The most popular work in the later dynasties was that which has been called the Book of the Dead by modern writers. We must not conceive {77} of it as a bound up whole, like our Bible; but rather as an incongruous accumulation of charms and formulae, parts of which were taken at discretion by various scribes according to local or individual tastes. No single papyrus contains even the greater part of it, and the choice made among the heterogeneous material is infinitely varied. The different sections have been numbered by modern editors, starting with the order found in some of the best examples, and more than two hundred such chapters are recognised. Every variety of belief finds place in this large collection; every charm or direction which could benefit the dead found a footing here if it attained popularity. From prehistoric days downward it formed a religious repertory without limits or regulation. Portions known in the close of the old kingdom entirely vanish in later copies, while others appear which are obviously late in origin. The incessant adding of notes, incorporation of glosses, and piling of explanations one on the other, has increased the confusion. And to add to our bewilderment, the scribes were usually quite callous about errors in a writing which was never to be seen or used by living eyes; and the corruptions, which have been in turn made worse, have left hardly any sense in many parts. At {78} best it is difficult to follow the illusions of a lost faith, but amid all the varieties of idea and bad readings superposed, the task of critical understanding is almost hopeless. The full study of such a work will need many new discoveries and occupy generations of critical ingenuity. We can distinguish certain groups of chapters, an Osirian section on the kingdom of Osiris and the service of it, a theological section, a set of incantations, formulae for the restoration of the heart, for the protection of the soul from spirits and serpents in the hours of night, charms to escape from perils ordained by the gods, an account of the paradise of Osiris, a different version of the kingdom and judgment of Osiris, a Heliopolitan doctrine about the ba, and its powers of transformation entirely apart from all that is stated elsewhere, the account of the reunion of soul and body, magic formulae for entering the Osirian kingdom, another account of the judgment of Osiris, charms for the preservation of the mummy and for making efficacious amulets, together with various portions of popular beliefs.

In contrast to the mainly Osirian character above described, we see the solar religion dominant in the Book of Am Duat, or that which {79} is in the underworld. This describes the successive hours of the night, each hour fenced off with gates which are guarded by monsters. At each gate the right spells must be uttered to subdue the evil powers, and so pass through with the sun. The older beliefs in Seker, the god of the silent land, and Osiris, the king of the blessed world, are fitted in to the newer system by allotting some hours to these other realms as a part of the solar journey. A variant of this work is the Book of Gates, describing the gates of the hours, but omitting Seker and making Osiris more important. These books represent the fashionable doctrines of the kings in the Ramesside times, and are mainly known from the royal tombs on which they are inscribed.

Another branch of the sacred books survives in the formal theology of the schools which grouped gods together in trinities or enneads. These were certainly very ancient, having been formed under the Heliopolitan supremacy before the rise of the first dynasty. And if the artificial co-ordinating of the gods of varied sources is thus ancient, we have a glimpse of the much greater age of the Osiride gods, and still further of the primitive gods Seb and Nut, and the earliest worship of animals. {80} The great ennead of Heliopolis consisted of Shu, Tefnut, Seb, Nut, Osiris, Isis, Set, Nebhat, and Horus; there were also secondary and tertiary enneads of lesser gods. When the sun-god Atmu became prominent, Horus was omitted and the eight other gods were called children of Atmu, who headed the group, as in the Pyramid texts. The nine are not composed of three triads, but of four pairs and a leader. This is on the same type as the four pairs of elemental gods at Hermopolis under the chief god Tahuti. The triads were usual at most cities, but were in many cases clearly of artificial arrangement, in order to follow a type, the deities being of very unequal importance. At Thebes, Amon, Mut, and Khonsu; at Memphis, Ptah, Sekhet, and the deified man Imhotep; and in general Osiris, Isis, and Horus, were the principal triads.



