The means employed by the State for the regulation of the roads under its jurisdiction should be such as are least likely to lead to a conflict with Federal authority, and experience has shown that the authority of the General Government and that of an individual State over a railroad company, which is incorporated under the laws of the latter, but is engaged in interstate commerce, may be so harmonized as to avoid conflicts between the two sovereignties without any great sacrifice of power on the part of either. Judge Cooley said recently in reference to regulation by National and State commissions:

"There is no good reason in the nature of things why the conformity should not be complete and perfect. It is remarkable that up to this time there has been so little—I will not say of conflict, but even of diversity of action between the National and State commissions. Indeed, I recall no instance at this time when anything done by the one has seemed to me to afford just ground for complaint by the other. This may justly be attributed to the fact that there has been no purpose on the part of either to do any act that could afford ground for just complaint on the part of managers of the business regulated and no desire to do anything else than to apply rules of right and equality for the protection of the general public. The aim of all regulation ought to be justice, and when it is apparent that this is the purpose of the several commissions, the railroad managers of the country may more reasonably be expected to cooperate with them much more generally than they do now. If these managers were to come generally and heartily into more full and complete recognition of the rules of right and justice that the law undertakes to lay down for the performance of their duties in their management of the great interests they represent, there cannot be the least doubt that the general result would be, not only that their service to the public would be more useful than it is now, but that the revenues derived from their business would be materially increased through the cutting off of many of the drains upon them, which now, while affecting injuriously the returns they can make to their stockholders, at the same time have the effect of prejudicing the mind of the general public against railroad management to an extent quite beyond what is generally understood by those who suffer from it. The prejudice is inevitable, and not at all unreasonable when it is seen, as it very often is, that these drains result from an unjust discrimination against the public or some portion thereof, that they are of a character that ought to need no law and no criminal or other penalties to put them under the ban of condemnation in every office of railroad management.

"I take the liberty of adding one more thought: that the more perfect is railroad legislation, the less we shall hear of transportation by rail being made a Government function, the General Government making purchase of all the roads and entering upon a course which will lead we know not where or into what disasters."

There has been during the past twenty years a tendency in a majority of the States to place the local control of railroads in the hands of executive boards, usually styled "railroad commissioners." Previous to this period the various States relied solely upon legislation for the regulation of the transportation business, but in time they became convinced that such laws were inoperative for the want of an enforcing power. It was found that the individual shipper was unable to cope with a powerful company and usually would rather suffer wrong than to enter into a contest which nearly always resulted in great pecuniary loss to him. On the other hand, it was apparent that if the claim of the individual were pressed by a railroad commission, even though such a body had but limited powers, it would, under ordinary circumstances, be honored, provided it was meritorious; and if the commission was compelled to enforce a demand through the courts, it would have the support of the State to poise the wealth and power of the corporation.

The term "railroad commissioner" in the United States is nearly as old as the railroad itself; but the first officials bearing that title were merely successors to the turnpike commissioners of yore; their duties consisted chiefly in supervising, passing or reporting upon the construction and condition of the highway.

The first railroad commission, in the present acceptation of the term, was created in the State of Massachusetts, in 1869. The commission consisted of three persons, whose principal duty was to "make an annual report to the General Court, including such statements, facts and explanations as will disclose the actual working of the system of railroad transportation in its bearing upon the business and prosperity of the commonwealth, and such suggestions as to its general railroad policy, or any part thereof, or the condition, affairs or conduct of any railroad corporation, as may seem to it appropriate." This board also had the general supervision of all railroads and power to examine the same. It was required to give notice in writing to any railroad corporation which, in its judgment, was guilty of any violation of the railroad laws of the State; and if such company continued the violation, after such notice, it became the duty of the commission to present the facts to the Attorney-General. It was further made the duty of the board to examine, from time to time, the books and accounts of all railroads, to see that they were kept in a uniform manner, and upon the system prescribed by the board. It was also required to investigate the cause of any accident on a railroad resulting in loss of life. These being the principal duties of the board, its powers were very limited; but its personnel supplied the power which the law had withheld. The success of this commission exceeded even the expectations of the advocates of the system, who, in view of the limited powers of the commission, had anticipated but meager results.

To quiet the Granger movement the railroads favored and finally secured the adoption of the commissioner system in the West, and South, in which sections it attained its highest development. It was soon found that a commission after the Massachusetts model, when composed of men less competent or less disposed to do their duty, was liable to dwindle into a statistical board or even become a pliant tool in the hands of the railroads. Furthermore, the conditions in Massachusetts, where railroad owners and railroad patrons lived side by side and were in many instances even identical, differed materially from those found in the West and South, where railroad patrons were made to pay excessive rates, to produce liberal dividends on fictitious stocks for non-resident stockholders. Here a conflict between the railroads and such commissions as were determined to do their duty became often unavoidable. Railroad companies were as a rule disposed to disregard the recommendation of a commission to reduce exorbitant rates. This led in those States which suffered most from unjust tariffs to a popular demand to endow the commission with the power to fix prima facie rates. While the number of States which have taken this step is at present still limited, public opinion in its favor is growing throughout the nation, and a general adoption of this policy is probably only a question of time. There is every reason for believing that a commission vested with the right to fix local rates, to require full and complete reports from railroad companies, and to make proper regulations for their control, aided by penal legislation to compel compliance with their orders, will be a sufficient aid to the State in exercising such control over the companies operating lines within its borders as its dignity and the welfare of its people demand.

Viewing the question from a national point of view, we find that, owing to the great and constantly increasing importance of interstate traffic, improved Federal agencies for railroad control are a pressing need. While much has been accomplished by the Interstate Commerce Act, much yet remains to be done. Violations of the act are still far too frequent, and they have been encouraged by unfriendly decisions by some of the inferior Federal courts.

It must be admitted that nearly all the evils connected with interstate transportation could soon be remedied were it not for the difficulties which the Interstate Commerce Commission encounters in the enforcement of the law. On the one hand it is not possible with the machinery at present provided to detect and prove a considerable part of the violations of which railroad managers are daily guilty; and on the other hand, if these violations are brought to light, there would not, according to the testimony of a prominent railroad man, be courts enough in the country to try the violators. Besides this, such is the artfulness of railroad managers that in a majority of cases it would be impossible to reach the guilty party, and subordinates would have to answer for the transgressions of their superiors.

To provide adequate machinery for the supervision of the transportation business, a national bureau of commerce and transportation should be established. As its chief a director-general of railroads should be appointed by the President, on the recommendation of the Secretary of the Interior, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate. This officer should hold his office for a term of at least six years, unless sooner removed by the President, upon reasons to be communicated by him to the Senate. He should not be interested either directly or indirectly in railroad securities. The Interstate Commerce Commission should be continued as an advisory board. It should upon the whole retain its present functions and should be consulted by the director-general in all matters requiring expert investigation. A number of divisions or sub-bureaus should be established, and each should be entrusted, under the supervision of the director-general, with such duties as may be deemed necessary to secure the greatest efficiency.

There should be a division charged with the duty of carefully examining and compiling the detailed reports which the various companies should by law be required to make to the bureau. An inspection service should also be established, similar to that now maintained by the Treasury and Post-office Departments. Its officers should be empowered to enter all railroad offices and examine the companies' books, board trains and employ other legal means to detect violations of the railroad law and report them to the chief of the bureau.

Railroad companies might be permitted to make interstate rates, but all schedules should be submitted to the bureau for approval or revision. Legal provision should be made against every sort of speculation in railroad stocks on the part of railroad officers, who should, in addition, be prohibited from sharing in the profits of favorite rates, as at present. All executive officers and directors of railroad companies should, like officers of national banks, be required to qualify by taking an oath of office, and should be held to strict accountability for their official acts. Officers of railroad companies should not be allowed to receive and use proxies at stockholders' meetings.

The director-general should have the power, when he has proof that a railroad manager is persistently violating the law, to remove him and to appoint a receiver to take charge of the road until its owners can make provision and furnish sufficient guarantee for a more responsible management. Such a procedure would not be without analogy in the sphere of Federal authority. The Comptroller of the Currency is authorized by law to remove the derelict officials of a national bank and place its business in charge of a receiver. The beneficial effect of this provision is evinced in the extreme rareness of such a step. When railroad managers are held responsible for their own official acts, as well as for those of their subordinates, and when all railroad transgressions are visited upon their source in such a manner as to be remembered by the stings of disgrace and of a blighted career, unfaithful railroad managers will be extremely rare.

The plan here outlined is of course capable of being greatly improved. Experience only is a reliable guide as to the merits of the various details of such a system of control. What is needed above all things is a beginning, the establishment of the principle of complete control of railroad transportation by the State and the Nation. When this step is once taken, the friends of railroad reform may safely trust to time for the solution of the subordinate questions of this important problem.

