RECORDS MUST LOWER COSTS AND SIMPLIFY WORK.—The quantity of records that should be made depends on the amount, diversity and state of development of the work done. No record should be made, which does not, directly or indirectly, actually reduce costs or in some way increase efficiency. The purpose of the records, as of Scientific Management in general, is to simplify work. Only when this is recognized, can the records made be properly judged. Numerous as they may at times seem to be, their number is determined absolutely by the satisfactory manner in which they—

1. Reduce costs. 2. Simplify work. 3. Increase efficiency.

RECORDS OF WORK AND WORKERS.—Records may be of the work or of the worker[2]—that is to say, of material used, tools used, output produced, etc., or of individual efficiency, in one form or another. Records of efficiency may be of workers, of foremen, and of managers, and a record may be made of any man in several capacities; for example, a record is kept of a functional foreman in the form of the work of the men who are under him, while another record might be kept of him as a worker himself; for example, the time being taken that it took him to teach others their duties, the time to learn what was to be done on any new work, etc.

RECORDS OF INITIATIVE.—Records of initiative are embodied in the Suggestion Card. Even under advanced Traditional Management the cards are furnished to the men upon which to write any ideas as to improvements. These suggestions are received, and, if accepted, are rewarded.

Under Scientific Management such suggestions become more valuable, for, as has been shown, they are based upon standards; thus if accepted, they signify not only a real, but a permanent improvement. Their greatest value, however, is in the stimulus that they furnish to the worker, in the information that they furnish the management as to which workers are interested, and in the spirit of cooeperation that they foster.

The worker receives not only a money-reward, but also publicity, for it is made known which worker has made a valuable suggestion. This indicates that the worker has shown good judgment. His interest is thus stimulated, his attention is held to his work, and the habit of initiative comes to him. That this habit of initiative can be fostered, is shown by the actual fact that in many sorts of work the same man constantly makes suggestions. It becomes a habit with him to look for the new way, and as he is constantly rewarded, the interest is not allowed to diminish.

RECORDS OF GOOD BEHAVIOR.—Records of good behavior are incorporated in the White List File. The White List File contains the names of all men who have ever been employed who merit a recommendation, if they should go to work for others, and would deserve to be given work as soon as possible, if they came back. This White List File should be filled out with many details, but even if it contains nothing but a record of the names, and the addresses where the men can be reached when new work starts up, it has a stimulating effect upon the worker. He feels, again, the element of permanence; there is a place for individuality, and not only does the manager have the satisfaction of actually having this list, and of using it, but a feeling that his men know that he is in some way recognizing them, and endeavoring to make them and their good work permanent.

RECORDS OF ACHIEVEMENT.—Records of achievement vary with the amount and nature of the work done. Such records are, as far as possible, marked upon programmes.

RECORDS MADE BY WORKER WHERE POSSIBLE.—Wherever possible the worker makes his own records. Even when this is not advisable he is informed of his record at as short intervals as are practicable.[3]

RECORDS MADE ON THE "EXCEPTION PRINCIPLE."—Much time is saved by separating records for the inspection of the man above, simply having him examine the exceptions to some desired condition,—the records which are exceptionally good, the records which are exceptionally bad. This not only serves as a reward to the man who has a good record, and a punishment for the man who has had a bad record, but it also enables the manager to discover at once what is wrong and where it is wrong, and to remedy it.

The value of the exception principle can hardly be overestimated. It would be of some value to know of exceptionally good or poor work, even if the cause were not known. At least one would be made to observe the signpost of success or of danger. But, under Scientific Management, the cause appears simultaneously with the fact on the record,—thus not only indicating the proper method of repeating success, or avoiding failure, in the future, but also showing, and making clear, the direct relation of cause to effect, to the worker himself.

THIS DISCUSSION NECESSARILY INCOMPLETE.—The records mentioned above are only a few of the types of records under Scientific Management. Discussion has been confined to these, because they have the most direct effect upon the mind of the worker and the manager. Possible records are too numerous, and too diverse, to be described and discussed in detail. They constitute a part of the "how" of Scientific Management,—the manner in which it operates. This is covered completely in the literature of Scientific Management, written by men who have made Scientific Management and its installation a life study. We need only further discuss the posting of records, and their effect.

POSTING OF RECORDS BENEFICIAL.—As has been already noted under Individuality, and must be again noted under Incentives, much benefit is derived from posting records, especially when these are of such a character, or are so posted, that the worker may see at a glance the comparative excellence of his results.

SUMMARY

RESULTS OF RECORDS TO THE WORK.[4]—The results of recording are the same under all forms of management, if the records are correct.

Output increases where records are kept. Under Traditional Management there is the danger that pressure for quantity will affect quality, especially if insufficient records of the resultant quality are kept. Under Transitory and Scientific Management, quality is maintained or improved, both because previous records set the standard, and because following records exhibit the quality.

RESULTS TO THE WORKER.—James says, "A man's social use is the recognition which he gets from his mates. We are not only gregarious animals, liking to be liked in sight of our fellow, but we have an innate propensity to get ourselves noticed, and noticed favorably, by our kind. No more fiendish punishment could be devised, were such a thing physically possible, than that one should be turned loose in society and remain absolutely unnoticed by all the members thereof. If no one turned around when we entered, answered when we spoke or minded what we did, but if every person we met 'cut us dead' and acted as if we were non-existing things, a kind of rage and impotent despair would ere long well up in us, from which the cruelest bodily tortures would be a relief; for these would make us feel that, however bad might be our plight, we had not sunk to such a depth as to be unworthy of attention at all."[5] This recognition the worker gets partly through the records which are made of him.

SELF-KNOWLEDGE ATTAINED THROUGH RECORDS.—Through records of output, and especially through charts of such records, and timed motion-picture films, or micro-motion study pictures the worker may, if he be naturally observant, or if he be taught to observe, gain a fine knowledge of himself.

The constant exhibit of cause and effect of the relation of output to, for example,—drink of alcoholic beverages; to smoking; to food values; to nutrition; to family worries; and to other outside influences;—in fact, the effects of numerous different modes of living, are shown promptly to the worker in the form of records.

Two things should here be noted:

1. The necessity of having more accurate records of the worker and the work, that the relation oL cause to effect may be more precise and authentic.

2. The necessity for so training the worker, before, as well as after, he enters the industrial world, that he can better understand and utilize the lesson taught by his own records and those of others.

EDUCATIVE VALUE OF WORKER MAKING HIS OWN RECORD.—Under Scientific Management in its most highly developed form, the worker makes his own records on his return cards and hands them in. The worker thus not only comes to realize, by seeing them and by writing them down, what his records are, but he also realizes his individual position to-day compared to what it was yesterday, and compared to that of his fellows in the same line of work. Further, he gains accuracy, he gains judgment, he gains a method of attack. He realizes that, as the managers are more or less recorders, so also he, in recording himself, is vitally connected with the management. It is, after all, more or less an attitude of mind which he gains by making out these records himself. It is because of this attitude of mind, and of the value which it is to him, that he is made to make out his own record under the ultimate form of management, even though at times this may involve a sacrifice of the time in which he must do it, and although he may work slower than could a specialist at recording, who perhaps would, in spite of that, be paid less for doing the work.

EXACT KNOWLEDGE VALUABLE.—We cannot emphasize too often in this connection the far-reaching psychological effect upon the worker of exact knowledge of the comparative efficiency of methods. The value of this is seldom fully appreciated; for example, we are familiar with the many examples where the worker has been flattered until he believes that he cannot make mistakes or do inefficient work. This is most often found where the glowing compliments to the manufacturing department, found in the advertising pages of the magazine and in the praises sung in print by the publicity department, oftentimes ends in an individual overconfidence. This unjustified self-esteem is soon shattered by accurate comparative records.

On the other hand, hazing of the new worker and the sneers of the jealous, accompanied by such trite expressions as—"You can't teach an old dog new tricks," have often destroyed self-confidence in a worker, who, in the absence of accurate records of his efficiency, is trying to judge himself at new methods. The jibes and jokes at the new man at the new work, and especially at the experienced, efficient man at unfamiliar work cease, or at least are wholly impotent, so far as discouraging the man is concerned, provided the worker sees by the records of a true measuring device, or method, that his work compares favorably with others of the same experience, made under the same conditions.

DEFINITION OF PROGRAMME.—The word "programme" is defined by the Century Dictionary as "a method of operation or line of procedure prepared or announced beforehand. An outline or abstract of something to be done or carried out."

TWO MEANINGS OF "PROGRAMME" IN MANAGEMENT.—The word "programme" has two meanings in management.

1. the work, as it comes to the management to be done 2. the work as it is planned out by the managers, and handed over to the worker to be done.

Programme as here used is a plan for doing work, the plan which the planning department lays out and hands over for the performers, or the workers, to do.