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CHAPTER XIII

PRIVATE WORSHIP

A people so deeply imbued with religious ideas as the Egyptians doubtless carried their habits of worship beyond the temple gates. But unfortunately we have no graphic or connected view of their private devotions. At the present day a few natives will scrupulously follow the daily ritual of Islam; many keep up some convenient portion, such as the religious aspect of an evening bath after the day's work; but most of the peasantry have little or no religious observances. Perhaps the average of mankind does not differ very greatly, in various countries, in its extent of religious observance: and most likely the ancient Egyptian varied in usages much like the modern.

The funeral offerings for the deceased ancestors certainly filled a large place in observances; the drink offerings poured out upon the altar in the {82} chapel, and the cakes brought for the ka to feed upon, were the main expression of family piety. How serious were such services is seen by their expansion into endowments for great tombs, extending to the great temples and priesthoods for the kings. The eldest son was the sacrificing priest for his progenitors, as in China and India at present; he was called the an-mut-f, or 'support of his mother,' and is figured as leading the worship in the adoration of deceased kings. But all the sons took part in the sacrifices, and trapped the birds (Medum, x, xiii), or slaughtered the ox for the ka of their father. Such family sacrifices were the occasions of social feasts and family reunions; of later times the remains of the feasts were found strewing the cemetery at Hawara in the tomb chapels; and to this day both Copts and Mohammedans hold family feasts and spend the night at the tombs of their ancestors.

All offerings were considered to be presented only by the king, as the great high-priest of all the land. Every formula of offering began 'May the king give an offering'; and the figure of the king making the offering, while the offerer stands behind him, is actually shown as late as the eighteenth dynasty.

{83}

The primitive belief in the tree-goddess, the Hathor who dwelt in the thick sycomore tree, and showered sycomore figs abundantly on her devotees, was a popular worship. It was by no means bound up with the tomb service, as in one case a red recess in a dwelling room had a panel picture at the top of it showing the tree goddess giving blessings to her worshipper (Ramesseum, xx).

The latter instance gives the meaning of a curious domestic feature in the well-to-do houses of the bureaucracy at Tell-el-Amarna. In the central hall of the house was a recess in the wall painted bright red. It varied from twenty-three to fifty-one inches wide, and was at least five or six feet high. Sometimes there is an inner recess in the middle twenty-five to thirty-three inches wide. From the religious scene over such a recess it seems that these were the foci for family worship.

The abundance of little statuettes of gods of glazed pottery, and often of bronze, silver, and even of gold, show how common was the custom of wearing such devotional objects. Children especially wore figures of Bes, and less commonly Taurt, the protecting genii of childhood.

Another feature of popular religion was the {84} harvest festival. The grain was heaped, the winnowing shovels and rakes stuck upright in it, and then holding up the boards (which were used to scrape up the grain) in each hand, adoration was paid to Rannut, the serpent-goddess of the harvest.

The observance of lucky and unlucky days was prevalent. The fragment of a calendar shows each day marked good or evil, or triply good or evil.

The household amulets in the prehistoric days were the great serpent stones with figures of the coiled serpent; much suggesting an earlier use of large ammonites. In later times the image of Horus subduing the powers of evil seems to have been the protective figure of the house.

When we reach Roman times we have a fuller view of the popular worship in the terra-cotta figures. At Ehnasya, for instance, we find the following proportions—five of Serapis, five Isis, twenty-four Horus, four Bes, one goddess of palm trees. It was especially the worship of Horus that was developed in this line. The kind of shrines used in the houses are also shown by the terra-cottas. These were wooden framed cupboards, with doors below, over them a recess between two pillars to hold the image, and a lamp burning {85} before it, and the whole crowned with a cornice of uraei. Smaller little lamp holders were also made to hang up, and very possibly to place with a lamp on a grave. At present mud hutches are made to place lamps in on holy sites in Egypt.

The terra-cottas have also preserved the forms of the wayside shrines. These were certainly influenced in their architecture by Greek models, but the idea is probably much older. The shrines were sometimes a little chamber, with a domed top, like a modern wely or saint's tomb, or sometimes a roof on four pillars with a dwarf wall or lattice work around three sides. Such were the places for wayside devotions and passing prayers, as among the Egyptians of the present day.