By thorough State and Federal supervision of the railroad business many of the present abuses can be prevented. But the temptations of railroad managers to violate the law will continue to exist as long as the speculative element is permitted to remain in railroad securities. To remove the fountain-head of the evil eventually, the way should gradually be paved for a change in railroad organization and ownership which would also greatly increase the responsibility and efficiency of railroad management. In the beginning of the railroad era, nearly all, and not unfrequently all the capital needed for the construction of a new line was supposed to be furnished by the company's stockholders. But as it often happened that the cost of construction considerably exceeded the original estimate, the State authorized railroad companies to mortgage their property for the purpose of raising the money necessary to complete the road. In time this provision of the law was taken advantage of by speculative stockholders to such an extent that roads were often bonded for the full amount necessary to construct them, and even for more, while the stock was issued simply as a bonus to the promoters and the bondholders of the road. But as the bonds and shares scarcely ever remain in the same hands, such a condition was eventually brought about that roads were controlled by those who had little or nothing invested in the enterprise, and their real owners were deprived of all influence in their management, retaining only the right to foreclose their mortgages when things came to the worst. It is evident that men who have only a speculative interest in property cannot have the same concern for its permanent value and prosperity as those who hold it as a permanent investment. Many of the railroad abuses of the past had their origin in the law permitting the bonding of railroad property. Were it desirable to make a property for the sole use and convenience of speculators and gamblers, a better scheme could hardly be devised than the present system of our railroad organizations. Were railroad companies organized like national banks, were each shareholder required to pay the full amount of the face value of his shares, and were mortgaging railroad property entirely prohibited, it is not likely that the proportion of bankrupted railroads would be any larger than that of bankrupted banks. Few, if any, railroads would be built for purely speculative or blackmailing purposes.

Capital is naturally conservative, and speculation is only invited where the chances of gain are greatly out of proportion to the capital invested. Were the principle of ownership which applies to national banks and other well regulated corporations also applied to the railroads, and were bonds entirely abolished, only such persons would by the shareholders be placed in charge of their property as could give to them the best assurance of honest and conservative management. Such a change would greatly increase public confidence in, and the value of, railroad securities, and would eventually place them above bank stock as desirable investments. With the great fluctuations which under present circumstances obtain in railroad stocks, these securities are regarded as unsafe and unsatisfactory investments by conservative people. During a period of less than twelve months in 1891 and 1892 the stock of the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe fluctuated from 28-1/2 to 43-1/2, or 53 per cent.; that of the Chesapeake and Ohio from 15-1/4 to 25-7/8, or 70 per cent.; of the Chicago and Northwestern from 101 to 118, or 17 per cent.; of the Chicago, Saint Paul, Minneapolis and Omaha from 20-1/2 to 38-1/2, or 88 per cent.; of the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul from 48-3/4 to 78-1/2, or 61 per cent.; of the Iowa Central from 6-1/2 to 13, or 100 per cent.

If we look over the stock quotations of the past ten or twelve years we find still greater fluctuations. The following table, taken from the United States Investor, shows the range of prices of a few of the principal stocks during this period:

Name. Lowest. Highest.

Central Pacific 26-1/2 (1888) 102-7/8 (1881) Chesapeake and Ohio 1 (1888) 33-7/8 (1881) Erie 9-1/4 (1885) 52-7/8 (1881) Illinois Central 79-1/4 (1879) 150-1/2 (1882) Lake Erie and Western 1-3/8 (1885) 65-3/4 (1881) Michigan Central 46-1/2 (1885) 130-1/8 (1880) New Jersey Central 31 (1885) 131 (1889) New York Central 81-3/4 (1885) 155-3/8 (1880) Northern Pacific 14 (1884) 54-3/8 (1882) Rock Island 63-3/8 (1891) 204 (1880) C., M. & St. P. 34-3/8 (1879) 129-1/4 (1881) Texas and Pacific 5-1/2 (1884) 73-5/8 (1881) Wabash 2 (1885) 60 (1881) Atchison and Topeka 23-3/4 (1890) 152-1/2 (1880) Chicago, Burlington and Quincy 75-7/8 (1891) 182-1/2 (1881) N. Y. & N. E. 9 (1884) 86 (1881) Wisconsin Central 2 (1880) 39 (1881) Union Pacific 28 (1884) 131 (1881)

And such fluctuations have always been rather the rule than the exception. It is a gross outrage upon the investing public to let this state of affairs continue. It should be corrected without delay.

How many high officials in charge of railroad property will under these circumstances resist the temptation to speculate in the stock of their companies, and, so long as it is permitted, how many will resist the temptation to adopt such policies in the government of their roads as will cause such fluctuations? It is a common report that it is not an unfrequent occurrence for Senators and members of Congress to receive information from railway officials that enables them to raise their campaign funds by speculation in Wall Street.

Mr. Henry C. Adams, statistician of the Interstate Commerce Commission, says in his third annual report:

"It certainly appears ... that the motive for ownership in railroad stock is quite different from the ordinary motives which lead men to invest in corporate enterprises, thus presenting an additional proof that railways are a business not subject to ordinary business rules."

There is no safer business in the world than railroad transportation; there is none that has less elements of uncertainty; none whose returns in the aggregate are less varying. Every other business in the country, whether prospering or struggling, pays tribute to it. It rests on a cash basis, and suffers probably less from hard times than any business of its magnitude. Both the merchant and the manufacturer run large risks in doing business largely on a credit basis. The farmer sows in the spring, harvests in the fall, and often cannot realize on his products until winter; but the railroad company always receives its pay as soon as its work is done, and not unfrequently even before it is done. Statistics show that railroad revenues are, in the aggregate, remarkably uniform, and there is no reason why railroad securities should be less stable than bank or insurance stocks. Mr. Jeans says:

"It is observable, in respect to the net profits from railway working, that they have not fluctuated from year to year in the same way as nearly all other profits have done.... It comes, then, to this, that, next after land and house property, the railway interest is the largest and most important in the country. But it is superior to both of these rival interests in its profit-earning capabilities, yielding, as it does, more than 4 per cent. on the capital expended, against a possible average of 2-1/2 to 3 per cent. in respect to the others."

There may be some arguments in favor of bonding railroads, but this practice is, upon the whole, productive of infinitely more evil than good. The State should, therefore, compel railroad companies to liquidate all of their bonded indebtedness without unnecessary delay. In the proportion in which this is accomplished railroad shares will gain in stability and value.

Railroad men complain that the small savings of the poor invested in railroad securities do not yield adequate returns and are often lost in consequence of the foreclosing of the roads in which these investments have been made. Others complain that railroads are bankrupted in the interest of designing bondholders. Still others charge that rich and powerful roads contrive to obtain a controlling interest in the depreciated stock of weaker roads and then manage these roads in their own interest and greatly to the detriment of other stockholders. All these evils would disappear if the law required the identity of actual and virtual ownership. "Freezing-out" processes could no longer be resorted to by expert directors to obtain without compensation the property of their less sophisticated fellow stockholders. One railroad could no longer obtain control of another by acquiring an insignificant part of the sum total of its securities. There would be no longer any clashing between the interests of bondholders and stockholders, and railroads would no longer be managed in the interest of a small minority of their owners.

In addition to the cancellation of all railroad mortgages the State should require that all railroad stocks should, in the future, be paid in full. Furthermore, roads should be built only from the proceeds of the capital stock, and the expense of repairs should be defrayed from the revenues of the road. Dividends should only be paid from surplus earnings and should in no case exceed a fair rate of interest on the actual present value of the road. The statistician to the Interstate Commerce Commission suggests the creation of a special commission charged with the duty of converting the actual capitalization of railroad lines into a just value of their property. To do justice to both the railroads and their patrons in the fixing of rates, it is important that the just value of railroad property be ascertained, but the work could probably be done with less friction by a cooperation of National and State commissions. A number of reforms are needed within the province of railroad management. Passenger rates are, as a rule, too high, and out of all proportion to freight rates. Many passenger tariffs still recognize the old stage-coach principle of fixing the fare in an exact proportion to the distance traveled. Thus a passenger who takes the train for a five-mile trip pays only fifteen cents for his own transportation and that of one hundred pounds of baggage, while the passenger who buys a ticket for a journey of one hundred miles pays, on most American lines, exactly twenty times the amount paid by the five-mile passenger. Here the principle of collecting terminal charges is entirely ignored. Sufficient inducements are not held out to the passenger to prolong his journey, and as a consequence of this short-sighted policy of the railroad companies the average distance traveled in the United States by each passenger, instead of having gradually increased, has gradually decreased of late years until it is now only 24.18 miles. The average freight haul in the United States is 120 miles, or about five times as long as the average journey per passenger. How can such a difference be accounted for except by the dissimilarity in the principles which govern the computation of passenger and freight charges? The same rule should be adopted in fixing passenger rates that is recognized by railroad men in fixing freight rates: the rate per mile should decrease with the increase of the number of miles traveled.

The principle of arranging passenger tariffs on a sliding scale has found recognition in Europe. In Denmark first-class passenger fare is 3.13 cents for each of the first 47 miles, 2.67 cents for each of the next 47 miles, and only 2.22 cents for every additional mile. The practical application of this principle is, in fact, only limited by the extent of the kingdom. In nearly all European countries a uniform reduction, ranging from 20 to 30 per cent., is made from regular rates for return trip tickets, and coupon tickets are issued to tourists almost everywhere at largely reduced rates.

Hungary recently adopted a new method of making passenger and freight tariffs for its state lines. This is now generally called the zone system. There are two classes of tickets sold, one for short trips on suburban or branch lines, the other for longer journeys on the main lines. The distances that can be traveled on short or suburban lines are divided into two zones of stations, and those on main lines into fourteen zones. The division of the kingdom into zones is made with Buda-Pesth as the center. A ticket purchased for a particular zone carries the passenger to the end of that zone or any nearer station.