UNDER TRADITIONAL MANAGEMENT NO ACCURATE PROGRAMME IS POSSIBLE.—Under Traditional Management the plan is at best a repetition of records of unscientifically planned work. The most that the managers can hope to do is to lay out the time in which they expect, after consulting previous elapsed time records, the work to be done. Methods are not prescribed, so there is no assurance that the calendar will be followed, for the times are set by guess, or at best by referring to old unscientifically made records.

UNDER TRANSITORY MANAGEMENT CALENDARS CAN BE DESIGNED.—Under Transitory Management, with the introduction of systems, that is, records of how the work has been done best at various times, come methods and a possibility of a more exact calendar. There is some likelihood under Transitory System of the work being done on time, as the method has been considered and, in many cases, is specified.

UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT ACCURATE CALENDARS POSSIBLE.—Under Scientific Management programmes are based on accurate records scientifically made and standardized, and a calendar may be made that can be conformed to with exactness.

PROGRAMMES A MATTER OF ROUTING.—The problems of a programme under Scientific Management are two, both problems of routing:—

1. to route materials to the work place. 2. to route the worker to the placed materials.

At first glance it might seem simpler to consider the worker as static and the materials as in motion. The "routing" of the worker is really often not a question of motion at all, as the worker, if he were operating a machine, for example, would not change his position between various pieces of work—except to rest from fatigue—enough to be considered. The word "routing" is used figuratively as regards the worker. He is considered as transported by the management through the day's work.

But, whether the work move, or the worker, or both, programmes must so plan out the progress of each, in detail, for as many days ahead as possible, that the most efficient outcome will ensue.

ROUTING OF WORK.—The work is routed through schedules of materials to buy, schedules of material to handle, and schedules of labor to be performed. The skilled worker finds all the materials for his work ready and waiting for him when he arrives at the task, this being provided for by programmes made out many tasks ahead.

ROUTING OF WORKERS.—The workers themselves are routed by means of the route sheet, route chart, pin plan and bulletin board.

The devices for laying out the work of the workers appeal to the imagination as well as the reason. The route chart is a graphical representation of a large river, starting with the small stream,—the first operation, gathering to itself as the tributaries, the various other operations,—till it reaches its full growth, the completed work.

The pin plan, with each pin or flag representing a worker, or work place, and following his progress on a plan of the work, presents a bird's-eye view in miniature of the entire working force; and the bulletin board, with its cards that represent work ahead, not only eliminates actual delay of shifting from one task to another, but permits studying out one task while doing another, and also destroys all fear of delay between jobs.

IMPOSSIBILITY OF DESCRIBING ROUTING DEVICES ACCURATELY.—These routing devices might all be described at length, but no description could do them justice. A visit to a shop, or factory, or other industrial organization operating under Scientific Management is necessary, in order to appreciate not only their utility, but the interest that they arouse. These programmes are no dead, static things. They are alive, pulsing, moving, progressing with the progress of the work.

PROPHECY BECOMES POSSIBLE UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.—The calendar, or chronological chart, becomes a true prophecy of what will take place. This is based on the standardized elementary units, and the variations from it will be so slight as to allow of being disregarded.

SUMMARY

RESULTS OF PROGRAMME TO THE WORK.—Under Traditional Management the tentative calendar might cause speed, but could not direct speed. Under Transitory Management elimination of waste by prescribed methods and routing increases output. This increase becomes greater under Scientific Management. Standardized routing designs the shortest paths, the least wasteful sequence of events, the most efficient speed, the most fitting method. The result is more and better work.

RESULTS OF PROGRAMMES TO THE WORKER.—A programme clarifies the mind, is definite. The Traditional worker was often not sure what he had better do next. The worker under Scientific Management knows exactly what he is to do, and where and how he is to do it.

The attention is held, a field of allied interests are provided for possible lapses, as are also methods for recalling attention.

The programme provides for a look ahead, and the relief that comes from seeing the path before one. This ability to foresee also leads to a feeling of stability. The knowledge that there is a large amount of work ahead, ready to be attacked with no delay, eliminates anxiety as to future employment. This allows of concentration on the work in hand, and a feeling that, this work being properly done, one is free to turn to the next piece of work with the absolute assurance that what has been done will be satisfactory.

RELATION BETWEEN RECORDS AND PROGRAMMES.—No discussion of records and programmes would be complete that did not consider the relation between them.

IMPORTANCE OF THIS RELATION.—The relation between records and programmes in the various types of management is most important, for the progress from one type to another may be studied as exemplified in the change in these relations.

A BROADENING OF THE DEFINITIONS.—In order to understand more plainly the complexity of this relation, we will not confine ourselves here to the narrower definition of a record as a written account, but will consider it to mean a registering of an experience in the mind, whether this expresses itself in a written record or not, A programme will, likewise, be a mental plan.

MANY POSSIBLE TYPES OF RECORDS AND PROGRAMMES.—In order to understand the number of different types of records and programmes that can be made for a worker, the table that follows may be examined (Table I). It exemplifies twelve possible records and twelve possible programmes.

TABLE I

/ / 1. unconscious record 2. conscious record, /1. Man - not written working 3. written record for 4. standardized record himself I. RECORDS /1. unconscious record 2. conscious record, not written /(a) One of a - 3. written record gang 4. standardized record /(a) made by man 2. Man - (b) " " manager working /1. unconscious (a) made by man for record (b) " " manager another 2. conscious - (a) made by man record, (b) " " manager (b) Individual - not written (a) made by man output 3. written (b) " " manager record (a) made by man 4. standardize (b) " " manager record



/ 1. unconscious programme /1. Man 2. conscious programme working 3. written programme for 4. standardized programme himself II. PROGRAMMES- /1. unconscious /(a) made by man /(a) One of a - programme (b) " " manager gang 2. conscious (a) made by man programme, (b) " " manager 2. Man not written - (a) made by man working 3. written (b) " " manager for programme (a) made by man another (b) Individual - 4. standardized (b) " " manager output programme (a) made by man (b) " " manager



INTERRELATION OF THESE TYPES.—The man is classified first, as working for himself, or working for another. There will usually be a fundamental difference, at the outset, in the minds of these two men, for the man working for himself will be of a more independent cast of thought. There will be no question as to the man's output showing up separately, unless he chooses to prevent this by having others work with him. Neither will there be any question but that, if a record is made, he makes it himself, unless someone who is not vitally connected with the work, as some onlooker, interested or disinterested, should make the records for him. But the typical case of the man working for himself would be that he was working as an individual, and that the record was made by himself. There would then be four kinds of records—an unconscious record, a conscious record not written, a written record and a standardized record. The "unconscious record" would be, in reality, no record at all. It would simply be, that somewhere in the man's mind there would be a record of what he had done, which, except as a "fringe of consciousness" would not particularly influence his programme. What we mean by a "conscious record" would be more of a set habit, the man knowing that he had done the work in a certain way. This would begin to influence, more or less, his programme, and also his knowledge of his capacity for work. With a written record, would come a thorough knowledge on his part of what he had done and how he had done it, and we must note that with this written record comes the possibility for some sort of a set programme, the man knowing what it will be possible to do, and how he had best do it. With the standardized record comes the standardized method.

RELATIONSHIPS COMPLEX.—When we consider the man working for another, he may either be one of a gang, or one whose work is considered as that of an individual. In either case, any of the four sorts of records can be made of his work that have been already described for the man working for himself. Each one of these records may be made by the man, or by the management; for with the man working for another, naturally the second mind, that of the other, or the manager, enters in, and a great many more combinations are possible.

For example,—there might be an unconscious record made by the man and a conscious record, or a written record, made by the manager. There might be a conscious record made by the man, but an unconscious or a written record made by the manager, etc. There are too many combinations made to be here considered. Each one of these combinations would have a definite and a different effect, both upon the mind of the man, and upon the mind of the manager; and also upon their relation to each other. The second half of this chart is similar, but treats of programmes, as many variables enter here.

It may be thought that the details of the preceding chart and the three following charts are uninteresting, obvious, and show too many possible combinations. If this be so, then it is most necessary to include them to illustrate the conditions that are passed through and slipped back into too often in our schools, our apprenticeship and in all but the best of managements.

The outline of advancement must be known and recognized if the quality of teaching, efficiency, and management is to be graded in its right class.

When we consider that each type of record bears a relation to each type of programme, the complexity of the problems involved become apparent. This will be better shown in Table II.

TABLE II

1. Unconscious record, unconscious programme. 2. Conscious record, unconscious programme. 3. Unconscious record, conscious programme. 4. Conscious record, conscious programme. I. Man working 5. Unconscious record, written programme. for himself. 6. Written record, unconscious programme. 7. Conscious record, written programme. 8. Written record, conscious programme. 9. Written record, written programme. 10. Standardized record, standardized programme.