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CHAPTER XIV

EGYPTIAN ETHICS

Fortunately we have preserved to us a considerable body of the maxims of conduct from the Pyramid times; and these show very practically what were the ideals and the motives of the early people. This is only a small side of the present subject, but it will be found fully stated in Religion and Conscience in Ancient Egypt.

The repudiation of sins before the judgment of Osiris is the earliest code of morals, and it is striking that in this there are no family duties. Such an exclusion points to the family being unimportant in early times, the matriarchate perhaps then excluding the responsibility of the man. In the earliest form the prominence of duties is in the order of those to equals, to inferiors, to gods, and to the man's own character. In later times the duties to inferiors have almost vanished, and the inner duties to character are {87} greatly extended, being felt to lie at the root of all else.

The ideal character was drawn in the maxims as being strong, steadfast, commanding, direct, self-respecting, avoiding inferior companionships, active, and above all truthful and straightforward. Discretion, quietness, and reserve were enforced, and a dignified endurance without pride was to be attained.

In material things energy and self-reliance were held up, and a judicious respect for, and imitation of, successful men. Covetousness was specially reprobated, and luxury and self-indulgence were looked on as a course which ends in bitterness.

The aspect of marriage depended essentially on property. Where a woman had property of her own she was mistress of the house, and her husband was but a kind of permanent boarder. Though in early times, and among the priestesses later, the choice by a woman was scarcely regarded as permanent. Where, however, the household depended on the work of the man, he naturally took the leading part. But the code of abstract morality, and the dictates of common prudence, between men and women, were of as high a standard as in any ancient or modern peoples. No reasonable legislator would wish to {88} add more, although six thousand years and Christianity have intervened since the Egyptian framed his life. The family sense of duty in training and advancing a man's sons was strongly urged.

In the general interchange of social life perhaps the main feature was that of consideration for others. A higher standard of good feeling and kindliness existed than any that we know of among ancient peoples, or among most modern nations. The council-hall of the local ruler was the main theatre for ability; and the injunctions to be fearless, and at the same time gentle and cautious, would improve the character of any modern assembly. The greater number of precepts however relate to the judicious conduct toward inferiors. Justice and good discipline were the necessary basis, but they were to be always tempered by respect for the feelings and comfort of the servants.

The religious aspect of ethics was almost confined to the respect for the property and offerings of the gods. But the more spiritual side was touched in the precept, 'That which is detestable in the sanctuary of god are noisy feasts; if thou implore him with a loving heart, of which all the words are mysterious, he will do thy {89} matters, he hears thy words, he accepts thine offerings.'

The permanence of the Egyptian character will strike any one who knows the modern native. The essential mode of justification in the judgment was by the declaration of the deceased that he had not done various crimes; and to this day the Egyptian will rely on justifying himself by sheer assertion that he has not done wrong, in face of absolute proofs to the contrary. The main fault of character that was condemned was covetousness, and it is the feeling which wrecks the possibility of Egyptian independence at present. The intrusion of scheming underlings between the master and his men is noted as a failing; and exactly this trouble continually occurs now, when every servant tries to turn his position to an advantage over those who do business with his master. The dominance of the scribe in managing affairs and making profits was familiar in ancient as in modern times. And recent events in Egypt have reminded us of the old fickleness shown in the saying, 'Thy entering into a village begins with acclamations; at thy going out thou art saved by thy hand.'



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CHAPTER XV

THE INFLUENCE OF EGYPT

How far Egypt in its earlier days had influenced the faiths of other countries we cannot trace, owing to our ignorance of the early civilisations of the world. But in the later times the extension of the popular religion of Egypt can only be paralleled by the spread of Christianity or Islam. Isis was worshipped in Greece in the fourth century B.C., and in Italy in the second century. Soon after she won her way into official recognition by Sulla, and immediately after the death of Julius a temple to Isis was actually erected by the government. Once firmly established in Rome, the spread of Imperial power carried her worship over the world; emperors became her priests, and the humble centurion in remote camps honoured her in the wilds of France, Germany, Yorkshire, or the Sahara.