The following table will show the extent of each zone and the fares paid:

+ -+ + LOCAL TRAINS. FAST TRAINS. ZONE DISTANCE + + + + + First Second Third First Second Third Class. Class. Class. Class. Class. Class. + -+ + + + + + Short Lines. Fl. Fl. Fl. Fl. Fl. Fl. First Station. 0.30 0.15 .10 - - - Second Station. .40 .22 .15 - - - Main Lines. 1 1-25 km. .50 .40 .25 0.60 0.50 0.30 2 26-40 " 1.00 .80 .50 1.20 1.00 .60 3 41-55 " 1.50 1.20 .75 1.80 1.50 .90 4 56-70 " 2.00 1.60 1.00 2.40 2.00 1.20 5 71-85 " 2.50 2.00 1.25 3.00 2.50 1.50 6 86-100 " 3.00 2.40 1.50 3.60 3.00 1.80 7 101-115 " 3.50 2.80 1.75 4.20 3.50 2.10 8 116-130 " 4.00 3.20 2.00 4.80 4.00 2.40 9 131-145 " 4.50 3.60 2.25 5.40 4.50 2.70 10 146-160 " 5.00 4.00 2.50 6.00 5.00 3.00 11 161-175 " 5.50 4.40 2.75 6.60 5.50 3.30 12 176-200 " 6.00 4.80 3.00 7.20 6.00 3.60 13 201-225 " 7.00 5.30 3.50 8.40 6.50 4.20 14 225 km. and over 8.00 5.80 4.00 9.60 7.00 4.80

(The florin is a little more than one-third of a dollar.)

A ride from a city to the first suburban station costs from 3 to 10 cents, according to class of car, and to the second station 5 to 13.6 cents. On through trains a person may travel 15 miles at a cost of from 8-1/2 to 20 cents, according to kind of train and class of car, a hundred miles for from 85 cents to $2.00; 140 miles for from $1.15 to $2.80 and any distance above 140 miles for from $1.35 to $3.25. A person may thus travel from Buda-Pesth to Predeal, a distance of 472 miles, with a third-class ticket for zone 14, purchased at a cost of $1.35, or 28-100 of a cent per mile.

Our railroad men with much complacency point to the fact that these rates do not cover the forwarding of passengers' baggage and that this service must be paid for separately. These charges, however, are very moderate, being on 120 pounds of baggage 8-1/3 cents a distance of 34 miles or less, about 17 cents for a distance of more than 34 and less than 62 miles, and about 34 cents for any distance over 62 miles. The additional charge for carrying 120 pounds of baggage from Buda-Pesth to Predeal is therefore about one-fourteenth of one cent per mile. It must be admitted that this system of charging separately for passenger and baggage is eminently just, for there is no good reason why the passenger without baggage should be taxed to pay for the carriage of that of his fellow-traveler.

The zone tariff was introduced on the state railways of Hungary by M. Barosz, the Hungarian Minister of Commerce, on the 1st of August, 1889. The adoption of the new tariff was ridiculed and condemned as visionary by road experts, who even went so far as to prove to the satisfaction of practical railroad men that the innovation was destined to be a failure. For a month or two it almost seemed as if their prediction might be fulfilled, the number of passengers carried remaining behind the number carried during the corresponding period of previous years. But soon the reaction set in. The month of November, 1889, already witnessed an increase in the number of passengers as well as in receipts over the same month of the year previous. The result of the first year's trial demonstrated the wisdom of the "innovation." The number of passengers carried, which had been only 5,186,227 in 1888-89, rose to 13,060,751 in 1889-90, and the total receipts for passengers and baggage rose from 9,138,715 florins to 11,186,321 florins, a gain of 2,047,606 florins, or 22 per cent., during the first year. There is a continued increase both in the number of passengers and in receipts, and the success of the system must be pronounced phenomenal. The railroad experts of Europe, who had predicted the signal failure of the zone system, now that the unexpected has happened, are trying to discover the particular favorable conditions which made the success of the system possible in Hungary. It will probably be a decade, or even two, before the railroad experts of both hemispheres will be entirely reconciled to this new application of the old principle that a reduction in the price of a commodity increases the demand for it.

It is strange, indeed, that intelligent men should be so slow in recognizing an economic principle for which both history and daily experience furnish an unlimited number of illustrations. The post-office receipts everywhere have increased with a reduction in postage. The Government telegraph in England did not become self-supporting until Parliament made a sweeping reduction in its rates. The revenue from the Brooklyn bridge never paid a fair interest on the capital expended in its construction until its tolls were cut down. Were it necessary, hundreds of other examples could be added to these.

Hungary has also applied the zone system to its freight traffic. Three zones are fixed for the carrying of goods, viz.: Zone I, for distances less than 200 kilometers (124 miles); Zone II, for distances over 200 and less than 400 kilometers, and Zone III, for distances over 400 kilometers. A uniform tariff is established for each zone, which is one-third less than the average freight rates for equal distances formerly in force. American railroads should profit by the wisdom and experience of the Hungarian Government, and adopt at an early day such features of its system as upon our soil and under our institutions may be made practicable. The Hungarian system, with some modifications, is now being tried by Austria and a few of the German states, and is increasing railroad revenues wherever adopted.

There is a growing demand for lower fares. This demand increases in the same proportion in which the desire and the necessity for travel increase. European states have not been slow to meet it. Reductions are made everywhere, and chiefly favor the lower classes. Thus, when France, within the last year, changed her passenger tariff, she reduced first-class fare 9 per cent., second-class fare 18 per cent., and third-class 27 per cent.

The European passenger reports show the numbers of first and second-class passengers are continually falling off, while those of the third-class passengers are fast increasing. In England and Wales the number of first-class passengers fell between 1875 and 1889 from 37,000,000 to 24,000,000 while the number of third-class passengers increased during that same period from 350,000,000 to 601,000,000, and this increase still continues. In the United Kingdom the number of third-class passengers for 1891 was over 750,000,000. Furthermore, passenger revenue comes chiefly from the third class. In the United Kingdom the receipts from first-class passengers were in 1889 L3,188,000; from second-class passengers, L2,705,000; and from third-class passengers, L19,785,000. It is thus seen that receipts from third-class passengers are nearly 3-1/2 times as large as those from the first and second-class passengers combined. A similar proportion is found in nearly every country on the continent. European roads discovered some years ago that first and second-class passengers were carried at a loss, and all the passenger earnings were derived from third-class passengers. The profits from this source show a considerable increase every year.

The average fare per mile is 2.15 cents in the United States, and only 1.17 cents in Germany, 1.67 cents in Austria, 1.18 cents in Belgium, 1.29 cents in Denmark, 1.45 cents in France, 1.64 cents in Italy, and 1.45 cents in Russia. It is often claimed by railroad men that we travel more luxuriously than the people of any other country in the world, but it should not be forgotten that traveling in the United States is also more expensive than anywhere else. It is contended that class distinctions are odious in America, and that second and third-class cars would not be patronized. The same argument might be applied to theaters, hotels, clothiers, grocers, etc. It is difficult to see why distinction here should be less odious than on the railroad train. The truth is, Americans are just like other people and will avail themselves of accommodations in keeping with their means if they have the opportunity. Many passengers who will not travel in an uncouth smoking-car would, if clean second-class cars were provided, gladly dispense with the luxury of an upholstered seat if by doing so they could save from $5 to $10 a day.

A common laborer in this country earns from a dollar to a dollar and a half a day, and in the performance of his labor as a rule suffers greater inconvenience than does the traveler who travels the country in a second-class car. Is it under these circumstances at all likely that the American would hesitate to travel for a day in a plain but clean car, if by doing so he could save a week's earnings? We may even go further and say that it is a very reasonable assumption that the man who earns his bread by the sweat of his brow would choose the cheaper car if the difference in one day's fare were equal to one day's wages. It is a common saying in Europe that the first-class passengers consist of lords and fools, and few of the hundreds of thousands of American tourists traveling abroad give the natives occasion to class them with either. The first-class car has almost fallen into disuse in Europe, and even the patronage of the second-class is less than ten per cent, of that of the third.

Reduced rates for return tickets should be provided under rules and regulations of commissioners.

The Massachusetts legislature recently passed a law requiring the railways of that State to sell interchangeable thousand-mile tickets for $20. The State commission is given power to except any company from its requirements if the public welfare or the financial condition require or demand it. This is a step in the right direction and should be followed by other States. Michigan also requires certain roads to carry first-class passengers at two cents per mile.

Railroad companies should be compelled to discard the pass as a courtesy as well as a consideration. The giving of passes under the guise of mileage books, or tickets for pretended or unnecessary services, is very pernicious and should be prohibited. Such a reform would soon enable them to offer low fares to all. An employe may be furnished free transportation while actually engaged in the business of his company, and it should be made the duty of the State and National commissions to make proper regulations governing such free transportation of employes. Half-fare tickets for adults should also be abolished. The pauper ticket is given to the minister of the gospel to secure for the railroads the influence of the pulpit, though offered under the pretense of charity or support of the church. The State should not permit the railroad companies to practice this or any other kind of charity at the expense of the general public. The railroad is a highway, and the company operating it is entitled to rates sufficient to pay operating expenses and a fair interest on the value of the property. It can therefore easily be seen that the so-called gifts show no liberality on the part of the railroad company, but are made at the expense of other people. Donations made by railroad companies should be made from the pockets of their stockholders and not from the pockets of their patrons.

All perquisites of railroad officers should be abolished. When a railway official has become so pompous and consequential that he requires a special car, it is about time to look about for his successor. If we are to have a special-car aristocracy in this country let it be supported at the expense of some other interest.