ILLUSTRATION OF THIS COMPLEXITY.—Table II represents the man working for himself, with subdivisions under it showing the possible relationship between his record and his programme. We find that these are at least ten, reaching all the way from the unconscious record and unconscious programme of the migrating transitory laborer to the standardized record and the standardized programme of the manager who manages himself scientifically.

Each one of these represent a distinct psychological stage. The progression may not be regular and smooth as is here given,—it may be a jump, possibly even from one to nine. It may, however, be a slow progression from one stage to another, largely to be determined by the type of mind that is considered, and the opportunities for development along scientific lines which are afforded. It is the writer's intention to discuss these at length at some other time. Here it is only possible to enumerate, in order to show the size and complexity of the problem which is here involved.

The table does not indicate, as perhaps it should, the fact that the relationship between an unconscious record and an unconscious programme is slight, while the relation between a written programme and a written record is very close indeed. In Table IV this will be indicated.

TABLE III

1. One of a gang, unconscious record, unconscious programme, on part of both manager and man. II. Man working for another. 2. Individual output,—standardized record and programme, known to, or made by, both manager and man.

ELIMINATION OF WASTE POSSIBLE.—The third table—that of the man working for another man—attempts to do no more than indicate the first and last step of a long series, beginning with the man, one of a gang, an unconscious record, and an unconscious programme, on the part of both the manager and the man, down to the final stage of individual output, with the written record and programme known to both manager and man. It would be a most interesting problem to work out the various steps stretching between these two, and the various ways in which progression might be made through these steps, either taking one step after another slowly or making the various possible jumps long and short. A psychological discussion of each step would be of value, and certainly must in time be made, but this book has not the scope, nor can the time be devoted to such a discussion.

If this third chart had no other purpose, it would be useful to suggest to the student the wide tracts which still remain for study and development. It must not be thought that any of the steps omitted on this chart are not in existence. Every single possible combination of record and programme is in existence to-day, and must be studied by the manager of men. Not until these are all discovered, described, and standardized, the progression noted, and standard progressions outlined, can methods of least waste be adopted.

With a more thorough experimental study of the mind will come a possible prediction as to which stages the various types of mind must pass through. So, too, with the training of the young mind in the primary schools and in the methods of Scientific Management, will come the elimination of many stages now necessary, and the possibility, even, that the final stage may be introduced at the outset, and the enormous waste of time, energy and wearing of unnecessary brain paths be absolutely abolished.

THE PROGRAMME DERIVED FROM THE RECORD.—Having considered the various records and programmes and their relation, we will now consider the four stages of the record,—(1) unconscious, (2) conscious, (3) written, (4) standardized, and trace the derivation of the programme from each stage.

TABLE IV ============================================================ I. Record unconscious. Programme cannot be definite. Method is indefinite. ============================================================ II. Record conscious. Programme becomes more definite. Method becomes more definite. ============================================================ III. Record written. Programme yet more definite. Method definite. ============================================================ IV. Record standardized. Programme standardized, i.e., Results predictable. Methods standard. ============================================================

UNCONSCIOUS RECORDS MEAN INDEFINITE PROGRAMMES.—First, then, suppose that the records are unconscious. What does this imply? It implies in the first place that the worker has no idea of his capacity; never having thought of what he has done, he has no idea what can be done, neither has he a comparative idea of methods, that is, of how to do it. It is impossible for a definite programme to be laid out by such a worker,—that is to say, no predictions by him as to the time of completing the work are possible. Neither could a method be derived by him from his previous work.

Note here the alarming amount of waste. All good methods which the worker may possibly have acquired are practically lost to the world, and perhaps also to him. Not only this, but all bad methods which he has fallen into will be fallen into again and again, as there are no warning signs to keep him out of them.

As there is no possibility of an accurate chronological chart, the worker may undertake more than he can do, thus delaying work which should have been done by others. On the other hand, he may underestimate his capacity, and be left idle because work he should have done has been assigned to others. Either of these leads to a sense of insecurity, to wavering attention, to "hit or miss" guess work, "rule-of-thumb methods," which are the signs of Traditional Management.

WITH CONSCIOUS AND WRITTEN RECORDS COME DEFINITE PROGRAMMES.—We turn now to the case where the record is conscious,—that is, where the worker keeps in mind exactly what he has done. With this conscious record the idea of capacity develops. The man realizes what he can do. So also, the idea of method develops, and the man realizes how he can do the work. Third, there comes gradually an idea of a margin; that is, of a possible way by which capacity can be increased for a higher speed, or methods can be slightly varied to meet any particular deviation in the work to be done.

From this ability to estimate capacity, and to plan the method ahead, comes the ability to lay out a more definite programme. When the record becomes written the exactness of the programme increases. Methods also become written, and, though accurate prediction is not possible, such prediction is more and more nearly approached. This increasing accuracy is the work of Transitory System in all its stages.

STANDARD RECORDS PERMIT OF STANDARD PROGRAMMES.—In the last case, the record is standardized, that is, the result of the method of processes of analysis and synthesis. Through this process, as has been shown, the reason for success is discovered and rendered usable. The programme becomes standard, results can be predicted accurately, and methods by which these results can be best obtained are also standard.

It may at first escape notice that these standardized records, of the ultimate or scientific management type, imply not a greater rigidity, but a greater elasticity. This because of the nature of the elements of the records, which may, in time, be combined into a great number of different, predictable programmes.

SUMMARY

RESULTS OF RELATIONS BETWEEN RECORDS AND PROGRAMMES ON THE WORK.—The most noteworthy result of the closer relations between records and programmes which appear during the evolution of Scientific Management is the fact that they cause constant simplification. The more carefully records are standardized, the simpler becomes the drafting of the programme. As more and more records become standard, the drafting of programmes becomes constantly an easier and cheaper process.

PROGRAMMES BECOME RECORDS.—Under Traditional Management the record that follows a programme may appear very different from the programme. Under Scientific Management the record that follows a programme most closely resembles the programme. Improvements are not made between the programme and the following record,—they find their place between the record and the following programme. Thus programmes and records may be grouped in pairs, by similarity, with a likelihood of difference between any one pair (one programme plus one record) and other pairs.

RESULT ON THE WORKER.—The greatest effect, on the worker, of these relations of record to programme under Scientific Management is the confidence that he gains in the judgment that is an outcome of Scientific Management. When the worker sees that Scientific Management makes possible accurate predictions of times, schedules, tasks, and performance; that the methods prescribed invariably enable him to achieve prescribed results, his confidence in Scientific Management grows. So also does the manager's confidence in Scientific Management grow,—and in this mutual confidence in the system of management is another bond of sympathy.

The place left for suggestions and improvements, in the ever-present opportunities to better standards, fulfills that longing for a greater efficiency that is the cause of progress.

CHAPTER VII FOOTNOTES: =============================================

1. Gillette and Dana, Cost Keeping and Management Engineering, p. 65. 2. H.L. Gantt, Paper No. 1002, A.S.M.E., page 2. 3. Gillette and Dana, Cost Keeping and Management Engineering, p. VII. 4. H.L. Gantt, Paper No. 1002, A.S.M.E., p. 1336. 5. William James, Psychology, Briefer Course, p. 179.

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CHAPTER VIII

TEACHING

DEFINITION OF TEACHING.—The Century Dictionary defines "teaching" as "the act or business of instructing," with synonyms: "training" and "education;" and "to teach" is defined:—

1. "to point out, direct, show;" "to tell, inform, instruct, explain;" 2. "to show how (to do something); hence, to train;" 3. "to impart knowledge or practical skill to;" "to guide in learning, educate."

"Educate," we find meaning "to instruct, to teach methodically, to prescribe to; to indoctrinate;" and by "indoctrinate" is meant "to cause to hold as a doctrine or belief." "To educate," says the same authority, "is to develop mentally or morally by instruction; to qualify by instruction and training for the business and duty of life."

UNDER TRADITIONAL MANAGEMENT NO DEFINITE PLAN OF TEACHING.— Under Traditional Management there is either no definite scheme of teaching by the management itself, or practically none; at least, this is usually the condition under the most elementary types of Traditional Management. In the very highest examples of the traditional plan the learner may be shown how, but this showing is not usually done in a systematic way, and under so-called Traditional Management is seldom in the form of written instructions.

NO SPECIFIED TIME FOR OR SOURCE OF THE TEACHING.—Under Traditional Management there is no particular time in which this teaching goes on, no particular time allowed for the worker to ask for the instruction, nor is there any particular source from which he obtains the instructions. There is, moreover, almost every hindrance against his getting any more instruction than he absolutely must have in order to get the work done. The persons to whom he can possibly appeal for further information might discharge him for not already knowing. These persons are, if he is an apprentice, an older worker; if he is a journeyman, the worker next to him, or the foreman, or someone over him. An important fact bearing on this subject is that it is not to the pecuniary advantage of any particular person to give this teaching. In the first place, if the man be a fellow-worker, he will want to do his own work without interruption, he will not want to take the time off; moreover, he regards his particular skill as more or less of a trade secret, and desires to educate no more people than necessary, to be as clever as he is. In the third place, there is no possible reward for giving this instruction. Of course, the worker necessarily improves under any sort of teaching, and if he has a receptive mind, or an inventive mind, he must progress constantly, either by teaching himself or by the instruction, no matter how haphazard.