Not only Isis but also Osiris claimed the world's {91} worship. In the new form of the Osir-hapi of Memphis, or Serapis, the Ptolemies identified him with Zeus, both in appearance and by attributes. And, by the time of Nero, Isis and Osiris were said to be the deities of all the world. An interesting outline of this subject will be found in Professor Dill's Roman Society from Nero to Aurelius.

Besides these parent gods their son Horus also conquered the world with them. Isis and Horus, the Queen of Heaven and the Holy Child, became the popular deities of the later age of Egypt, and their figures far outnumber those of all other gods. Horus in every form of infancy was the loved bambino of the Egyptian women. Again Horus appears carried on the arm of his mother in a form which is indistinguishable from that adopted by Christianity soon after.

We see, then, throughout the Roman world the popular worship of the Queen of Heaven, Mater Dolorosa, Mother of God, patroness of sailors, and her infant son Horus the child, the benefactor of men, who took captive all the powers of evil. And this worship spread and increased in Egypt and elsewhere until the growing power of Christianity compelled a change. The old worship continued; for the Syrian maid became {92} transformed into an entirely different figure, Queen of Heaven, Mother of God, patroness of sailors, occupying the position and attributes already belonging to the world-wide goddess; and the Divine Teacher, the Man of Sorrows, became transformed into the entirely different figure of the Potent Child. Isis and Horus still ruled the affections and worship of Europe with a change of names.

Egypt also exercised an immense influence upon the Church in the Trinitarian controversy. That was a purely Egyptian dispute, between two presbyters brought up in the atmosphere of intricacies about the ka, the khu, the khat, the ba, the sahu, the khaybat, and the various other entities which constituted man. To carry forward similar refinements concerning the Divine Nature was as congenial to such minds as it was incomprehensible to the Western. And the dispute finally rested on the question of whether 'before time' was the same as 'from eternity.' Such was the struggle which Arius and Athanasius thrust upon the Church; a dispute which would never have been heard of in such a shape but for their Egyptian origin.

In another direction Egypt was also dominant. From some source—perhaps the Buddhist mission {93} of Asoka—the ascetic life of recluses was established in the Ptolemaic times, and monks of the Serapeum illustrated an ideal to man which had been as yet unknown in the West. This system of monasticism continued, until Pachomios, a monk of Serapis in Upper Egypt, became the first Christian monk in the reign of Constantine. Quickly imitated in Syria, Asia Minor, Gaul, and other provinces, as well as in Italy itself, the system passed into a fundamental position in mediaeval Christianity, and the reverence of mankind has been for fifteen hundred years bestowed on an Egyptian institution.

We thus see how the religious ideas of six thousand years or more have still survived and continued their power over civilised man, renamed but scarcely changed; and it is shown how new religious ideas can but transform, but not eradicate, the ancestral beliefs of past ages.



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INDEX

Bolded page numbers refer to bolded entries on their target page(s).

AAHMES, 42. Ab, represented by heart, 9. —— the will, 9. Abusir, temple to Ra, 51. Akhenaten, 54. Amen, 51, 68. Amenhotep III, serpent at Benha, 21. Amon, 47. —— goose, 25. —— ram, 23, 30, 53. Amulets developed in XXVI, 17. Anaitis. See Anta. Anher, 55, 65. Animal-headed gods, 28. Animal worship, 20. Ankh held by Maat, 60. Anpu. See Anubis. Anqet, 63. Ansar, 65. Anta, 64. Anubis, jackal, 24, 35. Apap, serpent, 26. Apis, 23, 72. Asar. See Osiris. Asari, 65. Aset. See Isis. Ashtaroth, 23, 64, 65. Asir. See Osiris. Astarte. See Ashtaroth. Astharth. See Ashtaroth. Aten, 54. Athtar, 65. Atmu, 51, 53, 68, 80.

