints are taken individually—thumb, index, middle, ring, and little fingers of each hand in the order named. These are called "rolled" impressions, the fingers being rolled from side to side in order to obtain all available ridge detail. The smaller impressions at the bottom of the card are taken by simultaneously printing all of the fingers of each hand and then the thumb without rolling. These are called "plain" or "fixed" impressions and are used as a check upon the sequence and accuracy of the rolled impressions. Rolled impressions must be taken carefully in order to insure that an accurate fingerprint classification can be obtained by examination of the various patterns. It is also necessary that each focal point (cores and all deltas) be clearly printed in order that accurate ridge counts and tracings may be obtained.
In preparing to take a set of fingerprints, a small daub of ink should be placed on the inking glass or slab and thoroughly rolled until a very thin, even film covers the entire surface. The subject should stand in front of and at forearm's length from the inking plate. In taking the rolled impressions, the side of the bulb of the finger is placed upon the inking plate and the finger is rolled to the other side until it faces the opposite direction. Care should be exercised so the bulb of each finger is inked evenly from the tip to below the first joint. By pressing the finger lightly on the card and rolling in exactly the same manner, a clear rolled impression of the finger surface may be obtained. It is better to ink and print each finger separately beginning with the right thumb and then, in order, the index, middle, ring, and little fingers. (Stamp pad ink, printing ink, ordinary writing ink, or other colored inks are not suitable for use in fingerprint work as they are too light or thin and do not dry quickly.)
If consideration is given the anatomical or bony structure of the forearm when taking rolled impressions, more uniform impressions will be obtained. The two principal bones of the forearm are known as the radius and the ulna, the former being on the thumb side and the latter on the little finger side of the arm. As suggested by its name, the radius bone revolves freely about the ulna as a spoke of a wheel about the hub. In order to take advantage of the natural movement in making finger impressions, the hand should be rotated from the awkward to the easy position. This requires that the thumbs be rolled toward and the fingers away from the center of the subject's body. This process relieves strain and leaves the fingers relaxed upon the completion of rolling so that they may be lifted easily from the card without danger of slipping which smudges and blurs the prints. Figures 362 and 363 show the proper method of holding a finger for inking and printing a rolled impression.
The degree of pressure to be exerted in inking and taking rolled impressions is important, and this may best be determined through experience and observation. It is quite important, however, that the subject be cautioned to relax and refrain from trying to help the operator by exerting pressure as this prevents the operator from gaging the amount needed. A method which is helpful in effecting the relaxation of a subject's hand is that of instructing him to look at some distant object and not to look at his hands. The person taking the fingerprints should stand to the left of the subject when printing the right hand, and to the right of the subject when printing the left hand. In any case, the positions of both subject and operator should be natural and relaxed if the best fingerprints are to be obtained.
To obtain "plain" impressions, all the fingers of the right hand should be pressed lightly upon the inking plate, then pressed simultaneously upon the lower right hand corner of the card in the space provided. The left hand should be similarly printed, and the thumbs of both hands should be inked and printed, without rolling, in the space provided. Figures 364 and 365 show the correct method of taking plain impressions of the fingers and thumbs.
CHAPTER IX
Problems in the Taking of Inked Fingerprints
From time to time various problems arise concerning the taking of inked impressions. It is believed that these problems can be divided into four phases:
- Mechanical operation
- Temporary disabilities
- Permanent disabilities
- General
Mechanical operation
In order to take good fingerprints, the necessary equipment should be maintained in a neat and orderly manner at all times.
Poor impressions are usually caused by one of the following faults:
1. The use of poor, thin, or colored ink, resulting in impressions which are too light and faint, or in which the ink has run, obliterating the ridges. The best results will be obtained by using heavy black printer's ink, a paste which should not be thinned before using. This ink will dry quickly and will not blur or smear with handling.