Another railroad reform is needed on this side of the Atlantic. While the great majority of railroad officials are courteous and considerate, and perform their duties in the most agreeable and acceptable manner, there are a few who do not properly appreciate the relation which they sustain to the patrons of their companies. They are inclined to forget that they are quasi-public servants, and that the public has a right to demand courteous treatment at their hands. All railroad employes should realize that their first duty is to administer to the welfare and the convenience of the public, and each one should have the full protection of the law in his efforts to do so. The American public objects much less to an inferior car than to rude treatment by the companies' agents. Railroad superintendents may justly be blamed for the incivilities of their subordinates. It is their duty to know the character of those whom they employ, and not to retain in their employ those who are derelict in their duty to the public. Nothing offends the feelings of a true American more than the display of a bureaucratic spirit on the part of public servants. Nothing more commends a line of railroad to the public than uniform painstaking kindness and courteous treatment on the part of its employes. It is made the duty of railroad employes of France "to so treat the public as if they were eager to oblige it," and the very first paragraph of the official instructions to the railroad employes of Germany enjoins them "to assume a modest and polite demeanor in their intercourse with the public." In this connection it might be stated that the second paragraph of those instructions positively forbids the acceptance of any gratuity by a railroad employe. If our American sleeping and dining-car companies would give their employes adequate compensation and then adopt and enforce the German rule concerning "tipping," their service would gain popularity and their employes self-respect.

Entrance into the railway service should be by agreement for a definite time, and dismissals and resignations should be governed by rules agreed upon by boards of commissioners and the companies.

The use of the corporation has done so much to secure for capital so large a share of the profits of industrial enterprises, and large salaries also for the officers who manage them, that laborers have been led to organize themselves into associations for like purposes, and ambitious men have not been slow in availing themselves of the advantages afforded them in this new field.

It is right and proper for laborers to organize such associations when they can do so under wise and economical management, for the purpose of securing greater intelligence, better education, higher culture, higher wages, a shorter work-day, and a general ameliorating of their condition, all of which will tend to make them more efficient workmen and also better enable them to resist the aggression of centralized wealth; for, in the absence of organization, the single-handed employe of the great modern employer is comparatively helpless. But if these organizations are allowed to be controlled by ignorant, unreasonable or designing men, who will, at trifling provocations, resort to violent and unlawful measures, they are sure to prove harmful, and a great detriment, instead of a help, to their members, and the sooner they are abandoned the better for all.

Great conflicts are sure to arise between organized capital and organized labor, and they must be settled in a reasonable way, or anarchy will prevail. They cannot be left for headstrong or inconsiderate men representing either side to determine, but the line must be drawn by the public authorities.

Each year affords accumulated evidence of the necessity of extending legal restrictions over the management of the railway business, and the law, as laid down by Judge Ricks to the Ann Arbor strikers last March, in the United States Circuit Court, at Toledo, is undoubtedly correct and will meet with general approval from the public.

He says:

"You are engaged in a service of a public character, and the public are interested not only in the way in which you perform your duties while you continue in that service, but are quite as much interested in the time and circumstances under which you quit that employment. You cannot always choose your own time and place for terminating these relations. If you are permitted to do so you might quit your work at a time and place and under circumstances which would involve irreparable damage to your employers and jeopardize the lives of the traveling public."

Mr. Powderly, in commenting upon the above decision, does not complain of it, but says:

"The decision shows, as I have said before, that the principle of Government ownership of the railroads is being recognized by the courts. While the decision is apparently against the men, it emphasizes our position that the Government has the right to supervise the railroads. Now it is a poor rule that won't work both ways.

"The Interstate Commerce Law was passed for the purpose of controlling the railroads, but up to date no railroad has paid any attention to the law. Anarchy of the worst kind has prevailed. By that I mean a total disregard of the law, and that is what the corporations charge against the anarchists. The courts hold themselves in readiness to obey the will of the corporations when a charge is made against the workmen, but no effort is made to carry out the mandates of the law when the provokers of strikes, the corporations, violate the law."

There is but little doubt, if the judges of the Federal courts would show the same zeal in holding railroad managers amenable to the law as Judge Ricks has displayed in this case with the employes, they would secure increased confidence from the people in the tribunals over which they preside.

All fair-minded persons will agree that labor as well as capital must be subjected to proper restraints, and that the public will demand nothing unreasonable from either.

Accidents are too frequent upon American railroads. The reports of the Interstate Commerce Commission give the following as the numbers killed and injured during the years named:

-+ -+ -+ -+ - 1888 1889 1890 1891 Killed. Injured Killed. Injured Killed. Injured Killed. Injured -+ -+ -+ -+ -+ -+ -+ -+ - Employees 2,070 20,148 1,972 20,028 2,451 22,396 2,660 26,140 Passeng's 315 2,138 310 2,146 286 2,425 293 2,972 Others 2,897 3,602 3,541 4,135 3,598 4,206 .... .... -+ -+ -+ -+ -+ -+ -+ -+ - Total 5,282 25,888 5,823 26,309 6,335 29,027 .... .... -+ -+ -+ -+ -+ -+ -+ -

For the year ending June 30, 1890, the total number of employes was 749,801. There was, therefore, one death for every 306 men employed and one injury for every 33 men employed. For the previous year one was killed for every 357 men employed, and one was injured for every 35 men employed. While trainmen represent but 20 per cent, of the total number of employes, the casualties among them represent 58 per cent. of the total number of casualties.

For the year 1888, one passenger was killed in every 1,523,133 passengers carried, and one injured in every 220,024 carried.

The corresponding rate in England for the year 1888 is one passenger killed for every 6,942,336 carried, and one injured for every 527,577 carried.

Railroads doing a large business should be compelled to adopt the most improved appliances for avoidance of accidents.

The occupation of trainmen is especially hazardous, and too long continued service should not be required, but proper intervals of rest should be allowed. It is to the want of this, undoubtedly, that a great many of the serious accidents are owing.

No more Sunday trains should be run than are absolutely necessary. Provision should be made by law to enable trainmen to procure insurance at the lowest rate possible, for indemnity against loss of health, life or limb.

It was only a few days before the great disaster occurred on the Hudson River Railroad at Hastings, over a year ago, that an announcement had been made to the public of the extreme prosperity of the road during the year. The great slaughter that occurred there is another illustration of the disregard of public duty, and another instance of the sacrifice of life and limbs of passengers and employes by a railway corporation in order to secure large dividends on watered stock. It is not only gross, but criminal neglect for a company with such an immense income not to provide greater safety appliances, and the coroner's jury in this case was too modest when it decided that the management of the road was morally responsible for the disaster.

Parliament has compelled the British railways to adopt, in the interest of the public safety, the block system and continuous brake, and great lines like the New York Central and Hudson River companies should be compelled to adopt such improvements.

The traveling public has another grievous cause for complaint. There are but few companies that make any efforts to have their trains connect with those of rival roads. On the contrary, a good deal of scheming is often done by railroad companies to so arrange their time-tables with reference to those of their rivals as to inconvenience passengers as much as possible by delays at competing points. To remedy this evil the State should require that every time-table should have the approval of proper authorities, and no change should be permitted without their approval.

Railroad companies are chartered for the purpose of promoting the public welfare, and every violation of their charter should be punished.

It should be the main object of railroad legislation to compel companies to fulfill their public obligations without depriving them of their efficiency. Above all things these companies should be stripped of the power to use their great wealth for the purposes of corruption or the attainment of political influence. Our railroads to-day probably represent no less than one-fourth of the personal property of the country, and this vast wealth is controlled by a comparatively small number of men, many of whom have in the course of time become so arrogant and despotic that they have little regard for popular rights or the expressed will of a free people.

It is reported that when, a few years ago, a representative of the press directed Mr. Vanderbilt's attention to the fact that the public disapproved of his railroad policy, the latter gave vent to his contempt for public opinion by the no less profane than laconic reply: "The public be damned." Ex-Railroad Commissioner Coffin called on one of the Goulds to urge the adoption of the automatic car-coupler and other safety appliances for the roads controlled by them. He was very curtly told that not a cent would be expended by the Gould roads for such a purpose until the West had repealed its obnoxious railroad laws. The Gould dynasty thus intends to accomplish the repeal of these laws by coercion. Railroad magnates and their lieutenants often show still greater arrogance in dealing directly with their employes.

It may be difficult for railroad managers of the present school to adapt themselves to new conditions; it may be impossible for them to understand how any other practices than those which have long been established can succeed; yet in spite of them both the law and public sentiment have already undergone great changes, and still greater changes will follow. It may take years to accomplish this work; to bring about any great reform requires time and a deter, mined purpose on the part of its advocates. Yet I believe the era is not far off when railroads will be limited to their legitimate sphere as common carriers, when they will treat all persons and all places as impartially as does the Government in the mail service, when their chief factor in rate-making will be the cost of service, when they will respect the rights of the public and those of their stockholders, insuring perfect service to the former and fair profits upon the actual value of the lines operated to the latter.

The fact should, finally, not be overlooked that it is in the power of the General Government to prevent many railroad abuses, and especially excessive freight charges, by the improvement of our rivers and harbors. That our water-courses act as levelers of interstate rates is apparent from the fact that railroad rates invariably rise with the freezing of the water-ways and fall with the opening of river and lake navigation. By connecting, wherever feasible, our large Western rivers with the great lakes, the Government could greatly extend the reign of competition in transportation, and thereby keep freight rates within reasonable bounds. Lake transportation even now plays an important role. In 1892 it was not less than 20,000,000,000 ton miles during the season of eight months' duration, and it is almost equal to one-fourth of the total ton mileage of all the railroads in the country for the entire year. The average rate of lake transportation has been reduced to 1.3 mills per ton per mile, which is only about one-seventh of the average railroad freight rate in the United States.

Where the masses hold the sovereign power, there, if anywhere, the welfare of the people should be the supreme law. Violent political commotions never disturb the government whose policy is to secure the greatest good to the greatest number. Thorold Rogers justly remarks that the strength of communism lies in the misconduct of administrations, the sustentation of odious and unjust privileges and the support of what are called vested interests. Lord Coleridge, in a remarkable article published not long ago, recommended a revision of the laws relating to property and contract, in order to facilitate the inevitable transition from feudalism to democracy, and laid down the rule that the laws of property should be made for the benefit of all, and not for the benefit of a class.