Ba, associated with Sahu, 9. —— human-headed bird, 9. —— in Book of the Dead, 78. —— requires food, 9, 13. Baal, 64. Baboon (Tahuti), 22. Bant-anta, 64. Bast, lioness, 22, 33, 62. Bastet, 33. Benha, agathodemon serpent, 21. Bēs, 62. —— children wear figures of, 83. Body not preserved in early times, 16. Bones preserved in prehistoric times, 18. Book of Am Duat, 78. Book of the Dead, 37, 38, 76-78. Book of Gates, 79. Bubastis, 22. Buddhist mission, 92. Bull, eaten by worshippers, 20. —— worship, 22, 23. Burial, offerings, 7. —— position of body, 7. Buto, 42. Byblos, Osiris's coffin at, 39.

COMPOUND NAMES OF GODS, 28. Cobra, 25. Crocodile, 25.

Dad, 68. Dedun, 63. Demons, 5. Dendereh, 63.

EARTH, creation of, 67. Edfu, hawk-worship, 24, 45. Ekhmim, 59. Eldest son offers to ancestors, 82. Entities, two vitalise the body, 8. Eye of Horus, 46.

FATES, seven Hat-hors, 60. Fayum, crocodile worship, 25, 72. Fish worship, 26. Frog, Heqt, 34. Future life, 12.

GOD, Christian view of, 5. —— Hebrew view of, 6. —— jealous, 5, 54. —— view of, held by Islam, 5. Gods, Chinese views of, 3. —— communications from, 3. —— divine, merged in human, 3. —— great gods, 3, 5. —— grouped owing to political unions, 5. —— misunderstanding of, 1. —— mortality of, 2. —— non-existence of other, 5. —— offerings to, 2. —— one to a city, 4. —— profusion of, 3. —— Siberian views of, 3. —— suffering of, 2. —— Sumerian views of, 3, 65. —— Turanian views of, 3, 4. —— wife of, 2.

HARMAKHIS, 46. Hat-hor, 60. —— cow, 23. —— Sinai temple, 22. —— tree goddess, 13, 83. Hati, the physical heart, 9. Hapi, 56. —— bull, 23. Hawk, 24. Heart, weighed against feather, 14. Heh, 61. Heqt, 34. Heliopolis, associated with Ra, 18, 51, 52. Hermopolis, 32, 61. Hershefi, ram, 23, 34. Heru. See Horus. Hierakonpolis, boats, 18. —— hawk-worship, 24, 45. Hippopotamus, 24. Hittite god Sutekh akin to Set, 64. —— goddess Anta, 64. Horus, 35, 44, 91. —— hawk, 24. —— overcomes noxious creatures, 27, 46. —— Ra's eyes obtained for, 10. —— a self-existent god, 4. —— stands on nub, 46. —— supersedes Set, 34. Hyksos, 42.

IBIS, Tahuti, 25. Ichneumon, 24. Immortality, Egyptian belief in, 7. Isis, 43, 90-92. —— ennead of Heliopolis, 80. —— obtains name of Ra, 10. —— virgin goddess, 4. Isit. See Isis. Istar, 65. Italy and Isis worship, 44, 90.

JACKAL, 24.

Ka, the activities of sense and perception, 7. —— funeral offerings made for, 8, 13, 73, 82. —— persistence after death, 8. —— represented by arms, 8. Karnak, Amon, god of, 47. Kak, 61. Khat, the material body, 9. Khaybat, the shadow, 9. —— and witchcraft, 11. Khent-amenti, god of the dead, 16. Khonsu, 48. Khepera, 54. Khu, represented as a crested bird, 8. —— the spirit, 7. Khnumu, 32. —— the creator, 32, 67, 68. —— ram, 23, 32. Kings' souls as hawks, 24. Kings pledged to Ra, 50. Koptos, 59.