GREAT VARIATION UNDER TRADITIONAL MANAGEMENT.—Only discussion of teaching under this type of management with many men who have learned under it, can sufficiently emphasize the variations to be found. But the consensus of opinion would seem to prove that an apprentice of only a generation ago was too often hazed, was discouraged from appealing for assistance or advice to the workers near him, or to his foreman; was unable to find valuable literature for home-study on the subject of his trade. The experience of many an apprentice was, doubtless, different from this, but surely the mental attitude of the journeymen who were the only teachers must have tended toward some such resulting attitude of doubt or hesitancy in the apprentice.

MENTAL ATTITUDE OF THE WORKER-TEACHER.—Under the old plan of management, the apprentice must appear to the journeyman more or less of a supplanter. From the employee's standpoint it was most desirable that the number of apprentices be kept down, as an oversupply of labor almost invariably resulted in a lowering of wages. The quicker and better the apprentice was taught, the sooner he became an active competitor. There seldom existed under this type of management many staff positions to which the workers could hope to be promoted, certainly none where they could utilize to the fullest extent their teaching ability. There was thus every reason for a journeyman to regard the teaching of apprentices as unremunerative, irksome, and annoying.

WORKER NOT TO BLAME FOR THIS.—The worker is not to be blamed for this attitude. The conditions under which he worked made it almost inevitable. Not only could he gain little or nothing by being a successful teacher, but also the bullying instinct was appealed to constantly, and the desire of the upper classmen in hazing days to make the next class "pay up" for the hazing that they were obliged to endure in their Freshman year.

ATTITUDE OF THE LEARNER.—The attitude of the typical learner must frequently be one of hesitancy and self-distrust if not of fear, though conditions were so varied as almost to defy classification. One type of apprentice was expected to learn merely by observation and imitation. Another was practically the chore boy of the worker who was assigned to teach him. A third was under no direct supervision at all, but was expected to "keep busy," finding his work by himself. A fourth was put through a severe and valuable training by a martinet teacher,—and so on.

TEACHING OFTEN PAINSTAKING.—It is greatly to the credit of the worker under this type of management that he was, in spite of all drawbacks, occasionally a painstaking teacher, to the best of his lights. He insisted on application, and especially on quality of work. He unselfishly gave of his own time and skill to help the apprentice under him.

METHODS OF TEACHING USUALLY WRONG.—Unfortunately, through no fault of the worker-teacher the teaching was usually done according to wrong methods. Quality of resulting output was so emphasized that neither speed nor correct motions were given proper consideration.

TEACHER NOT TRAINED TO TEACH.—The reason for this was that the worker had no training to be a teacher. In the first place, he had no adequate idea of his own capabilities, and of which parts of his own method were fit to be taught. In the second place, he did not know that right motions must be insisted on first, speed next, and quality of output third; or in other words that if the motions were precise enough, the quality would be first. In the fourth place he had no pedagogical training.

LACK OF STANDARDS AN UNDERLYING LACK.—All shortcoming in the old time teaching may be traced to lack of standards. The worker had never been measured, hence had no idea of his efficiency, or of possible efficiency. No standard methods made plain the manner in which the work should be done. Moreover, no standard division and assignment of work allowed of placing apprentices at such parts of the work that quality could be given third place. No standard requirements had determined his fitness as a teacher, nor the specialty that he should teach, and no incentive held his interest to the teaching. These standards the worker-teacher could not provide for himself, and the wonder is that the teaching was of such a high character as it was.

VERY LITTLE TEACHING OF ADULTS.—Under Traditional Management, teaching of adults was slight,—there being little incentive either to teacher or to learner, and it being always difficult for an adult to change his method.[1] Moreover, it would be difficult for a worker using one method to persuade one using another that his was the better, there being no standard. Even if the user of the better did persuade the other to follow his method, the final result might be the loss of some valuable elements of the poorer method that did not appear in the better.

FAILURE TO APPRECIATE THE IMPORTANCE OF TEACHING.—An underestimation of the importance of teaching lay at the root of the lack of progress. This is so directly connected with all the other lacks of Traditional Management,—provision for adequate promotion and pay, standards, and the other underlying principles of Scientific Management, especially the appreciation of cooeperation,—that it is almost impossible to disentangle the reasons for it. Nor would it be profitable to attempt to do so here. In considering teaching under Scientific Management we shall show the influence of the appreciation of teaching,—and may deduce the lacks from its non-appreciation, from that discussion.

UNDER TRANSITORY SYSTEM TEACHING BECOMES MORE IMPORTANT.—Under Transitory Management the importance of teaching becomes at once more apparent. This, both by providing for the teaching of foremen and journeymen as well as apprentices, and by the providing of written systems of instructions as to best practice. The worker has access to all the sources of information of Traditional Management, and has, besides these, in effect, unsystematically derived standards to direct him.

SYSTEMS MAKE INSTRUCTION ALWAYS AVAILABLE.—The use of written systems enables every worker to receive instruction at any time, to feel free to ask it, and to follow it without feeling in any way humiliated.

The result of the teaching of these systems is a decided improvement in methods. If the written systems are used exclusively as a source of teaching, except for the indefinite teachers of the Traditional Management, the improvement becomes definitely proportioned to the time which the man spends upon the studying and to the amount of receptive power which he naturally has.

INCENTIVES TO CONFORM TO SYSTEM.—The worker has incentives to follow the systems—

1. In that he is required to render reasons in writing for permanent filing, for every disobedience of system. 2. That, as soon as work is placed on the bonus basis, the first bonus that is given is for doing work in accordance with the prescribed method.

Even before the bonus is paid, the worker will not vary for any slight reasons, if he positively knows at the time that he must account for so doing, and that he will be considered to have "stacked his judgment" against that of the manager. Being called to account for deviations gives the man a feeling of responsibility for his act, and also makes him feel his close relationship with the managers.

NO SET TIME FOR USING SYSTEMS.—There is, under this type of management, no set time for the study of the systems.

SYSTEMS INELASTIC.—Being written, these systems have all the disadvantages of anything that is written. That is to say, they require considerable adaptability on the part of the man who is using them. He must consider his own mind, and the amount of time which he must put on studying; he must consider his own work, and adapting that method to his work while still obeying instructions. In the case of the system being in great detail, he can usually find a fairly detailed description of what he is going to do, and can use that. In the case of the system being not so complete, if his work varies, he must show intelligence in varying the system, and this intelligence often demands a knowledge which he has not, and knows not where to obtain.

WASTE OF TIME FROM UNSTANDARDIZED SYSTEMS.—The time necessitated by the worker's laying out details of his method is taken from the total time of his working day, hence in so far cuts down his total product. Moreover, if no record is kept of the details of his planning the next worker on the same kind of work must repeat the investigation.

LATER TRANSITIONAL MANAGEMENT EMPHASIZES USE OF STANDARDS.—Later Transitional Management eliminates this waste of time by standardizing methods composed of standardized timed units, thus both rendering standards elastic, and furnishing details.

TEACHING MOST IMPORTANT UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.—Teaching is a most important element under Scientific Management not only because it increases industrial efficiency, but also because it fosters industrial peace.[2]

IMPORTANCE DEPENDS ON OTHER ELEMENTS OF SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.—As we have seen, Scientific Management has as a basic idea the necessity of divided responsibility, or functionalization. This, when accompanied by the interdependent bonus, creates an incentive to teach and an incentive to learn. Scientific Management divides the planning from the performing in order to centralize and standardize knowledge in the planning department, thus making all knowledge of each available to all. This puts at the disposal of all more than any could have alone. The importance of having this collected and standardized knowledge conveyed best to the worker cannot be overestimated. Through this knowledge, the worker is able to increase his output, and thus insure the lowered costs, that provide the funds with which to pay his higher wages,—to increase his potential as well as actual efficiency, and best to cooeperate with other workers and with the management.

IMPORTANCE OF TEACHING ELEMENT BEST CLAIM TO PERMANENCE OF SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.—Upon the emphasis which it places on teaching rests/a large part of the claim of Scientific Management for permanence.[3] We have already shown the derivation of the standards which are taught. We have shown that the relation between the planning and performing departments is based largely on means and methods for teaching. We have only to show here that the teaching is done in accordance with those laws of Psychology that are the laws of Pedagogy.

TEACHING IN SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT NOT THE RESULT OF THEORY ONLY.—The methods of teaching under Scientific Management were not devised in response to theories of education. They are the result of actual experience in getting work done most successfully. The teachers, the methods, the devices for teaching,—all these grew up to meet needs, as did the other elements of Scientific Management.