During the middle ages, and even up to the beginning of the present century, nearly all the laws on the statute books looked towards the protection of the rights of the feudal lord. Provision was made for the expeditious collection of his dues and a severe punishment of his delinquent debtor. The peasant was forced to labor fifteen hours per day and three hundred and sixty-five days in the year to pay the baron's rentals and sustain life. The law permitted him to be flogged for failing to courtesy the feudal lord, and to be executed for injury to the lord's person, while to kill a peasant was no worse a misdemeanor than to kill his lordship's favorite dog or falcon. In short, all laws were made to protect and perpetuate the wealth and power of the few by impoverishing, humbling and enslaving the masses.

The age of feudalism has given way to an age of democratic liberty, but there is many a feudal feature left in our statutes and many a feudal doctrine is enunciated by our judges and learned expounders of modern jurisprudence. In his decision in the Iowa tariff case Judge Brewer said:

"I read also in the first section of the Bill of Rights of this State [Iowa] that 'all men are by nature free and equal and have certain inalienable rights, among which are those of enjoying and defending life and liberty, acquiring, possessing and protecting property and pursuing and obtaining safety and happiness,' and I know that while that remains as the supreme law of the State, no legislature can, directly or indirectly, lay its withering or destroying hand on a single dollar invested in the legitimate business of transportation."

Had Judge Brewer taken the pains to read on, he would have found in section 2 of the Bill of Rights the following:

"All political power is inherent in the people; government is instituted for the protection, security and benefit of the people."

It is strange that the learned Judge failed to see the difference between "men," the creatures of God, "by nature free and equal," and "possessing certain inalienable rights," and corporations, the creatures of man, having no rights except those which the State sees fit to give them. Had the learned Judge perused the whole of the document to which he refers, he would have found in article VIII, section 12, the following provision:

"The General Assembly shall have power to amend or repeal all laws for the organization or creation of corporations, or granting of special or exclusive privileges or immunities, by a vote of two-thirds of each branch of the General Assembly."

It should thus have been plain to the learned Judge that in Iowa corporations have not human or inalienable rights, and government was not instituted for their special protection, but for the protection, security and benefit of her people. Nor should it be otherwise.

The corporation for pecuniary gain has neither body nor soul. Its corporeal existence is mythical and ethereal. It suffers neither from cold nor from hunger, has neither fear of future punishment nor hope of future reward. It takes no interest in schools or in churches. It knows neither charity nor love, neither pity nor sympathy, neither justice nor patriotism. It is deaf and blind to human woe and human happiness. Its only aim is pecuniary gain, to which it subordinates all else.

Should the State sacrifice the welfare of all her people rather than lay its "withering or destroying" hand on a single dollar of corporate wealth? Are there no human rights, for the protection of which government was established, more sacred than the rights of a wealthy corporation's dollar? Have the people made the judiciary a coordinate branch of the Government in order that it may protect the vested or rather usurped rights of corporations against legislative attempts to curtail them? If the courts so interpret the power which has been delegated to them, they will awake one day to the painful reality that popular convictions of right are more potent than judicial decrees.

It is the duty of the State not so much to defend the so-called vested rights of corporations as to make such just and beneficial laws as will temper inequality, mitigate poverty, protect the weak against the strong, preserve life and health, and, in short, promote the welfare and the happiness of the masses. Constitutions have been made to accomplish these ends, to protect the lives, the liberty and the conscience of human beings, while laws have been sufficient to protect the dollars of corporations. It is a short-sighted policy on the part of the latter to take unfair advantage of their wealth and influence, for "As ye sow, so shall ye reap," is the inexorable law of Providence. There is no dynasty so mighty, no class so privileged, no interest so influential or wealthy as to obtain immunity from its operation.



APPENDIX.

TABLE No. 1.

COMPILED FROM THE SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT OF THE INTERSTATE COMMERCE COMMISSION.

Mileage in the United States June 30, 1891 168,402.74 Number of men employed 784,285 Number of employes per 100 miles 486 Number of locomotives per 100 miles 19 Number of passenger cars per 100 miles 17 Number of cars per 100 miles 721 Capital $9,829,475,015 Capital per mile 60,942 Gross earnings 1,096,761,395 Gross earnings per mile 6,801 Operating expenses 731,887,893 Operating expenses per mile 4,538 Net income from operation 364,873,502 Net income per mile 2,263 Of gross income 67.17 per cent. was earned on freight. Of gross income 25.64 per cent. was earned on passengers. Received for carrying mails $ 24,870,015 Received rentals from express companies 21,594,349 Received from investments 133,911,126 No. of passengers carried 531,183,988 No. of tons freight carried 675,608,323 Average journey per passenger 24.18 miles Average haul per ton of freight 120 miles Average number passengers per train 42 Average number tons freight per train 181.67 Average revenue per passenger per mile 2.142 cents Average revenue per ton per mile of freight .895 cents Average revenue per train mile, passenger $1.06 Average revenue per train mile, freight 1.64

TABLE No. 2.

STATISTICS OF THE RAILWAYS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM FOR THE YEAR ENDING DEC. 31, 1891.

From the English Reform Almanac for 1893 and from the Report of Commissioners R. Giffen and Courtenay Boyle to the Board of Trade.

Mileage 20,191 miles Double, triple or quadruple 10,853 miles Capital per mile L45,536 Gross income per mile 3,873 Net income per mile 1,818 Income from passenger traffic 35,130,916 Income from goods traffic 43,230,717 Income from miscellaneous 3,498,974 —————— Income, total L81,860,607 Operating expenses, 55 per cent L45,144,778 Rates and taxes 2,246,430 Government duty 321,260 Paid for persons injured 165,219 Paid for damage and loss of goods 257,804 Number of first-class passengers 30,423,776 Number of second-class passengers 63,378,397 Number of third-class passengers 751,661,495 Number of third-class passengers over 88 per cent. of all. Number of employes 346,426 Number of employes per 100 miles 1,750 Number of locomotives per 100 miles 80 Number of passenger cars per 100 miles 249 Number of freight and other cars 2,595 Revenue per train mile 58.37d Expense per train mile 30.54d Per cent. of earnings on capital 4.21

TABLE No. 3.

SHOWING SALARIES AND WAGES PAID TO OFFICIALS AND EMPLOYES OF STATE RAILWAYS IN EUROPE.

Compiled from Roell's Encyclopaedie des Eisenbahnwesens.

======================================================================= POSITION. AUSTRIA. HUNGARY. PRUSSIA. BELGIUM. - - - - - Fl., equal Fl., equal Mark, equal Fr., equal to about to about to about to about 33-1/3 cents. 33-1/3 cents. 24 cents. 20 cents. President 7,000 - 10,500 9,000 Directors and Superintendents 4,000-5,500 4,000-4,800 4,200-6,000 7,000-8,000 Chief Engineer 1,600-2,000 1,900-2,500 3,600-4,800 2,700-5,500 Clerks 500-1,200 640-1,000 1,000-2,700 900-3,100 Station Agents in Cities, Division Superintendents 2,200-2,600 2,600-3,400 - - Station Agents in Towns 500-850 520-880 1,500-3,200 1,600-4,000 Locomotive Engineers 500-850 520-780 1,200-2,000 - Firemen 300-350 380-480 1,000-1,500 - Conductors 450-550 520-850 1,100-1,500 2,000-2,400 Brakemen 300-350 380-480 800-1,200 1,200-2,000 Section Men 288-336 270-370 700-900 -

TABLE No. 4.

Compiled from Roell's Encyclopaedie des Eisenbahnwesens.

FREIGHT TARIFFS.—BELGIUM.

All freight is divided into three general classes:

1. Express Freight, which is delivered by special messengers. Parcels weighing 5 kg. (11 lbs.) and less, if prepaid, are carried for .80 fr. (16c.) for all distances. Parcels not prepaid and such as weigh from 6 to 10 kg. pay .90 fr. for a distance of from 1 to 25 km.; 1 fr. for 26 to 75 km.; 1.10 fr. for greater distances.

2. Fast Freight, which may be made use of for consignments weighing up to 200 kg. (440 lbs.) Parcels weighing up to 5 kg. pay .50 fr. for all distances. Parcels not prepaid and such as weigh from 5 to 10 kg. pay .50 fr. for from 1 to 25 km.;.60 fr. for distances ranging from 26 to 75 km., and .70 fr. over 75 km.

3. Common Freight, which is again sub-divided into four classes: In Class I 400 kg., in Classes II and III 5,000 kg., and in Class IV 10,000 kg. is recognized as the minimum weight.

* * * * *

TARIFF FOR THE FOUR DIFFERENT CLASSES OF COMMON FREIGHT.

Terminal Charges—Franc 1.00.

I Class—For 1,000 kg. (2,250 lbs.) From 1 to 5 km Fr. 1.00 From 6 to 75 km, per km .10 From 76 to 150 km .08 (per km. above 75) From 151 to 200 km .06 (per km. above 150) Above 300 km .06 (per km. above 200)

II Class—For 1,000 kg. From 1 to 5 km. Fr. 0.40 From 6 to 75 km., per km. .08 From 76 to 125 km. .04 (per km. above 75) Above 125 km. .02 (per km. above 125)

III Class—For 1,000 kg. From 1 to 5 km. Fr. 0.30 From 6 to 75 km., per km. .06 From 76 to 100 km. .03 From 101 to 125 km. .02 Above 125 km. .01

IV Class—For 1,000 kg. From 1 to 24 km., per km. Fr. 0.06 From 25 to 75 km., per km. .04 From 76 to 100 km. .02 From 101 to 350 km. .01 Above 350 km. .02

For distances from 1 to 24 km. the terminal charges are only .5 fr. for Class IV.