LATOS, 26. Lepidotos, 26. Letopolis, Horus, god of, 45. Lioness, 22. Libyan people's goddess was Neit, 48.

MAAT, 60. —— figure of, presented to the god, 71. —— her worship retained by Akhenaten, 60. Mahes, lioness, 22. Marriage, aspect of, 87. Memphis, Ptah worship, 58. Mena, ibis on tablet, 33. Mentu, 33. —— bull, 23. Merastrot, 64. Merneit, 48. Mert-Seger, 31. —— —— serpent, 26. Milky Way the heavenly Nile, 14. Min, 59. Monastic system, 93. Monotheism, combinations of, 4. Mosaism, 5. Mummifying customary in III and IV dyn., 17. Mut, 48. —— vulture, 25.

NAME=ran, 10. —— power of, 10. Neb-hat, 43. See Nephthys. Neit, 48, 62. Nefertum, 61. Nekhebt, 32. Nenu, 61. Nephthys, 44, 80. Nilopolis, worship of Hapi, 57. Nu, 61. Nut, 55, 67, 79, 80.

OBELISK, emblem of Ra, 51. On. See Heliopolis. Onuphis, crocodile worship, 25. Osiris, 37. —— creator, 68. Osiris in sacred Books, 78-80. —— kings called, so, 18. —— ram-worship, 23. Osirian Kingdom, 13, 78. —— —— employment in, 14. —— —— predominant in XXVI dyn., 18. —— —— situation of, 14. —— —— slave figures do the work, 15. Oxyrhynkhos, 26.

PAN identified with Min, 69. Phagros, 26. Plutarch, 38. Polytheism, 5. Prayer, positive rather than negative, 11. Priests, titles of, 74, 75. Ptah, 58. —— bull, 23. —— creator, 67. Pyramid inscriptions, Osiris, 18. —— —— Ra, 18.

QEDESH, 64.

RA, 50. —— bull, 23. —— combined with Amon, 46. —— eyes obtained by Isis, 10. —— hawk, 24. —— predominant in XIX, 18. —— progress of, 15. Ram-worship, 23. Ran, the name, 10. Rannut, serpent, 26, 84. Red Sea, Min from, 59. Religion, purpose of, 11. Reseph, 64. Reshpu, 64. Ritual, 70.

Sa, 73. Safekh, 61. Sahit, associated with the ba, 9. Sais, Neit worshipped at, 49. Sati, 63. Scorpion, 26. Seb, 55, 67, 79, 80. Sebek, 25, 34. Seker, 31. —— god of silent land, 79. —— mummified hawk, 24. —— united with Ptah, 59. Sekhem, the force or ruling power, 9. Sekhet, lioness, 22. Sekhmet, 33. Self-satisfaction of Egyptian religion, 11, 89. Selk, scorpion, 26. Senusert I., 51. Serapis, 23, 91. Serpent, amulet, prehistoric, 21. —— —— of Amenhotep III, 21. —— at Epidaurus, 72. —— cobra, 25-26. Set, 34. —— crocodile, 25. —— ennead of Heliopolis, 80. —— god of Asiatic invaders, 41. —— hippopotamus, 24. Shamanism, 3. Sheykh Heridy, serpent, 26. Shrewmouse, 24. Shrines, 70, 80. Shu, 56, 67, 80. Sistrum in form of Hathor head, 60. Sopdu, 55. —— a mummy hawk, 25. Soul, continues near cemetery, 12. —— goes to Osirian Kingdom, 13. —— journeys in sun-boat, 15. Speos Artemidos, 22. Sphinx represents a king, 30. Strabo, 25. Sumerian gods, 65. Sutekh, 63. Swallow, sacred, 25. Syria, Osiris' Kingdom in, 14.