CONFORMITY OF TEACHING TO PSYCHOLOGICAL LAWS PROOF OF WORTH OF SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.—The fact that teaching under Scientific Management does conform, as will be shown, to the laws of Psychology, is an added proof of the value of Scientific Management.

CHANGE FROM TEACHING UNDER TRADITIONAL MANAGEMENT.—Mr. Gantt says, "The general policy of the past has been to drive; but the era of force must give way to that of knowledge, and the policy of the future will be to teach and to lead, to the advantage of all concerned."[4] This "driving" element of Traditional Management is eliminated by Scientific Management.

NECESSITY FOR PERSONALLY DERIVED JUDGMENT ELIMINATED.—So also is eliminated the old belief that the worker must go through all possible experiences in order to acquire "judgment" as to best methods. If the worker must pass through all the stages of the training of the old-fashioned mechanic, and this is seriously advocated by some, he may fail to reach the higher planes of knowledge afforded by training under Scientific Management, by reason of sheer lack of time. If, therefore, by artificial conditions caused by united agreement and collective bargaining, workmen insist upon forcing upon the new learners the old-school training, they will lose just so much of the benefits of training under those carefully arranged and carefully safe-guarded processes of industrial investigation in which modern science has been successful. To refuse to start in where others have left off, is really as wasteful as it would be to refuse to use mathematical formulas because they have been worked out by others. It might be advocated that the mind would grow by working out every possible mathematical formula before using it, but the result would be that the student would be held back from any further original investigation. Duplicating primary investigations might be original work for him, but it would be worthless as far as the world is concerned. The same is absolutely true in management. If the worker is held back by acquiring every bit of knowledge for himself instead of taking the work of others as the starting point, the most valuable initiative will be lost to the world.

BAD HABITS THE RESULT OF UNDIRECTED LEARNING.—Even worse than the waste of time would be the danger of acquiring habits of bad methods, habits of unnecessary motions, habits of inaccurate work; habits of inattention. Any or all of these might develop. These are all prevented under Scientific Management by the improved methods of teaching.

VALUABLE ELEMENTS OF TRADITIONAL MANAGEMENT CONSERVED.—There are, however, many valuable elements of the old Traditional system of teaching and of management which should be retained and not be lost in the new.

For example,—the greatest single cause of making men capable under the old plan was the foreman's unconscious ability to make his men believe, before they started a task, that they could achieve it.

It must not be thought that because of the aids to the teacher under Scientific Management the old thought of personality is lost. The old ability to convert a man to the belief that he could do a thing, to inspire him with confidence in his foreman, with confidence in himself, and a desire to do things, is by no means lost, on the contrary it is carefully preserved under Scientific Management.

TEACHING OF TRANSITORY MANAGEMENT SUPPLEMENTED.—In the transforming of Transitory into Scientific Management, we note that the process is one of supplementing, not of discarding. Written system, which is the distinguishing characteristic of Transitory Management, is somewhat limited in its scope, but its usefulness is by no means impaired.

SCOPE OF TEACHING UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.—Under Scientific Management teaching must cover

1. Teaching of right methods of doing work, 2. Teaching of right habits of doing the right methods.

The teacher must so impart the knowledge that judgment can be acquired without the learner being obliged himself to experience all the elements of the judgment.

NEEDS FOR TEACHING UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.—The needs for this teaching have been stated, but may be recapitulated here.

1. Worker may not observe his own mistakes. 2. Worker has no opportunity under the old industrial conditions to standardize his own methods. 3. Worker must know standard practice. 4. Waste can be eliminated by the teaching. 5. Right habits can be instilled.

SOURCES OF TEACHING UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.—The sources of teaching under Scientific Management are

1. Friends or Relatives } 2. Fellow workers } If the worker chooses 3. Literature of the Trade } to use them. 4. Night schools and study } 5. The Management. }

METHODS OF TEACHING UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.—The Methods of Teaching under Scientific Management are

1. Written, by means of

(a) Instruction Cards telling what is to be done and how. (b) Systems, explaining the why. (c) Drawings, charts, plans, photographs, illustrating methods. (d) Records made by the worker himself.

2. Oral, the teaching of the Functional Foremen.

3. Object-lessons:

(a) Exhibits. (b) Working models. (c) Demonstrations by the Teacher. (d) Demonstrations by the worker under Supervision.

WORKER A SOURCE OF THESE METHODS.—It should be often stated that, ultimately, the elements of all methods are derived from a study of workers, and that the worker should be enabled to realize this. Only when he feels that he is a part of what is taught, and that the teachers are a means of presenting to him the underlying principles of his own experience, will the worker be able to cooeperate with all his energy.

INSTRUCTION CARDS ARE DIRECTIONS.—Instruction Cards are direct instructions for each piece of work, giving, in most concise form, closely defined description of standard practice and directions as to how each element of the standardized task is to be performed. The makers know that they must make their directions clear ultimately, therefore they strive constantly for clearness.

INSTRUCTION CARDS TEACH DIRECTLY AND INDIRECTLY.—These Instruction Cards not only teach the worker directly best to do his work, but also teach him indirectly how to become a leader, demonstrator, teacher and functional foreman. Study of them may lead to an interest in, and a study of, elements, and to preparation for becoming one of the planning department. The excellent method of attack of the Instruction Card cannot fail to have some good effect, even upon such workers as do not consciously note it.[5]

SYSTEMS ARE REASONS AND EXPLANATIONS.—"Systems" or standing orders are collections of detailed reasons for, and explanations of, the decisions embodied in the directions of the Instruction Cards. There is a system showing the standard practice of each kind of work.

THEY ENLIST THE JUDGMENT OF THE WORKER.—Under really successful management, it is realized that the worker is of an inquiring mind, and that, unless this inquiring tendency of his is recognized, and his curiosity is satisfied, he can never do his best work. Unless the man knows why he is doing the thing, his judgment will never reenforce his work. He may conform to the method absolutely, but his work will not enlist his zeal unless he knows just exactly why he is made to work in the particular manner prescribed. This giving of the "why" to the worker through the system, and thus allowing his reason to follow through all the details, and his judgment to conform absolutely, should silence the objections of those who claim that the worker becomes a machine, and that he has no incentive to think at his work. On the contrary, it will be seen that this method furnishes him with more viewpoints from which he can consider his work.

DRAWINGS, CHARTS, PLANS AND PHOTOGRAPHS MEANS OF MAKING DIRECTIONS CLEARER.—The Instruction Cards are supplemented with drawings, charts, plans and stereoscopic and timed motion photographs,—any or all,—in order to make the directions of the Instruction Cards plainer.

STEREOSCOPIC AND MICRO-MOTION STUDY PHOTOGRAPHS PARTICULARLY USEFUL.—Stereoscopic photographs are especially useful in helping non-visualizers, and in presenting absolutely new work. The value as an educator of stereoscopic and synthesized micro-motion photographs of right methods is as yet but faintly appreciated.

The "timed motion picture," or "micro-motion study photograph" as it is called, consists of rapidly photographing workers in action accompanied by a specially constructed chronometer that shows such minute divisions of time that motion pictures taken at a speed that will catch the most rapid of human motions without a blur, will show a different time of day in each photograph. The difference in the time in any two pictures gives the elapsed time of the desired motion operation or time unit.

SELF-MADE RECORDS EDUCATIVE.—The educative value of the worker's making his own records has never been sufficiently appreciated. Dr. Taylor insists upon this procedure wherever possible.[6] Not only does the worker learn from the actual marking in of the spaces reserved for him, but also he learns to feel himself a part of the record making division of the management. This proof of the "square deal," in recording his output, and of the confidence in him, cannot fail to enlist his cooeperation.

ORAL INSTRUCTION COMES FROM THE FUNCTIONAL FOREMEN.—The Functional Foremen are teachers whose business it is to explain, translate and supplement the various written instructions when the worker either does not understand them, does not know how to follow them, or makes a mistake in following them.

ORAL INSTRUCTION HAS ITS FITTING PLACE UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.—Oral instruction under Scientific Management has at least four advantages over such instruction under Traditional Management.

1. The Instructor is capable of giving instruction. 2. The Instructor's specialty is giving instruction. 3. The instruction is a supplement to written instructions. 4. The instruction comes at the exact time that the learner needs it.

TEACHER, OR FUNCTIONAL FOREMAN, SHOULD UNDERSTAND PSYCHOLOGY AND PEDAGOGY.—The successful teacher must understand the minds of his men, and must be able to present his information in such a way that it will be grasped readily. Such knowledge of psychology and pedagogy as he possesses he may acquire almost unconsciously

1. from the teaching of others, 2. from his study of Instruction Cards and Systems, 3. from actual practice in teaching.