TABLE No. 5.

GERMANY.

The tariff recognizes the following distinctions: 1. Fast parcel freight. 2. Fast carload freight. 3. Parcel freight. 4. General carload Class A1, for shipments of at least 5,000 kg. 5. General carload Class B, for shipments of at least 10,000 kg. 6. Special tariffs.

Distance charges per ton per kilometer: (Pfennig, 1/4 c.) 1. For parcel 11.0 pfennige 2. For carload Class A1 6.7 " 3. For carload Class B 6.0 " 4. For Special Tariff A2 5.0 " 5. For Special Tariff I 4.5 " 6. For Special Tariff II 3.5 " 7. For Special Tariff III: For distances up to 100 km 2.6 " For distances above 100 km 2.2 " 8. For fast parcel freight 22.0 " 9. For fast carload freight, twice the rate of Classes A1 and B.

Terminal Changes.

1. For parcels and carload Class A1: Up to 10 km 10 pfennige From 11 to 20 km 11 " From 21 to 30 km 12 " From 31 to 40 km 13 " From 41 to 50 km 14 " From 51 to 60 km 15 " From 61 to 70 km 16 " From 71 to 80 km 17 " From 81 to 90 km 18 " From 91 to 100 km 19 " Above 100 km 20 "

2. For carload Class B: Up to 10 km 8 pfennige From 11 to 20 km 9 " From 21 to 30 km 10 " From 31 to 40 km 11 " Above 40 km 12 "

3. For Special Tariffs A2, I, II and III: Up to 10 km 8 pfennige From 11 to 100 km 9 " Above 100 km 12 "

Charges for Live Stock.

(a) Horses. Terminal charge per head, 1 m. (24c.) Distance charge per kl. for one head 0.30 mark Charge per kl. for 2 head .40 " Charge for each additional head .10 "

(b) Cattle. Terminal charge, per head 0.60 mark Distance charge per kl., for one head .10 " Distance charge for each additional head .03 "

(c) Sheep, Hogs, Calves, etc.: Terminal charge, per head 0.20 mark Distance charge, per kl., for each of the first 10 heads .02 " Distance charge, per kl., for each additional head .01 "

If shipped in carloads the charges for live stock are .03 m. per square meter per kilometer.

TABLE No. 6.

FRANCE.

The French railroads divide all freight into six different classes. The following is the tariff adopted by a majority of the principal roads:

Common Freight. ================================================== Centimes per Ton Kilometer. Classes 1 2 3 4 5 6 Up to 25 km 16 14 12 10 8 8 From 26 to 100 km 16 14 12 10 8 4 From 101 to 150 km 15 13 11 9 8 3.5 From 151 to 200 km 15 13 11 9 7 3.5 From 201 to 300 km 15 13 11 9 4 3.5 From 301 to 500 km 14 12 10 8 4 3 From 501 to 600 km 13 11 9 7 4 3 From 601 to 700 km 12 10 8 6 4 2.5 From 701 to 800 km 11 9 7 5 4 2.5 From 801 to 900 km 10 8 6 4 4 2.5 From 901 to 1000 km 9 7 5 4 4 2 Above 1,000 km 8 6 5 4 4 2

The rates for fast parcel freight are, on all roads, for less than 40 kg., per ton, km.: Up to 200 km 35 centimes From 201 to 300 km 32 " From 301 to 400 km 31 " From 401 to 800 km 30 " From 801 to 1,000 km 28 " Above 1,000 km 25 "

For more than 40 kg.: Up to 100 km 32 centimes From 101 to 300 km 30 " From 301 to 500 km 28 " From 501 to 600 km 26 " From 601 to 700 km 24 " From 701 to 800 km 22 " From 801 to 900 km 20 " From 901 to 1,000 km 18 " Above 1,000 km 16 "

Express parcels weighing up to 3 kg. (6-3/5 lbs.), pay 1 fr. for all distances, and parcels weighing from 3 to 5 kg. pay fr. 1.20. Delivery to the house, 25 centimes (5c.) additional.

Live Stock, per piece, per km.: Horses and cattle 16 centimes Calves and hogs 6 " Sheep, etc. 3 "

TABLE No. 7.

ITALY.—Freight Tariff.

======================================================================== GENERAL CLASSES. RATES. + + -+ + -+ + -+ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 -+ + + + + + + -+ For the ton km 0.1632 0.1428 0.1224 0.1020 0.0816 0.0714 0.612 0.0510 Terminal charges, per ton. 2.04 2.04 2.04 2.04 2.04 1.224 1.224 1.224 The rate on merchandise sent as fast freight is .452 lire (9c.) per ton kilometer.

Live Stock (5 Classes.) ======================================================================= Cattle, Cattle, FIRST-CLASS. Horses. Swine and SECOND-CLASS. Horses. Swine and Sheep. Sheep. + + -+ + + - 1 head, per km 0.1530 0.136 1 head, per km 0.1530 0.1326 2 heads, per km .0918 .0765 2 heads, per km .0816 .0714 3 heads, per km .0816 .0714 3 heads, per km .0663 .0612 4 heads, per km .0765 .0663 4 heads, per km .0612 .0561 5 heads, per km .0714 .0612 5 heads, per km .0561 .0510 6 heads or more, 6 heads or more, per km .0663 .0561 per km .0510 .0459 III Class .02244 IV Class .01224 V Class .00612

TABLE No. 8.

Austrian Tariff (in kreutzers).—July 1, 1891.

============================================================================= Parcel Special Fast Freight. Rate. Carload Rate. Tariff Rate. + -+ + + + + + + + Excep- Ordinary Reduced tional Rate Rate I II A B C 1 2 3 Rate -+ + -+ + + + + + + + + 1 to 50 km 1.20 0.60 0.60 0.50 0.34 0.24 0.18 0.26 0.18 0.15 0.12 50 to 150 km 1.16 .58 .58 .46 .29 .22 .15 .23 .15 .13 .10 150 to 300 km 1.12 .56 .56 .42 .25 .18 .12 .19 .12 .10 .09 For every addit'n'l km 1.00 .50 .50 .30 .20 .12 .10 .15 .10 .08 .08 Terminal Charges. 1 to 30 km 6.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 31 to 80 km 6 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 Above 80 km 8 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 2 -+ + -+ + + + + + + + +

Horses and mules are placed in Class II, with a minimum weight of 1,400 kg. for one head and 700 kg. for every additional head.

Cattle are placed in Class II, and are billed at actual weight.

Potatoes, hay, straw, wood, coal and coke enjoy the "exceptional rate" when shipped in carload lots.

TABLE No. 9.

Hungarian Tariff (in kreutzers).—January 1, 1891.

============================================================= Parcel Fast Freight. Rate. + -+ + Ordinary Reduced I II Rate Rate "Sperrgueter." -+ + -+ + + -+ From 1 to 200 km. 1.3 0.6 0.72 0.52 0.9 From 201 to 400 km. 1. .5 .52 .42 .8 Above 400 km. 1. .5 .52 .42 .8 Terminal Charges for 100 kg. .10 .10 .10 .10 .10 -+ + -+ + + -+

=============================================================== Special Exceptional Carload Rate. Tariff. Tariff. - - A B C I II III I II Lumber - - - From 1 to 200 km. 0.32 0.21 0.16 0.27 0.16 0.13 0.13 0.11 From 201 to 400 km. .24 .17 .13 .15 .13 .10 .10 .09 Above 400 km. .16 .10 .09 .10 .09 .07 .07 .06

.06 .06 .04 .05 .04 .03 .03 .03 - -

Exceptional Tariff I comprises coal, wood, potatoes, stone, hay and straw.

Exceptional Tariff II comprises manure, earth and Hungarian ores.

TABLE No. 10.

STATE OF IOWA.

SCHEDULE OF REASONABLE MAXIMUM RATES OF CHARGES

IN EFFECT MARCH 1, 1893, FOR THE TRANSPORTATION OF

Freight and Cars on each of the Railroads in the State of Iowa, together with a Classification of Freights, prepared by the Railroad Commissioners, in accordance with the Laws of the State of Iowa.

* * * * *

Superseding all former schedules on the said railroads, including all bridges and ferries used or operated in connection with any railroad; and, also, all the roads in use by any corporation, receiver, trustee or other person operating a railroad, whether owned or operated under contract, agreement, lease or otherwise, or which may hereafter be purchased, leased, acquired or operated within the State of Iowa.

The classification of freights applies to all the lines, regardless of class. The schedule of maximum rates applies to all Class "A" roads. The rates on Class "B" roads will be FIFTEEN per cent. higher, and the rates on Class "C" roads THIRTY per cent. higher than the rates named for Class "A" roads. The respective roads have been classified by the Executive Council of the State as follows, which classification is adopted by the Railroad Commissioners, and made part of this schedule:

CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS.

CLASS "A."

Where gross annual earnings, per mile, shall be $4,000 or more.—Burlington, Cedar Rapids and Northern Railway; Chicago and Northwestern Railway; Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad; Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway; Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific Railway; Chicago and Great Western Railway (operating the Chicago, St. Paul and Kansas City Railway); Dubuque and Sioux City Railroad; Chicago, St. Paul, Minneapolis and Omaha Railway; Sioux City and Northern Railway; Chicago, Santa Fe and California Railway; Sioux City and Pacific Railroad; Toledo, Peoria and Western Railway; Union Pacific Railway.

CLASS "B."