2. Failure to clean thoroughly the inking apparatus and the fingers of foreign substances and perspiration, causing the appearance of false markings and the disappearance of characteristics. Windshield cleaner, gasoline, benzine, and alcohol are good cleansing agents, but any fluid may be used. In warm weather each finger should be wiped dry of perspiration before printing.
3. Failure to roll the fingers fully from one side to the other and to ink the whole area from tip to below the first fissure. The result of this is that the focal points of the impressions (the deltas or cores) do not appear. The whole finger surface from joint to tip and from side to side should appear.
4. The use of too much ink, obliterating or obscuring the ridges. If printer's ink is used, just a touch of the tube end to the inking plate will suffice for several sets of prints. It should be spread to a thin, even film by rolling.
5. Insufficient ink, resulting in ridges too light and faint to be counted or traced.
6. Allowing the fingers to slip or twist, resulting in smears, blurs, and false-appearing patterns. The fingers should be held lightly without too much pressure. The subject should be warned not to try to help but to remain passive.
The illustrations numbered 366 through 377 show the results of these faults and show also the same fingers taken in the proper manner.
Illegible inked prints
A brief review of the problems of classifying and filing a fingerprint card in the FBI will help to clarify the FBI's policy concerning the processing of "bad" inked fingerprints.
The criminal fingerprint file contains the fingerprints of millions of individuals. The complete classification formula is used. To obtain it, each inked finger must show all the essential characteristics. Because of the immense volume of prints it has become necessary to extend the normal classification formula.
To illustrate this point:
dWdwc xCdwc O 32 W OOO 18 I 32 W III
In order to subdivide the 32 over 32 primary still further, the ridge count of the whorl of the right little finger is used to obtain a final classification. The extension above the normal classification formula indicates that each whorl is classified as to the type; namely, plain whorl (W), double loop (D), central pocket loop (C), and accidental (X). Accordingly, it is not enough for the FBI Identification Division to ascertain the general whorl pattern type, but the deltas and core must show in order to obtain the ridge tracing, the type of whorl, and also, in some instances, the ridge count. The complete WCDX extension is outlined in Chapter VI.
Figures 366 to 377 are some examples of improperly and properly taken inked fingerprints.
An examination of figure 372 shows that it is a whorl. In order to classify the ridge tracing accurately, however, so that the fingerprint card can be placed in the correct classification, the left delta must show. The approximate ridge tracing for the whorl in figure 372 would be MEETING. An examination of the properly taken fingerprint in figure 373 indicates that the correct ridge tracing is INNER. It follows that the pattern in figure 372 would not have been placed in the proper place in file.
The correct whorl tracing is needed to obtain the complete subsecondary and the major classifications.
It may be noted that both deltas are present in figure 374. This would enable the technical expert to ascertain the correct ridge tracing, OUTER. In the core of the whorl, however, there is a heavy amount of ink which makes it impossible to determine the type of whorl with any degree of accuracy. If one were to hazard a guess, it would appear to be a plain whorl. Actually, the correct type of whorl, a double loop, is clearly visible in figure 375.
It can be ascertained that the pattern in figure 376 is a loop, but an accurate ridge count cannot be obtained because the left delta does not appear. The approximate ridge count of this loop is 14 to 16. This approximation is sufficient for a fingerprint expert to place this loop in the "O" group of any finger of the subsecondary. The correct ridge count of this loop is 19, and it appears in illustration 377. The approximate ridge count is not sufficient to place this print properly in the large files of the FBI because in certain general complete classification formulas the accurate ridge count is needed to obtain an extension. These extensions use a smaller grouping of ridge counts to form a valuation table, and in this way, differ from the larger grouping of ridge counts which form the basis of the subsecondary classification. These extensions are called the second subsecondary and the special loop extension and are outlined in chapter VI.