The advantages of a study of psychology itself, as it applies to the field of teaching in general, and of teaching in the industries in particular, are apparent. Such study must, in the future, become more and more prevalent.

ADVANTAGE OF FUNCTIONAL FOREMAN-TEACHER OVER TEACHER IN THE SCHOOLS.—The Functional Foreman-teacher has an advantage over the teacher in the school in that the gap between him and those he teaches is not so great. He knows, because he remembers, exactly how the worker must have his information presented to him. This gap is narrowed by functionalizing the oral teaching, by using it merely as a supplement to the written teaching, and by supplementing it with object-lessons.

TEACHER MUST HAVE PRACTICAL KNOWLEDGE OF THE TRADE HE IS TO TEACH.—The teacher must have an intimate practical knowledge of the art or trade that he is to teach. The most profound knowledge of Psychology will never be a substitute for the mastery of the trade, as a condition precedent to turning out the best craftsmen. This is provided for by securing teachers from the ranks of the workers.[7]

HE MUST HAVE A THOROUGH KNOWLEDGE OF THE STANDARDS.—He must have more than the traditional knowledge of the trade that he is to teach; he must have also the knowledge that comes only from scientific investigation of his trade. This knowledge is ready and at hand, in the standards of Scientific Management that are available to all for study.

HE MUST BE CONVINCED OF THE VALUE OF THE METHODS HE TEACHES.—The teacher must also have an intimate acquaintance with the records of output of the method he is to teach as compared with those of methods held in high esteem by the believer in the old methods; for it is a law that no teacher can be efficient in teaching any method in which he does not believe, any more than a salesman can do his best work when he does not implicitly believe in the goods that he is selling.

HE MUST BE AN ENTHUSIAST.—The best teacher is the one who is an enthusiast on the subject of the work itself, who can cause contagion or imitation of his state of mind, by love of the problems themselves.

SUCH ENTHUSIASM CONTAGIOUS.—It is the contagion of this enthusiasm that will always create a demand for teachers, no matter how perfect instruction cards may become. There is no form or device of management that does away with good men, and in the teacher, as here described, is conserved the personal element of the successful, popular Traditional foreman.

VALUABLE TEACHER INTERESTS MEN IN THE ECONOMIC VALUE OF SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.—The most valuable teacher is one who can arouse his pupils to such a state of interest in the economic values of the methods of Scientific Management, that all other objects that would ordinarily distract or hold their attention will be banished from their minds. They will then remember each step as it is introduced, and they will be consumed with interest and curiosity to know what further steps can be introduced, that will still further eliminate waste.

OBJECT-LESSON MAY BE "WORKING MODELS."—The object-lesson may be a "fixed exhibit" or a "working model," "a process in different stages," or "a micro-motion study film" of the work that is to be done. Successful and economical teaching may be done with such models, which are especially valuable where the workers do not speak the same language as the teacher, where many workers are to perform exactly similar work, or where the memory, the visualizing and the constructive imagination, are so poor that the models must be referred to constantly. Models naturally appeal best to those who take in information easiest through the eyes.

OBJECT-LESSONS MAY BE DEMONSTRATIONS BY THE TEACHER.—The teacher may demonstrate the method manually to the worker, or by means of films showing synthesized right methods on the motion-picture screen. This, also, is a successful method of teaching those who speak a different language, or of explaining new work,—though it calls for a better memory than does the "working model," The model, however, shows desired results; the demonstration, desired methods.

DEMONSTRATION METHOD CHIEF METHOD OF TEACHING BY FOREMEN.—The manual demonstration method is the chief method of teaching the workmen by the foremen under Scientific Management, and no method is rated as standard that cannot be successfully demonstrated by the teacher, at any time, on request.

WORKER MAY DEMONSTRATE UNDER SUPERVISION.—If the worker is of that type that can learn only by actually doing the work himself, he is allowed to demonstrate the method under supervision of the teacher.[8]

TEACHING ALWAYS AVAILABLE UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.—Under Scientific Management all of these forms of teaching are available constantly. The instruction card and accompanying illustrations are given to the worker before he starts to work, and are so placed that he can consult them easily at any time during the work. As, also, if object-lessons are used, they are given before work commences, and repeated when necessary.

The teacher is constantly available for oral instruction, and the systems are constantly available for consultation.

METHODS OF TEACHING UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT PSYCHOLOGICALLY RIGHT.—In order to prove that teaching under Scientific Management is most valuable, it is necessary to show that it is psychologically right, that it leads to mental development and improvement. Under Scientific Management, teaching,—

1. uses and trains the senses. 2. induces good habits of thinking and acting. 3. stimulates attention, 4. provides for valuable associations. 5. assists and strengthens the memory. 6. develops the imagination. 7. develops judgment. 8. utilizes suggestion. 9. utilizes "native reactions." 10. develops the will.

TEACHING UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT TRAINS THE SENSES.— Scientific Management, in teaching the man, aims to train all of his senses possible. Not only does each man show an aptitude for some special sense training,[9] but at certain times one sense may be stronger than another; for example, the sense of hearing, as is illustrated by the saying, "The patient in the hospital knoweth when his doctor cometh by the fall of his footsteps, yet when he recovereth he knoweth not even his face." At the time that a certain thing becomes of interest, and becomes particularly interesting to one sense, that sense is particularly keen and developed.

Scientific Management cannot expect, without more detailed psychological data than is as yet available, to utilize these periods of sense predominance adequately. It can, and does, aim to utilize such senses as are trained, and to supply defects of training of the other senses.

SUCH TRAINING PARTIALLY DETERMINES THE QUALITY OF THE WORK.—The importance of sense training can scarcely be overestimated. Through his senses, the worker takes in the directions as to what he is to do, and on the accuracy with which his senses record the impressions made upon them, depends the mental model which he ultimately follows, and the accuracy of his criticism of the resulting physical object of his work. Through the senses, the worker sets his own task, and inspects his work.

SENSE TRAINING INFLUENCES INCREASE OF EFFICIENCY.—With the training of the senses the possibility of increased efficiency increases. As any sense becomes trained, the minimum visable is reduced, and more accurate impressions become possible.[10] They lead to more rapid work, by eliminating time necessary for judgment. The bricklayer develops a fineness of touch that allows him to dispense with sight in some parts of his work.

SELECTIVE POWER OF SENSES DEVELOPED.—James defines the sense organs as "organs of selection."[11] Scientific Management so trains them that they can select what is of most value to the worker.

METHODS OF SENSE TRAINING UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.—The senses are trained under Scientific Management by means of the various sources of teaching. The instruction card, with its detailed descriptions of operations, and its accompanying illustrations, not only tends to increase powers of visualization, but also, by the close observation it demands, it reduces the minimum visible. The "visible instruction card," or working model, is an example of supplementing weak power of visualization. The most available simple, inexpensive and easily handled device to assist visualizing is the stereo or three-dimension photograph, which not only serves its purpose at the time of its use, but trains the eye to see the third dimension always.

Much training is given to the eye in Scientific Management by the constant insistence on inspection. This inspection is not confined to the inspector, but is the constant practice of worker and foremen, in order that work may be of such a quality as will merit a bonus.

SENSES THAT ARE MOST UTILIZED BEST TRAINED.—The relative training given to the various senses depends on the nature of the work. When the ear is the tester of efficiency, as it often is with an engineer watching machinery in action, emphasis is laid on training the hearing. In work where touch is important, emphasis is on such training as will develop that sense.[12]

VARIATIONS IN SENSE POWER SHOULD BE UTILIZED.—Investigations are constantly going to prove that each sense has a predominance at a different time in the age of the child or man. Dottoressa Montessori's experience with teaching very young children by touch shows that that sense is able to discriminate to an extraordinary extent for the first six years of life.[13]

So, also, acute keenness of any sense, by reason of age or experience should be conserved.[14] Such acuteness is often the result of some need, and, unless consciously preserved, will vanish with the need.

PROGRESS IN SUCH TRAINING.—The elementary sense experiences are defined and described by Calkins.[15] Only through a psychological study can one realize the numerous elements and the possibility of study. As yet, doubtless, Scientific Management misses many opportunities for training and utilizing the senses. But the standardizing of elements, and the realization of the importance of more and more intensive study of the elements lends assurance that ultimately all possibilities will be utilized.

AS MANY SENSES AS POSSIBLE APPEALED TO.—Scientific Management has made great progress in appealing to as many senses as possible in its teaching. The importance of the relation between the senses is brought out by Prof. Stratton.[16]

In teaching, Scientific Management has, in its teachers, animate and inanimate, great possibilities of appealing to many senses simultaneously. The instruction card may be

1. read to oneself silently—eyes appealed to 2. read to oneself aloud—eyes and ears appealed to, also muscles used trained to repeat 3. read aloud to one—ears 4. read aloud to one and also read silently by one,— eyes and ears 5. read aloud, and at the same time copied—eyes, ears, muscles of mouth, muscles of hand 6. read to one, while process described is demonstrated 7. read to one while process is performed by oneself

There are only a few of the possible combinations, any of which are used, as best suits the worker and the work.[17]

UNTRAINED WORKER REQUIRES APPEAL TO MOST SENSES.—The value of appeal to many senses is best realized in teaching an inexperienced worker. His senses help to remind him what to do, and to "check up" his results.