TAHUTI (see Thōth), baboon, 32. —— god of wisdom, 22. —— Ibis, 25, 32. Ta-urt, children wear figures of, 83. —— a foreign goddess, 62. —— hippopotamus, 24. Tefnut, lioness, 22. Theology of Aryans, 4. —— of Chinese, 4. —— compound, 5. —— definition of, 3. Theology, Monotheism first stage of, 4. —— of Semitic races, 4. Thinis, 55. Thōth (see Tahuti), god of writing, 32. —— creator, 67. —— in Osirian Kingdom, 14. Totemism and animal-worship, 20. Triads, 79, 80. Tum. See Atmu.

UAZET, 26, 32. —— serpent, 26.

VULTURE, 25.

WITCHCRAFT, 3. Worship of Egypt spread over the world, 90-93.



Printed by T. and A. CONSTABLE, Printers to His Majesty at the Edinburgh University Press



RELIGIONS: ANCIENT AND MODERN.

ANIMISM.

By EDWARD CLODD, Author of The Story of Creation.

PANTHEISM.

By JAMES ALLANSON PICTON, Author of The Religion of the Universe.

THE RELIGIONS OF ANCIENT CHINA.

By Professor GILES, LL.D., Professor of Chinese in the University of Cambridge.

THE RELIGION OF ANCIENT GREECE.

By JANE HARRISON, Lecturer at Newnham College, Cambridge, Author Prolegomena to Study of Greek Religion.

ISLAM IN INDIA.

By T. W. ARNOLD, Assistant Librarian at the India Office, Author of The Preaching of Islam.

ISLAM.

By SYED AMEER ALI. M.A., C.I.E., late of H.M.'s High Court of Judicature in Bengal, Author of The Spirit of Islam and The Ethics of Islam.

MAGIC AND FETISHISM.

By Dr. A. C. HADDON, F.R.S., Lecturer on Ethnology at Cambridge University.

THE RELIGION OF ANCIENT EGYPT.

By Professor W. M. FLINDERS PETRIE, F.R.S.

THE RELIGION OF BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA.

By THEOPHILUS G. PINCHES, late of the British Museum.

BUDDHISM. 2 vols.

By Professor RHYS DAVIDS, LL.D., late Secretary of The Royal Asiatic Society.

HINDUISM.

By Dr. L. D. BARNETT, of the Department of Oriental Printed Books and MSS., British Museum.

SCANDINAVIAN RELIGION.

By WILLIAM A. CRAIGIE, Joint Editor of the Oxford English Dictionary.

CELTIC RELIGION.

By Professor ANWYL, Professor of Welsh at University College, Aberystwyth.

THE MYTHOLOGY OF ANCIENT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

By CHARLES SQUIRE, Author of The Mythology of the British Islands.

JUDAISM.

By ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, Lecturer in Talmudic Literature in Cambridge University, Author of Jewish Life in the Middle Ages.

PRIMITIVE OR NICENE CHRISTIANITY.

By JOHN SUTHERLAND BLACK, LL.D., Joint Editor of the Encyclopaedia Biblica.



SHINTOISM. ZOROASTRIANISM. MEDIAEVAL CHRISTIANITY. THE RELIGION OF ANCIENT ITALY.

Other Volumes to follow.



Transcriber's notes:

The ae-ligature character was not used consistently in the source book.

In some cases, the god's name "Bes" has an e-macron, and in others a standard e. No attempt was made to regularize this.

Page numbers in this book are indicated by numbers enclosed in curly braces, e.g. {99}. For its Index, a page number has been placed only at the start of that section. In the HTML version of this book, page numbers are placed in the left margin.

Footnotes have been renumbered sequentially and moved to the end of their respective chapters.

The plus (+) sign indicates bolded text, e.g. this is +bolded+.

Vowels with macron accenting are preceded by an equals sign (=), and the pair are surrounded by square brackets, e.g. "Thōth". In the Unicode version of this etext, the actual Unicode characters have been used. In the HTML version, entities have been used.

There are two instances in this text of the actual equals sign, however, neither follows a square bracket or precedes a vowel.

THE END