There are two additional points which illustrate the FBI's need for the delta, ridges, and core to show clearly in loops. The first point is set forth: the ridge count of the loop may be needed to obtain the key classification. The key classification is an actual ridge count, and no valuation table is used to obtain a subdivision. The key classification is used as an integral part of the fingerprint filing system. The second point is as follows: the ridge count may be needed to obtain the final classification. The final classification is an actual ridge count, and no valuation table is used to obtain a subdivision. The final classification is used as an integral part of the fingerprint filing system.
The following are just a few examples to illustrate the completeness of the classification formula used in the FBI fingerprint file:
12 M 9 R OIO 11
S 1 R IOI
Key Major Primary Secondary Subsecondary Final
6 17 aW IIO 9
1 U OII Key Primary Small letter Subsecondary Final Secondary
8 S 1 Ua II 6 S 1 U III
Key Major Primary Small letter (Subsecondary Final Secondary Extension)
SML (Second SML Subsecondary) 5 0 5 U IOO 14
I 17 U IOO
Key Major Primary Secondary Subsecondary Final
245 (Special Loop 332 Extension) 14 M 1 U IOO 16
S 1 U OII
Key Major Primary Secondary Subsecondary Final
15 I 29 W IOO 19
I 28 W OOI
Key Major Primary Secondary Subsecondary Final
These several examples should help to illustrate the FBI's extended classification formulas for classifying and filing fingerprints. The larger collection of fingerprints must of necessity call for a more detailed analysis of all fingerprint characteristic details. The closer examination to obtain further fingerprint subdivisions is dependent on ten legible inked impressions.
The identification officer will understand the problems of accurately classifying and filing fingerprint cards. He knows there is little value in placing a fingerprint card in the FBI's files with only an approximate or an inaccurate classification.
Every fingerprint card filed in the FBI's file is of value to the particular law enforcement agency which forwarded it, as well as to all other law enforcement agencies which rely on its being correctly classified and filed.
Temporary disabilities
There are temporary disabilities affecting an individual's hand which are sometimes beyond the control of the identification officer. These can be fresh cuts, or wounds, bandaged fingers or finger, occupational (carpenters, bricklayers, etc.) blisters, and excessive perspiration. Children, whose ridges are small and fine, would also come under this heading. Extreme care should be exercised in fingerprinting the aforementioned.
An indication on the fingerprint card to the effect "fresh cut, bandaged" is not sufficient to file the fingerprint card. It is obvious that a fingerprint card bearing these notations cannot be properly classified and filed. The same situation would occur if there were a blister on an individual's finger. The blister temporarily disfigures the ridge detail. When an injury is temporary, the prints, if at all possible, should not be taken until after the injury has healed.
Occupational problems (bricklayers, carpenters, etc.) are definitely a challenge to the identification officer. In some instances, by means of softening agents (oils and creams), it is possible to obtain legible inked impressions. It is further suggested that in these cases a very small amount of ink should be used on the inking plate.
Excessive perspiration can be controlled to some extent by the identification officer. Excessive perspiration causes the inked impressions to be indistinct. It is suggested in these cases to wipe the finger with a cloth and then immediately ink the finger and roll it on the fingerprint card. This process should be followed with each finger. It is also suggested that possibly the fingers could be wiped with alcohol, benzine, or similar fluid which would act as a drying agent.
In all the above situations, if it is not possible to accurately classify and file the fingerprint card, the name appearing on the card will be searched in the alphabetical files and then returned to the law-enforcement agency.
Permanent disabilities
Another phase involves permanent disabilities which can in most cases be controlled by the identification officer. These can be lack of fingers (born without), amputations, crippled fingers (bent, broken), deformities (webbed, extra fingers), and old age.
With respect to lack of fingers, it should be noted that some individuals are born without certain fingers. The notation "missing" is not satisfactory because it does not sufficiently explain the correct situation. It is suggested that "missing at birth" or some similar notation be made in the individual fingerprint block on the card. A proper notation concerning this situation will prevent the fingerprint card from being returned. Figures 378 and 379 illustrate temporary and permanent disabilities.