AT TIMES APPEAL TO BUT ONE SENSE PREFERABLE.—In the case of work that must be watched constantly, and that involves continuous processes, it may prove best to have directions read to the worker. So also, the Gang Instruction Card may often be read to advantage to the gang, thus allowing the next member of a group of members to rest, or to observe, while directions are taken in through the ears only. In this way time is allowed to overcome fatigue, yet the work is not halted.

AT TIMES ONE SENSE IS BEST NOT UTILIZED.—At times teaching may well omit one sense in its appeal, because that sense will tend to confuse the learning, and will, when the method is learned, be otherwise utilized than it could be during the learning process. In teaching the "touch system" of typewriting,[18] the position of the keys is quickly remembered by having the key named aloud and at the same time struck with the assigned finger, the eyes being blindfolded. Thus hearing is utilized, also mouth muscles and finger muscles, but not sight.

IMPORTANCE OF FATIGUE RECOGNIZED.—A large part of the success of sense appeal and sense training of Scientific Management is in the appreciation of the importance of fatigue. This was early recognized by Dr. Taylor, and is constantly receiving study from all those interested in Scientific Management.

PSYCHOLOGY ALREADY AIDING THE INDUSTRIES IN SUCH STUDY.—Study of the Psychological Review will demonstrate the deep and increasing interest of psychologists in the subject of fatigue. The importance of such stimulating and helpful work as that done by Doctor A. Imbert of the University of Montpellier, France, is great.[19] Not only are the results of his investigations commercially valuable, but also they are valuable as indicating the close connection between Psychology and Industrial Efficiency.

IMPORTANCE OF HABITS.[20]—Prof. William James says "an acquired habit, from the psychological point of view, is nothing but a new pathway of discharge formed in the brain, by which certain incoming currents ever after tend to escape."

And again,—"First, habit simplifies our movements, makes them accurate, and diminishes fatigue,"[21] and habit diminishes the conscious attention with which our acts are performed. Again he says, page 144, "The great thing, then, in all education, is to make our nervous system our ally instead of an enemy; as it is to fund and capitalize our acquisitions, and live at ease upon the interest of the fund. For this we must make automatic and habitual, as early as possible, as many useful actions as we can, and guard against the growing into ways that are likely to be disadvantageous to us, as we should guard against the plague."

These quotations demonstrate the importance of habit.

How deep these paths of discharge are, is illustrated by the fact that often a German, having spent the early years of his school life in Germany, will, even after learning to speak, read, write and think in English, find it difficult to figure in anything but German.

HABIT EASILY BECOMES THE MASTER.—Another illustration of the power of habit is exhibited by the bricklayer, who has been trained under old-time methods, and who attempts to follow the packet method. The standard motions for picking up the upper row of bricks from the packet are entirely different from those for picking up the lower row. The bricklayers were taught this, yet invariably used the old-time motions for picking up the bricks, in spite of the waste involved.[22]

WRONG PRECONCEIVED IDEAS HAMPER DEVELOPMENT.—Wrong habits or ideas often retard development. For example, it took centuries for artists to see the colors of shadows correctly, because they were sure that such shadows were a darker tone of the color itself.[23]

TEACHING UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT RESULTS IN GOOD HABITS.—The aim of teaching under Scientific Management, as has been said, is to create good habits of thinking and good habits of doing.

STANDARDS LEAD TO RIGHT METHODS OF THINKING AND ACTING.—The standards of Scientific Management, as presented to the worker in the instruction card, lead to good habits, in that they present the best known method of doing the work. They thus aid the beginner, in that he need waste no time searching for right methods, but can acquire right habits at once. They aid the worker trained under an older, supplanted method, in that they wage a winning war against old-time, worn-out methods and traditions. Old motor images, which tend to cause motions, are overcome by standard images, which suggest, and pass into, standard motions. The spontaneous recurring of images under the old method is the familiar cause of inattention and being unable to get down to business, and the real cause of the expression, "You can't teach old dogs new tricks." On the other hand, the spontaneous recurrence of the images of the standard method is the cause of greater speed of movement of the experienced man, and these images of the standard methods do recur often enough to drive down the old images and to enable all men who desire, to settle down and concentrate upon what they are doing.

THROUGH STANDARDS BAD HABITS ARE QUICKEST BROKEN.—Through the standards the bad habit is broken by the abrupt acquisition of a new habit. This is at once practiced, is practiced without exception, and is continually practiced until the new habit is in control.[24]

THROUGH STANDARDS NEW HABITS ARE QUICKEST FORMED.—These same standards, as presented in teaching, allow of the speediest forming of habits, in that repetition is exact and frequent, and is kept so by the fact that the worker's judgment seconds that of the teacher.

HABITS ARE INSTILLED BY TEACHING.—The chief function of the teacher during the stage that habits are being formed is the instilling of good habits.

METHODS OF INSTILLING GOOD HABITS.—This he does by insisting on

1. right motions first, that is to say,—the right number of right motions in the right sequence. 2. speed of motions second, that is to say, constantly increasing speed. 3. constantly improving quality.[25]

THIS METHOD IS CONTRARY TO MOST OLD-TIME PRACTICE.—Under most old-time practice the quality of the work was the first consideration, the quantity of work the second, and the methods of achieving the results the third.

RESULTS OF OLD-TIME PRACTICE.—As a result, the mechanical reactions, which were expected constantly to follow the improved habits of work, were constantly hindered by an involuntary impulse of the muscles to follow the old methods. Waste time and low output followed.

SOME EARLY RECOGNITION OF "RIGHT MOTIONS FIRST."—The necessity of teaching the right motions first was early recognized by a few progressive spirits, as is shown in military tactics; for example, see pages 6 and 7, "Cavalry Tactics of U.S.A." 1879, D. Appleton, also page 51.

Note also motions for grooming the horse, page 473. These directions not only teach the man how, but accustoms the horse to the sequence and location of motions that he may expect.

BENEFITS OF TEACHING RIGHT MOTIONS FIRST.—Through teaching right motions first reactions to stimuli gain in speed. The right habit is formed at the outset. With the constant insistence on these right habits that result from right motions, will come, naturally, an increase in speed, which should be fostered until the desired ultimate speed is reached.

ULTIMATELY, STANDARD QUALITY WILL RESULT.—The result of absolute insistence on right motions will be prescribed quality, because the standard motions prescribed were chosen because they best produced the desired result.

UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT NO LOSS FROM QUALITY DURING LEARNING.—As will be shown later, Scientific Management provides that there shall be little or no loss from the quality of the work during the learning period. The delay in time before the learner can be said to produce such work as could a learner taught where quality was insisted upon first of all, is more than compensated for by the ultimate combination of speed and quality gained.

RESULTS OF TEACHING THE RIGHT MOTIONS FIRST ARE FAR-REACHING.—There is no more important subject in this book on the Psychology of Management than this of teaching right motions first. The most important results of Scientific Management can all, in the last analysis, be formulated in terms of habits, even to the underlying spirit of cooeperation which, as we shall show in "Welfare," is one of the most important ideas of Scientific Management. These right habits of Scientific Management are the cause, as well as the result, of progress, and the right habits, which have such a tremendous psychological importance, are the result of insisting that right motions be used from the very beginning of the first day.

FROM RIGHT HABITS OF MOTION COMES SPEED OF MOTIONS.— Concentrating the mind on the next motion causes speed of motion. Under Scientific Management, the underlying thought of sequence of motions is so presented that the worker can remember them, and make them in the shortest time possible.

RESPONSE TO STANDARDS BECOMES ALMOST AUTOMATIC.—The standard methods, being associated from the start with right habits of motions only, cause an almost automatic response. There are no discarded habits to delay response.

STEADY NERVES RESULT.—Oftentimes the power to refrain from action is quite as much a sign of education and training as the power to react quickly from a sensation. Such conduct is called, in some cases, "steady nerves." The forming of right habits is a great aid toward these steady nerves. The man who knows that he is taught the right way, is able almost automatically to resist any suggestions which come to him to carry out wrong ways. So the man who is absolutely sure of his method, for example, in laying brick, will not be tempted to make those extra motions which, after all, are merely an exhibition in his hand of the vacillation that is going on in his brain, as to whether he really is handling that brick in exactly the most efficient manner, or not.

REASON AND WILL ARE EDUCATED.—"The education of hand and muscle implies a corresponding training of reasoning and will; and the cooerdination of movements accompanies the cooerdination of thoughts."[26]

The standards of Scientific Management educate hand and muscle; the education of hand and muscle train the mind; the mind improves the standards. Thus we have a continuous cycle.