Where gross earnings are $3,000 or over and less than $4,000 per mile.—Iowa Central Railway; Kansas City, St. Joseph and Council Bluffs Railroad; Omaha and St. Louis Railway.

CLASS "C."

Where annual earnings are less than $3,000 per mile.—Chicago, Burlington and Kansas City Railway; Chicago, Ft. Madison and Des Moines Railway; Chicago, Iowa and Dakota Railway; Crooked Creek Railroad and Coal Company; Des Moines and Kansas City Railway; Des Moines, Northern and Western Railway; Humeston and Shenandoah Railroad; Iowa Northern Railway; Mason City and Fort Dodge Railroad; Minneapolis and St. Louis Railway; St. Louis, Keokuk and Northwestern Railroad; Tabor and Northern Railway; Wabash Railroad; Winona and Southwestern Railway; Keokuk and Western Railway.

Burlington and Western; Burlington and Northwestern; Ames and College; Albia and Centerville.

====================================================================== MERCHANDISE IN CENTS SPECIAL CARLOAD CLASSES IN PER 100 LBS. CENTS PER 100 LBS. Miles First Second Third Fourth Fifth Class Class Class Class Class Class. Class. Class. Class. Class. A. B. C. D. E. - - - - - - 5 14 11.9 9.34 7 4.9 5 4.9 4.2 3.5 2.8 10 14.8 12.58 10.1 7.4 5.18 5.3 5.18 4.44 3.7 2.96 15 15.6 13.26 10.4 7.8 5.46 5.6 5.46 4.68 3.9 3.12 20 16.4 13.94 10.94 8.2 5.74 5.8 5.74 4.92 4.1 3.25 25 17 14.45 11.34 8.5 5.95 6 5.95 5.1 4.25 3.4 30 17.6 14.96 11.73 8.8 6.16 6.2 6.16 5.28 4.4 3.52 35 18.2 15.47 12.1 9.1 6.37 6.4 6.37 5.46 4.55 3.64 40 18.8 15.98 12.5 9.4 6.58 6.6 6.58 5.64 4.7 3.76 45 19.4 16.49 13 9.7 6.79 6.8 6.79 5.82 4.85 3.88 50 20 17 13.34 10 7 7.05 7 6 5 4 55 20.4 17.34 13.6 10.2 7.14 7.2 7.14 6.12 5.1 4.08 60 20.8 17.68 13.87 10.4 7.28 7.4 7.28 6.24 5.2 4.16 65 21.2 18.02 14.14 10.6 7.42 7.6 7.42 6.36 5.3 4.25 70 21.6 18.36 14.4 10.8 7.56 7.8 7.56 6.48 5.4 4.32 75 22 18.7 14.67 11 7.7 8 7.7 6.6 5.5 4.4 80 22.4 19.04 14.94 11.2 7.84 8.2 7.84 6.72 5.6 4.48 85 22.8 19.38 15.2 11.4 7.98 8.4 7.98 6.84 5.7 4.56 90 23.2 19.72 15.47 11.6 8.12 8.6 8.12 6.96 5.8 4.64 95 23.6 20.06 15.73 11.8 8.26 8.8 8.26 7.08 5.9 4.72 100 24 20.4 16 12 8.4 9 8.4 7.2 6 4.8 105 24.8 20.89 16.35 12.33 8.69 9.35 8.63 7.4 6.17 4.96 110 25.6 21.38 16.7 12.66 8.98 9.7 8.86 7.6 6.34 5.12 115 26.4 21.87 17.05 12.99 9.27 10.05 9.09 7.8 6.51 5.28 120 27.2 22.36 17.4 13.32 9.56 10.4 9.32 8 6.68 5.44 125 28 22.85 17.75 13.65 9.85 10.75 9.55 8.2 6.85 5.6 130 28.8 23.34 18.1 13.98 10.14 11.1 9.78 8.4 7.02 5.76 135 29.6 23.83 18.45 14.31 10.43 11.45 10.01 8.6 7.19 5.92 140 30.4 24.32 18.8 14.64 10.72 11.8 10.24 8.8 7.36 6.08 145 31.2 24.81 19.15 14.97 11.01 12.15 10.47 9 7.53 6.24 150 32 25.3 19.5 15.3 11.3 12.5 10.7 9.2 7.7 6.4 155 32.8 25.79 19.85 15.63 11.59 12.84 10.93 9.39 7.87 6.56 160 33.6 26.28 20.2 15.96 11.88 13.18 11.16 9.58 8.04 6.72 165 34.4 26.77 20.55 16.29 12.17 13.52 11.39 9.77 8.21 6.88 170 35.2 27.26 20.9 16.62 12.46 13.86 11.62 9.96 8.38 7.04 175 36 27.75 21.25 16.95 12.75 14.2 11.85 10.15 8.55 7.2 180 36.8 28.24 21.6 17.28 13.04 14.54 12.08 10.34 8.72 7.36 185 37.6 28.73 21.95 17.61 13.33 14.88 12.31 10.53 8.89 7.52 190 38.4 29.22 22.3 17.94 13.62 15.22 12.45 10.72 9.06 7.68 195 39.2 29.71 22.65 18.27 13.91 15.56 12.77 10.91 9.23 7.84 200 40 30.2 23 18.6 14.2 15.9 13 11.1 9.39 8 210 41.6 31.18 23.7 19.24 14.78 16.56 13.45 11.49 9.71 8.3 220 43.2 32.16 24.4 19.88 15.36 17.22 13.9 11.88 10.03 8.6 230 44.8 33.14 25.1 20.52 15.94 17.88 14.35 12.27 10.35 8.9 240 46.4 34.12 25.8 21.6 16.52 18.54 14.8 12.66 10.67 9.2 250 48 35.1 26.5 21.8 17.1 19.2 15.25 13.05 10.99 9.5 260 49.6 36.08 27.2 22.44 17.68 19.86 15.7 13.44 11.31 9.8 270 51.2 37.06 27.9 23.08 18.26 20.52 16.15 13.83 11.63 10.. 280 52.8 38.4 28.6 23.72 18.84 21.18 16.6 14.22 11.95 10.4 290 54.4 39.02 29.3 24.36 19.42 21.84 17.05 14.61 12.27 10.7 300 56 40 30 25 20 22.5 17.5 15 12.5 11 310 56.5 40.5 30.5 25.5 20.5 23 18 15.5 13 11.5 320 57 41 31 26 21 23.5 18.5 16 13.5 12 330 57.5 41.5 31.5 26.5 21.5 24 19 16.5 14 12.5 340 58 42 32 27 22 24.5 19.5 17 14.5 13 350 58.5 42.5 32.5 27.5 22.5 25 20 17.5 15 13.5 360 59 43 33 28 23 25.5 20.5 18 15.5 14 370 59.5 43.5 33.5 28.5 23.5 26 21 18.5 16 14.5 380 60 44 34 29 24 26.5 21.5 19 16.5 15 390 60.5 44.5 34.5 29.5 24.5 27 22 19.5 17 15.5 400 61 45 35 30 25 27.5 22.5 20 17.5 16 410 61.5 45.5 35.5 30.5 25.5 28 23 20.5 18 16.5 420 62 46 36 31 26 28.5 23.5 21 18.5 17 430 62.5 46.5 36.5 31.5 26.5 29 24 21.5 19 17.5 440 63 47 37 32 27 29.5 24.5 22 19.5 18 450 63.5 47.5 37.5 32.5 27.5 30 25 22.5 20 18.5 460 64 48 38 33 28 30.5 25.5 23 20.5 19 470 64.5 48.5 38.5 33.5 28.5 31 26 23.5 21 19.5 480 65 49 39 34 29 31.5 26.5 24 21.5 20 490 65.5 49.5 39.5 34.5 29.5 32 27 24.5 22 20.5 500 66 50 40 35 30 32.5 27.5 25 22.5 21

NOTE.—When rates are not shown in this table for the exact distance, the rates given for the next greater distance will prevail. When these rates and the classification conflict, these rates will govern.

A = Wheat, flour, millet, flaxseed. B = Corn, oats, barley, other grain and mill stuffs. C = Hard and soft lumber, lath, shingles, sash, doors and blinds. D = Salt, lime, cement, plaster, stucco. E = Horses and mules in carloads—minimum weight 20,000 lbs., 31-foot cars, inside measurement. F = Fat cattle in carloads—minimum weight 19,000 lbs., 31-foot cars, inside measurement G = Hogs (single deck) in carloads—minimum weight 15,000 lbs., 31-foot cars, inside measurement. H = Sheep (single deck) in carloads—minimum weight 15,000 lbs., 31-foot cars, inside measurement. I = Hard coal. J = Soft coal, lump and nut. K = Soft coal, pea and slack.