Concerning amputations, it is suggested that a proper notation to this effect appear in the individual fingerprint block or blocks. It is suggested that if a portion of the first joint of a finger is amputated, the finger should be inked and printed. A notation concerning this fact should be made on the fingerprint card in the individual fingerprint block.
In those cases where all of the fingers are amputated, the inked footprints should be obtained.
The handling of crippled fingers and certain deformities can be discussed in a group because they generally present the same problems. It is not sufficient in all cases to indicate "broken," "bent," "crippled." If the fingers are bent or crippled so that they are touching the palm and cannot be moved, a notation to this effect should be on the fingerprint card in the proper individual fingerprint block. However, it is believed that these extreme cases are rare. It is suggested that the special inking devices used for taking the prints of deceased individuals be used in taking inked impressions of bent or crippled fingers.
This equipment, which will be discussed more fully in the section on printing deceased persons, consists of spatula, small roller, and a curved holder for the individual finger block. Figure 380 shows the spatula, roller, and curved holder. It should be further noted in figure 380 that there are a strip of the entire hand of the fingerprint card and also individual finger blocks cut from the fingerprint card. Each of these types can be used in connection with the curved holder.
Each crippled finger is taken as a separate unit and then the finger block pasted on a fingerprint card. In figure 381, note the use of the spatula for applying the ink to a bent or crippled finger; and in figure 382, observe the use of the curved holder for taking the "rolled" impression of a bent or crippled finger.
Old age has been placed under permanent disability only for discussion purposes. The problem is not encountered frequently in taking the fingerprints of individuals who are arrested. The situation of crippled fingers due to old age may be met, and it can be handled as previously suggested. In most cases the problems arise because of the very faint ridges of the individual. It is believed that in the majority of cases, legibly inked prints can be taken by using a very small amount of ink on the inking plate and by using little pressure in the rolling of the fingers.
Deformities
If a subject has more than 10 fingers, as occasionally happens, the thumbs and the next 4 fingers to them should be printed, and any fingers left over should be printed on the other side of the card with a notation made to the effect that they are extra fingers. When a person with more than 10 fingers has an intentional amputation performed, it is invariably the extra finger on the little finger side which is amputated.
It also happens, not infrequently, that a subject will have two or more fingers webbed or grown together, as in figures 383 and 384, making it impossible to roll such fingers on the inside. Such fingers should be rolled, however, as completely as possible, and a notation made to the effect that they are joined.
Split thumbs, i.e., thumbs having two nail joints, as in figure 385, are classified as if the joint toward the outside of the hand were not present. In other words the inner joint is used, and no consideration whatever is given to the outer joint.
General
These problems have dealt with the mechanical or operational processes. However, there are other problems dealing with the completing of the descriptive information. The fingerprint card may be returned because of the lack of information in the spaces provided, such as name, sex, race, height, weight, etc. Any discrepancies in this information may necessitate the return of the fingerprint card.
The success and value of the FBI's fingerprint files to all law enforcement agencies are dependent, in a large measure, on the legibly inked fingerprints taken by law enforcement agencies.
Figure 386 shows an enlarged portion of the bulb of a finger revealing the microscopic structure of the friction skin. The epidermis consists of two main layers, namely, the stratum corneum, which covers the surface, and the stratum mucosum, which is just beneath the covering surface. The stratum mucosum is folded under the surface so as to form ridges which will run lengthwise and correspond to the surface ridges. However, these are twice as numerous since the deeper ridges which correspond to the middle of the surface ridges alternate with smaller ones which correspond to the furrows. The sweat pores run in single rows along the ridges and communicate through the sweat ducts with the coil sweat glands which are below the entire epidermis. The friction ridges result from the fusion in rows of separate epidermic elements, such as the dot shown on the left. Generally speaking, when an individual bruises or slightly cuts the outer layer or stratum corneum of the bulb of the finger, the ridges will not be permanently defaced. However, if a more serious injury is inflicted on the bulb of the finger, thereby damaging the stratum mucosum, the friction skin will heal, but not in its original formation. The serious injury will result in a permanent scar appearing on the bulb of the finger.