JUDGMENT RESULTS WITH NO WASTE OF TIME.—Judgment is the outcome of learning the right way, and knowing that it is the right way. There is none of the lost time of "trying out" various methods that exists under Traditional Management.

This power of judgment will not only enable the possessor to decide correctly as to the relative merits of different methods, but also somewhat as to the past history and possibilities of different workers.

This, again, illustrates the wisdom of Scientific Management in promoting from the ranks, and thus providing that every member of the organization shall, ultimately, know from experience how to estimate and judge the work of others.

HABITS OF ATTENTION FORMED BY SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.—The good habits which result from teaching standard methods result in habits of attention. The standards aid the mind in holding a "selective attitude,"[27] by presenting events in an orderly sequence. The conditions under which the work is done, and the incentives for doing it, provide that the attention shall be "lively and prolonged."

PRESCRIBED MOTIONS AFFORD RHYTHM AND AESTHETIC PLEASURE.—The prescribed motions that result from motion study and time study, and that are arranged in cycles, afford a rhythm that allows the attention to "glide over some beats and linger on others," as Prof. Stratton describes it, in a different connection.[28] So also the "perfectly controlled" movements, which fall under the direction of a guiding law, and which "obey the will absolutely,"[29] give an aesthetic pleasure and afford less of a tax upon the attention.

INSTRUCTION CARD CREATES AND HOLDS ATTENTION.—As has been already said in describing the instruction card under Standardization, it was designed as a result of investigations as to what would best secure output,—to attract and hold the attention.[30] Providing, as it does, all directions that an experienced worker is likely to need, he can confine his attention solely to his work and his card; usually, after the card is once studied, to his work alone. The close relation of the elements of the instruction card affords a field for attention to lapse, and be recalled in the new elements that are constantly made apparent.

ORAL INDIVIDUAL TEACHING FOSTERS CONCENTRATED ATTENTION.—The fact that under Scientific Management oral teaching is individual, not only directly concentrates the attention of the learner upon what he is being taught, but also indirectly prevents distraction from fear of ridicule of others over the question, or embarrassment in talking before a crowd.

THE BULLETIN BOARD FURNISHES THE ELEMENT OF CHANGE.—In order that interest or attention may be held, there must be provision for allied subjects on which the mind is to wander. This, under Scientific Management, is constantly furnished by the collection of jobs ahead on the bulletin board. The tasks piled up ahead upon this bulletin board provide a needed and ready change for the subject of attention or interest, which conserves the economic value of concentrated attention of the worker upon his work. Such future tasks furnish sufficient range of subject for wandering attention to rest the mind from the wearying effect of overconcentration or forced attention. The assigned task of the future systematizes the "stream of attention," and an orderly scheme of habits of thought is installed. When the scheme is an orderly shifting of attention, the mind is doing its best work, for, while the standardized extreme subdivision of Taylor's plan, the comparison of the ultimate unit, and groupings of units of future tasks are often helps in achieving the present tasks, without such a definite orderly scheme for shifting the attention and interest, the attention will shift to useless subjects, and the result will be scattered.

INCENTIVES MAINTAIN INTEREST.—The knowledge that a prompt reward will follow success stimulates interest. The knowledge that this reward is sure concentrates attention and thus maintains interest.

In the same way, the assurance of promotion, and the fact that the worker sees those of his own trade promoted, and knows it is to the advantage of the management, as well as to his advantage, that he also be promoted,—this also maintains interest in the work.

THIS INTEREST EXTENDS TO THE WORK OF OTHERS.—The interest is extended to the work of others, not only by the interrelated bonuses, but also by the fact that every man is expected to train up a man to take his place, before he is promoted.

CLOSE RELATIONSHIP OF ALL PARTS OF SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT HOLDS INTEREST.—The attention of the entire organization, as well as of the individual worker, is held by Scientific Management and its teaching, because all parts of Scientific Management are related, and because Scientific Management provides for scientifically directed progression. Every member of the organization knows that the standards which are taught by Scientific Management contain the permanent elements of past successes, and provide for such development as will assure progress and success in the future. Every member of the organization realizes that upon his individual cooeperation depends, in part, the stability of Scientific Management, because it is based on universal cooeperation. This provides an intensity and a continuity of interest that would still hold, even though some particular element might lose its interest.

THIS RELATIONSHIP ALSO PROVIDES FOR ASSOCIATIONS.—The close relationship of all parts of Scientific Management provides that all ideas are associated, and are so closely connected that they can act as a single group, or any selected number of elements can act as a group.

SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT ESTABLISHES BRAIN GROUPS THAT HABITUALLY ACT IN UNISON.—Professor Read, in describing the general mental principle of association says, "When any number of brain cells have been in action together, they form a habit of acting in unison, so that when one of them is stimulated in a certain way, the others will also behave in the way established by the habit."[31] This working of the brain is recognized in grouping of motions, such as "playing for position."[32] Scientific Management provides the groups, the habit, and the stimulus, all according to standard methods, so that the result is largely predictable.

METHOD OF ESTABLISHING SUCH GROUPS IN THE WORKER'S BRAIN.—The standard elements of Scientific Management afford units for such groups. Eventually, with the use of such elements in instruction cards, would be formed, in the minds of the worker, such groups of units as would aid in foreseeing results, just as the foreseeing of groups of moves aids the expert chess or checker player. The size and number of such groups would indicate the skill of the worker.

That such skill may be gained quickest, Scientific Management synthesizes the units into definite groups, and teaches these to the workers as groups.

TEACHING DONE BY MEANS OF MOTION CYCLES.—The best group is that which completes the simplest cycle of performance. This enables the worker to associate certain definite motions, to make these into a habit, and to concentrate his attention upon the cycle as a whole, and not upon the elementary motions of which it is composed.

For example—The cycle of the pick and dip process of bricklaying is to pick up a brick and a trowel full of mortar simultaneously and deposit them on the wall simultaneously.[33] The string mortar method has two cycles, which are, first to pick a certain number of trowelfuls of mortar and deposit them on the wall, and then to pick up a corresponding number of bricks and deposit them on the wall.[34] Each cycle of these two methods consists of an association of units that can be remembered as a group.

SUCH CYCLES INDUCE SPEED.—The worker who has been taught thus to associate the units of attention and action into definite rhythmic cycles, is the one who is most efficient, and least fatigued by a given output. The nerves acquire the habit, as does the brain, and the resulting swift response to stimulus characterizes the efficiency of the specialist.[35]

SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT RESTRICTS ASSOCIATIONS.—By its teaching of standard methods, Scientific Management restricts association, and thus gains in the speed with which associated ideas arise.[36] Insistence on causal sequence is a great aid. This is rendered by the Systems, which give the reasons, and make the standard method easy to remember.

SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT PRESENTS SCIENTIFICALLY DERIVED KNOWLEDGE TO THE MEMORY.—Industrial memory is founded on experience, and that experience that is submitted by teaching under Scientific Management to the mind is in the form of scientifically derived standards. These furnish

(a) data that is correct. (b) images that are an aid in acquiring new habits of forming efficient images. (c) standards of comparison, and constant demands for comparison. (d) such arrangement of elements that reasoning processes are stimulated. (e) conscious, efficient grouping. (f) logical association of ideas.

PROVISION FOR REPETITION OF IMPORTANT IDEAS.—Professor Ebbinghaur says, "Associations that have equal reproductive power lapse the more slowly, the older they are, and the oftener they have been reviewed by renewed memorizing." Scientific Management provides for utilizing this law by teaching right motions first, and by so minutely dividing the elements of such motions that the smallest units discovered are found frequently, in similar and different operations.

BEST PERIODS FOR MEMORIZING UTILIZED.—As for education of the memory, there is a wide difference of opinion among leading psychologists in regard to whether or not the memorizing faculty, as the whole, can be improved by training; but all agree that those things which are specially desired to be memorized can be learned more easily, and more quickly, under some conditions than under others:

For example, there is a certain time of day, for each person, when the memory is more efficient than at other times. This is usually in the morning, but is not always so. The period when memorizing is easiest is taken advantage of, and, as far as possible, new methods and new instruction cards are passed out at that time when the worker is naturally best fitted to remember what is to be done.

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES RESPECTED.—It is a question that varies with different conditions, whether the several instruction cards beyond the one he is working on shall be given to the worker ahead of time, that he may use his own judgment as to when is the best time to learn, or whether he shall have but one at a time, and concentrate on that. For certain dispositions, it is a great help to see a long line of work ahead. They enjoy getting the work done, and feeling that they are more or less ahead of record. Others become confused if they see too much ahead, and would rather attack but one problem at a time. This fundamental difference in types of mind should be taken advantage of when laying out material to be memorized.