======================================================================= CARLOAD CLASSES IN LIVE STOCK IN CENTS COAL IN CENTS PER CENTS PER 100 LBS. PER 100 LBS. TON OF 2,000 LBS. - - - - Miles A B C D E F G H I J K - - - - - - - - - - 5 4.5 3.75 3.5 3.25 5.37 5.13 5.67 8.4 .60 .30 .25 10 4.7 3.92 3.66 3.39 5.75 5.53 6 8.8 .64 .34 .28 15 4.9 4.09 3.82 3.53 6.12 5.92 6.33 9.2 .68 .38 .31 20 5.1 4.26 3.98 3.67 6.5 6.32 6.67 9.6 .72 .42 .34 25 5.3 4.43 4.14 3.81 6.87 6.71 7 10 .76 .46 .37 30 5.5 4.6 4.3 3.95 7.25 7.11 7.33 10.4 .80 .50 .40 35 5.7 4.77 4.45 4.09 7.62 7.5 7.67 10.8 .84 .54 .43 40 5.9 4.93 4.6 4.23 8 7.89 8 11.2 .88 .58 .46 45 6.1 5.09 4.75 4.37 8.37 8.29 8.33 11.6 .92 .62 .49 50 6.3 5.25 4.9 4.51 8.75 8.68 8.67 12 .96 .66 .52 55 6.5 5.4 5.04 4.65 9.12 8.95 9 12.4 1.00 .70 .55 60 6.7 5.55 5.18 4.79 9.5 9.21 9.33 12.8 1.04 .74 .58 65 6.9 5.7 5.32 4.93 9.87 9.47 9.67 13.2 1.08 .78 .60 70 7.1 5.85 5.46 5.07 10.25 9.74 10 13.6 1.12 .82 .62 75 7.3 6 5.6 5.2 10.62 10 10.16 14 1.16 .85 .64 80 7.5 6.15 5.74 5.33 11 10.26 10.32 14.4 1.20 .88 .66 85 7.7 6.3 5.88 5.46 11.37 10.53 10.48 14.8 1.24 .91 .68 90 7.9 6.45 6.02 5.59 11.75 10.79 10.64 15.2 1.28 .94 .70 95 8 6.6 6.16 5.72 12.12 11.05 10.8 15.6 1.32 .97 .72 100 8.1 6.75 6.3 5.85 12.5 11.32 10.96 16 1.36 1.00 .74 105 8.24 6.87 6.41 5.95 12.75 11.53 11.12 16.3 1.40 1.015 .755 110 8.38 6.99 6.52 6.05 13 11.74 11.28 16.6 1.44 1.03 .77 115 8.52 7.11 6.63 6.15 13.25 11.95 11.44 16.9 1.48 1.045 .785 120 8.66 7.23 6.74 6.25 13.5 12.16 11.6 17.2 1.52 1.06 .80 125 8.8 7.35 6.85 6.35 13.75 12.37 11.8 17.5 1.55 1.075 .815 130 8.94 7.46 6.96 6.45 14 12.58 12 17.8 1.58 1.09 .83 135 9.08 7.57 7.07 6.55 14.25 12.79 12.2 18.1 1.61 1.105 .845 140 9.22 7.69 7.18 6.65 14.5 13 12.4 18.4 1.64 1.12 .86 145 9.36 7.79 7.29 6.75 14.75 13.21 12.6 18.7 1.67 1.135 .875 150 9.5 7.9 7.4 6.85 15 13.42 12.8 19 1.70 1.15 .89 155 9.63 8.01 7.5 6.95 15.25 13.63 13 19.3 1.73 1.165 .905 160 9.79 8.12 7.6 7.05 15.5 13.84 13.2 19.6 1.76 1.18 .92 165 9.89 8.23 7.7 7.15 15.75 14.05 13.4 19.9 1.79 1.195 .935 170 10.02 8.34 7.8 7.25 16 14.26 13.6 20.2 1.82 1.21 .95 175 10.15 8.45 7.9 7.35 16.25 14.47 13.8 20.5 1.85 1.225 .965 180 10.28 8.56 8 7.44 16.5 14.68 14 20.8 1.88 1.24 .98 185 10.41 8.67 8.1 7.53 16.75 14.89 14.2 21.1 1.91 1.255 .995 190 10.54 8.78 8.2 7.62 17 15.11 14.4 21.4 1.94 1.27 1.01 195 10.67 8.89 8.3 7.71 17.25 15.32 14.6 21.7 1.97 1.285 1.025 200 10.8 9 8.4 7.8 17.5 15.53 14.8 22 2.00 1.30 1.04 210 11.07 9.23 8.61 8 17.87 16 15.22 22.3 2.04 1.32 1.06 220 11.34 9.46 8.82 8.2 18.25 16.47 15.64 22.7 2.08 1.34 1.08 230 11.61 9.69 9.03 8.4 18.62 16.95 16.06 23.1 2.12 1.36 1.10 240 11.88 9.92 9.24 8.6 19 17.42 16.48 23.5 2.16 1.38 1.12 250 12.15 10.15 9.45 8.8 19.37 17.89 16.9 23.9 2.20 1.40 1.14 260 12.42 10.37 9.66 8.99 19.75 18.37 17.32 24.3 2.24 1.42 1.16 270 12.69 10.59 9.87 9.18 20.12 18.84 17.74 24.7 2.28 1.44 1.18 280 12.96 10.81 10.08 9.37 20.5 19.32 18.16 25.1 2.32 1.46 1.20 290 13.26 11.03 10.29 9.56 20.87 19.79 18.58 25.5 2.36 1.48 1.22 300 13.53 11.25 10.5 9.75 21.25 20.26 19 25.9 2.40 1.50 1.24 310 13.8 11.48 10.71 9.95 21.6 20.53 19.13 26.7 2.44 1.52 1.25 320 14.07 11.71 10.92 10.15 21.95 20.79 19.25 27.1 2.48 1.54 1.26 330 14.34 11.94 11.13 10.35 23.3 21.05 19.37 27.5 2.52 1.56 1.27 340 14.61 12.17 11.34 10.55 22.65 21.32 19.5 27.9 2.56 1.58 1.28 350 14.88 12.4 11.55 10.75 23 21.58 19.62 28.3 2.60 1.60 1.29 360 15.15 12.62 11.76 10.94 23.35 21.84 19.75 28.7 2.64 1.62 1.30 370 15.42 12.84 11.97 11.13 23.7 22.11 19.87 29.1 2.68 1.64 1.31 380 15.68 13.06 12.18 11.32 24.05 22.37 20 29.5 2.72 1.66 1.32 390 15.94 13.28 12.39 11.51 24.4 22.63 20.5 29.9 2.76 1.68 1.33 400 16.2 13.5 12.6 11.7 24.75 22.89 21 30.3 2.80 1.70 1.34 410 16.47 13.72 12.81 11.89 25.1 23.15 21.12 30.7 .... .... .... 420 16.73 13.94 13.02 12.08 25.45 23.41 21.25 31.1 2.88 1.74 1.36 430 17 14.16 13.23 12.22 25.80 23.67 21.37 31.5 .... .... .... 440 17.27 14.38 13.44 12.46 26.15 23.93 21.5 31.9 2.96 1.78 1.38 450 17.54 14.60 13.65 12.65 26.5 24.19 21.62 32.3 .... .... .... 460 17.80 14.82 13.86 12.84 26.85 24.45 21.75 32.7 3.04 1.82 1.40 470 18.06 15.04 14.07 13.03 27.2 24.71 21.87 33.1 .... .... .... 480 18.33 15.26 14.28 13.22 27.55 24.97 22 33.5 3.12 1.86 1.42 490 18.60 15.48 14.49 13.41 27.9 25.23 22.12 33.9 .... .... .... 500 18.87 15.70 14.70 13.60 28.15 25.49 22.25 34.3 3.20 1.90 1.44 -

* Stock cattle or feeders and calves take 75 per cent. of fat cattle rate; 31-foot car (internal measurement) is adopted as the standard for minimum weight, as per heading in table; 28-foot cars, 90 per cent. of above; 33-foot 6-inch cars, 108 per cent. of above; other lengths of cars to take same proportion as above.



INDEX.

Abbett, Gov., 113

Absentee ownership, 287

Abuses, 101 cardinal, 134 for protection against, must resort to polls and not to courts, 332 increased, 129 of railroads, 124 origin of, 434 still practiced, 400

Accidents, 450

Acworth, Mr. W. M., 276

Adams, C. F., Jr., heresy, 260 difficulty not in legislation, 258 favors pooling, 260 on character of railroad men, 257 on Iowa law, 332 H. C., motive for ownership, 436

Africa, 61 roads constructed, 22

Agriculture among Babylonians and Assyrians, 19

Albany Evening Argus, 340

Albia, 324

Algiers, 62

Algona, 328

American colonies, 100 experience, 303 investments a reproach, 313

Americans would avail themselves of low rates, 445

American Transfer Company, 119

Amsterdam, 97 owes to canal, 32

Ann Arbor Strikers, 449

Area of land grants, 329

Argentine Republic, 68

Arrogance, 453

Asia, 59 early nations of, 18

Athens connected with Piraens, protected road, 24

Atkinson, Edward, 248 fallacious argument of, 249 relies upon a figurehead commission, 249

Atlantic nurseryman, 148

Attorney-General held that legislature had not the power to prescribe rates, 330

Attorney, slow to accept fee, 402

Augustus instituted postal service, 27

Australia, 64

Austria, 54

Average fares per mile, 444

B. & M. Co., 324

Baker, C. W., 262

Balkan Peninsula, 59 physical features, important factor, 24

Ballou, H. S., 139

Baltimore and Ohio, watered stock, 172

Bankers' Magazine, 301

Banks and insurance, not private, 403

Barosz, M., 441

B., C. R. & N. Railroad Co., increased prosperity of, 344

Beach, C. F., Jr., 395 law of private corporations, 316

Bering Strait, 89

Belgium, 56, 409 cost of right of way, 370

Bessemer's invention, 374

Blackstone, T. B., 413

Blatchford, Justice, 213, 290

Blinkensop, 48

Board of Railroad Commissioners, 428

Bolles, A. S., 303

Bonded debt of M. & M. R. R., 322

Bonham, John M., 268

Boone, 327

Boston Advertiser, 340

Bradley, Justice, 213

Braithwaite, 49

Branch roads, 306

Brazil, 69

Brewer, Justice, 214, 215, 455 doctrine, 376 opinion of reasonable rates, 360 reply to ruling of, 364