CHAPTER X
Problems and Practices in Fingerprinting the Dead
Each year new graves are opened in potter's fields all over the United States. Into many of them are placed the unknown dead—those who have lived anonymously or who, through accident or otherwise, lose their lives under such circumstances that identification seems impossible. In a majority of such cases, after the burial of the body, no single item or clue remains to effect subsequent identification. As a result, active investigation usually ceases and the cases are forgotten, unless, of course, it is definitely established that a murder has been committed.
Reliance is too often placed on visual inspection in establishing the identity of the deceased. This includes having the remains viewed by individuals seeking to locate a lost friend or relative. The body is often decomposed. If death was caused by burning, the victim may be unrecognizable. As a result of many fatal accidents the deceased is often mutilated, particularly about the face, so that visual identification is impossible. Yet, in many cases, the only attempt at identification is by having persons view the remains and the personal effects.
The recorded instances of erroneous visual identifications are numerous. In one case a body, burned beyond recognition, was identified by relatives as that of a 21-year-old man; yet fingerprints later proved that the corpse was that of a 55-year-old man.
Fingerprints have frequently been instrumental in establishing the correct identity of persons killed in airplane crashes and incorrectly "identified" by close relatives.
In one instance a woman found dead in a hotel room was "positively" identified by several close friends. The body was shipped to the father of the alleged deceased in another state where again it was "identified" by close friends. Burial followed. Approximately one month later the persons who had first identified the body as that of their friend were sitting in a tavern when the "dead" woman walked into the room. Authorities were immediately advised of the error; they in turn advised the authorities in the neighboring state of the erroneous identification and steps were taken immediately to rectify the mistake. After permission had been granted by the State Health Board to exhume the body of the dead woman, fingerprints were taken and copies were forwarded to the FBI Identification Division. The finger impressions were searched through the fingerprint files and the true identity of the deceased was established.
During a 12-month period, the FBI Identification Division received the fingerprints of 1,708 unknown dead. Of these, 1,298, or almost 76 percent, were identified. The remaining 410 were not identified simply because fingerprints of these individuals were not in the FBI files. It should be noted that in these 1,708 cases, it was possible to secure legible fingerprints of the deceased in the usual manner by inking the fingers in those instances in which decomposition had not injured the ridge detail.
In addition to the fingerprints of 1,708 unknown dead, the Identification Division received the fingers and/or the hands of 85 unknown dead individuals. In these cases, decomposition was so far advanced that it was not possible to secure inked fingerprints in the regular manner. Of these, 68 bodies, or 80 percent of the group, were identified. Of the 17 unidentified, the fingerprints of 14 were not in the FBI files. In three cases decomposition was so far advanced that all ridge detail had been destroyed.
In order to emphasize what can be accomplished, it is pointed out that in those cases in which hands and fingers were submitted, the time which elapsed from death until the specimens were received ranged from a week to 3 years. Incredible as it may seem, it has been possible to secure identifiable impressions 3 years after death.
These statistics of achievement in the field of identifying unknown dead re-emphasize the fact that in all cases involving the identification of a deceased person, fingerprints should be used as the medium for establishing a conclusive and positive identification.
Generally speaking, in the course of their work fingerprint operators find it necessary to take the impressions of three classes of deceased persons.
They are:
- Those who have died recently, in which cases the task is relatively simple.
- Those dead for a longer period, in which cases difficulty is experienced due to pronounced stiffening of the fingers, the early stages of decomposition, or both.
- Those cases in which extreme difficulty is encountered because of maceration, desiccation, or advanced decay of the skin.
These problems will be considered separately.
1. Fingerprinting the Newly Dead.
When the fingers are flexible it is often possible to secure inked fingerprint impressions of a deceased person through the regular inking process on a standard fingerprint card. Experience has proved that this task can be made easier if the deceased is laid face down and palms down on a table (fig. 388).
In all cases where inked impressions are to be made, care should be exercised to see that the fingers are clean and dry before inking. If necessary, wash the digits with soap and water and dry thoroughly.
In the event difficulty is encountered in trying to procure fingerprints by the regular method, it may prove more convenient to cut the 10 "squares" numbered for the rolled impressions from a fingerprint card. After the finger is inked, the square is rolled around the finger without letting it slip. Extreme caution should be exercised to see that each square bears the correct fingerprint impression. After all the inked impressions are properly taken, the ten squares bearing the impressions are pasted or stapled to a standard fingerprint card in their proper positions, i.e., right thumb, right index, right middle, etc. Whenever possible the "plain" or "simultaneous" impressions should also be taken.
In some cases it will be found necessary to obtain or improvise a tool similar to a broad-bladed putty knife or spatula to be used as an inking instrument. The ink is rolled evenly and thinly on the knife or spatula and applied to the finger by passing the inked knife or spatula around it. The tool, of course, replaces the usual glass inking slab or plate, the use of which is extremely difficult or awkward when printing a deceased person.
2. Fingerprinting the Dead, Where Stiffening of the Fingers and/or Early Decomposition Are Present.
This second group consists of cases in which the hands of the deceased are clenched, or the finger tips are wrinkled, or decomposition has begun, and/or where there are combinations of these three conditions. Cases of this sort may necessitate cutting off the skin. Legal authority is necessary before cutting a corpse. Such authority may be granted by state law or by an official having authority to grant such a right.
In cases where rigor mortis (stiffening of the muscles) has set in and the fingers are tightly clenched, the fingers may be forcibly straightened by "breaking the rigor." This is done by holding the hand of the deceased person firmly with one hand, grasping the finger to be straightened with the four fingers of the other hand and placing the thumb, which is used as a lever, on the knuckle of the finger and forcing it straight (fig. 389). The inking tool and "squares," as previously explained, are then used to secure the fingerprint.
In the event the rigor cannot be completely overcome, it will be most helpful to improvise or secure a spoon-shaped tool for holding the cut squares or cut strips while printing the fingers, similar to the tool mentioned briefly in the discussion of crippled fingers. This tool, somewhat resembling a gouge without the sharp edge, should have a handle, a concave end, and a frame or clamp to hold the cardboard squares or strips. In Figure 390, one type of tool is illustrated. This tool eliminates the necessity of rolling the deceased's finger, since the "square" assumes the concave shape of the tool, and the gentle pressure applied to the inked finger when it is brought in contact with the square results in a "rolled" impression without actually rolling the finger.
Another problem encountered in this second group includes cases in which the tips of the fingers are fairly pliable and intact, yet due to the presence of wrinkles in the skin, complete impressions cannot be obtained. This condition can be corrected by the injection of a tissue builder, procurable from a dealer in undertaker's supplies. If this is not available, glycerin or water may be used.
The method is simple. Injection of the tissue builder, glycerin, or water, is accomplished by the use of a hypodermic syringe. The hypodermic needle is injected at the joint of the finger up into the tip of the finger, care being used to keep the needle below the skin surface (fig. 391). The solution is injected until the finger "bulbs" are rounded out, after which they are inked and printed.
Occasionally, in stubborn cases, entry of the needle at the joint and injection of the fluid will not completely fill the finger bulb. It may be necessary, therefore, to inject the fluid at other points of the finger such as the extreme tip or sides, until suitable results are achieved (fig. 392). The tissue builder has a distinct advantage over glycerin or water, inasmuch as the builder hardens after a short time and is not lost, whereas glycerin and water sometimes seep out when pressure is applied in printing. To offset seepage at the point where the hypodermic needle is injected, whenever possible, tie a piece of string tightly around the finger just above the point of entry of the needle.
When the tissue builder is purchased, a solvent for cleaning the hypodermic syringe and needle should be acquired, inasmuch as the builder will harden in the syringe and needle.
Those cases in which decomposition in its early stage is present belong in this group also. Frequently, the outer layer of skin has begun to peel from the fingers. A careful examination should be made to determine if the peeling skin is intact or if a part of it has been lost. If the skin is in one piece, an effort should be made to secure prints just as though it were attached normally to the finger. Or, if it is deemed advisable, the skin may be peeled off in one piece, placed over the finger of the operator, and inked and printed as though it were his own finger.
Occasionally the first layer of skin is missing. There remains the dermis or second layer of skin which is also of value for identification purposes. This second layer would be dealt with as though it were the outside skin, using the techniques described above. The ridge detail of the second layer of skin is less pronounced than that of the outer skin, however, and more attention and care are needed in order to obtain suitable impressions.
So far this discussion has dealt with the taking of impressions of fingers when the flesh is fairly firm and the ridge detail intact. A different problem arises when the fingers are in various stages of decay. The techniques of treating the fingers in such cases vary greatly, depending upon the condition of the fingers with respect to decomposition, desiccation, or maceration.
3. Fingerprinting the Dead in Difficult Cases.
In cases involving badly decomposed bodies the first thing to do is to examine the fingers to see if all are present. If they are not, an effort should be made to determine whether the missing finger or fingers or even a hand was amputated during the person's lifetime, or whether the loss was due to other causes such as destruction by animal or marine life. Deductions from this examination should be noted on the fingerprint record. This point is made in view of the fact that in the fingerprint files of the FBI and some police departments, the fingerprint cards reflecting amputations are filed separately. Noting amputations may lessen to a great extent a search through the fingerprint files.
In making the initial examination, attention should be given to the removal of dirt, silt, grease and other foreign matter from the fingers. Soap and water are good cleansing agents. So is xylene, a chemical which will readily clean grease and fatty matter from the fingers. Good results can be achieved by utilizing a child's soft-bristled toothbrush in cases where the skin is fairly firm. The brushing should be done lightly and the strokes should follow the ridge design in order to clean not only the ridges but the depressions as well. In the event that the skin is not firm enough to use the toothbrush, a cotton swab may be used. The fingers should be wiped very lightly with either soap and water or xylene, always following the ridge contours.
At this point the fingers are again examined to determine the condition they are in, based upon the circumstances in which the body was found. Study and actual experience have shown that there are three general types of conditions to be considered: Decomposition or putrefaction, prevalent in bodies found in brush or buried in earth; desiccation or mummification (that is, dried out), noted in bodies which have been found in the open (ridge detail not in contact with the ground) in dry protected places, or bodies subjected to severe heat; and the group involving maceration (water soaking), which ordinarily results from being immersed in water.
The degree of decomposition, desiccation, or maceration varies from a comparatively early stage to an extremely advanced stage. Accordingly, each case must be considered individually. For example, what is done successfully in one case of desiccation may not show favorable results in another. Hence, the techniques outlined below point out generally what can be done, and has been done, with success.
When a body is found, the hands usually will be tightly clenched. The first problem will be to straighten the fingers. If rigor mortis has set in and an effort to straighten the fingers as previously explained fails, the difficulty can be overcome easily. Using a scalpel, make a deep cut at the second joint on the inner side of each of the four fingers. They can now be straightened with the application of force (fig. 393). The thumb, if it is cramped or bent, can generally be straightened by making a deep cut between the thumb and the index finger. These incisions are made for the obvious purpose of examining the fingers to determine if there is any ridge detail. Before this fact can be definitely ascertained it may be necessary to cleanse the pattern areas with soap and water or xylene, as previously explained. |
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