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CHAPTER V

ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS

DEFINITION OF ANALYSIS.—"Analysis," says the Century Dictionary is "the resolution or separation of anything which is compound, as a conception, a sentence, a material substance or an event, into its constituent elements or into its causes;" that is to say, analysis is the division of the thing under consideration into its definite cause, and into its definite parts or elements, and the explanation of the principle upon which such division is made.[1]

DEFINITION OF SYNTHESIS.—"Synthesis" is, "a putting of two or more things together; composition; specifically, the combination of separate elements of objects of thought into a whole, as of simple into compound or complex conceptions, and individual propositions into a system."

USE OF ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS BY PSYCHOLOGY.—Analysis is defined by Sully as follows: "Analysis" is "taking apart more complex processes in order to single out for special inspection their several constituent processes."

He divides elements of thought activity into two

"(a) analysis: abstraction (b) synthesis: comparison."

Speaking of the latter, he says, "The clear explicit detachment in thought of the common elements which comparison secures allows of a new reconstructive synthesis of things as made up of particular groupings of a number of general qualities."

PLACE OF ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS IN MANAGEMENT.—Any study of management which aims to prove that management may be, and under Scientific Management is, a science, must investigate its use of analysis and of synthesis.[2] Upon the degree and perfection of the analysis depends the permanent value and usefulness of the knowledge gained. Upon the synthesis, and what it includes and excludes, depends the efficiency of the results deduced.

LITTLE ANALYSIS OR SYNTHESIS UNDER TRADITIONAL MANAGEMENT.— Under Traditional Management analysis and synthesis are so seldom present as to be negligible. Success or failure are seldom if ever so studied and measured that the causes are well understood. Therefore, no standards for future work that are of any value can be established. It need only be added that one reason why Traditional Management makes so little progress is because it makes no analyses that are of permanent value. What data it has are available for immediate use only. Practically every man who does the work must "start at the beginning," for himself. If this is often true of entire methods, it is even more true of elements of methods. As elements are not studied and recorded separately, they are not recognized when they appear again, and the resultant waste is appalling. This waste is inevitable with the lack of cooeperation under Traditional Management and the fact that each worker plans the greater part of his work for himself.

ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS APPEAR LATE IN TRANSITORY MANAGEMENT.— Division of output appears early in Transitory Management, but it is usually not until a late stage that motion study and time study are conducted so successfully that scientifically determined and timed elements can be constructed into standards. As everything that is attempted in the line of analysis and synthesis under Transitory Management is done scientifically under Scientific Management, we may avoid repetition by considering Scientific Management at once.

RELATION OF ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS IN SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT TO MEASUREMENT AND STANDARDIZATION.—Analysis considers the subject that is to be measured,—be it individual action or output of any kind,—and divides it into such a number of parts, and parts of such a nature, as will best suit the purpose for which the measurement is taken. When these subdivisions have been measured, synthesis combines them into a whole.[3] Under Scientific Management, through the measurements used, synthesis is a combination of those elements which are necessary only, and which have been proven to be most efficient. The result of the synthesis is standardized, and used until a more accurate standard displaces it.

Under Scientific Management analysis and synthesis are methods of determining standards from available knowledge. Measurement furnishes the means.

ANALYST'S WORK IS DIVISION.—It is the duty of the analyst to divide the work that he is set to study into the minutest divisions possible. What is possible is determined by the time and money that can be set aside for the investigation.

THE NATURE OF THE WORK MUST DETERMINE THE AMOUNT OF ANALYSIS PRACTICABLE.—In determining the amount of time and money required, it is necessary to consider—

1. the cost of the work if done with no special study. 2. how many times the work is likely to be repeated. 3. how many elements that it contains are likely to be similar to elements in work that has already been studied. 4. how many new elements that it contains are likely to be available in subsequent work. 5. the probable cost of the work after it has been studied— (a) the cost of doing it. (b) the cost of the investigation. 6. The loss, if any, from delaying the work until after it has been studied. 7. the availability of trained observers and measurers, analysts and synthesists. 8. the available money for carrying on the investigations.

These questions at least must be answered before it is possible to decide whether study shall be made or not, and to what degree it can be carried.

COST THE DETERMINING FACTOR.—It is obvious that in all observation in the industrial world cost must be the principal determining feature. Once the cost can be estimated, and the amount of money that can be allowed for the investigation determined, it is possible at least to approximate satisfactory answers to the other questions. How closely the answers approximate depends largely on the skill and experience of the analyst.

The greater number of times the work is to be repeated, the less the ultimate cost. The more elements contained similar to elements already determined, the less the additional cost, and the less the time necessary. The more elements contained that can be used again, even in different work, the less the ultimate cost. The better trained the analyst, the less the immediate or additional cost and time.

Much depends on the amount of previous data at hand when the investigation is being made, and on the skill and speed of the analyst in using these data.

PROCESS OF DIVISION UNENDING.—In practice, the process of division continues as long as it can show itself to be a method for cost reducing. Work may be divided into processes: each process into subdivisions; each subdivision into cycles; each cycle into elements; each element into time units; each time unit into motions,—and so on, indefinitely, toward the "indivisible minimum."[4]

MEASURING MAY TAKE PLACE AT ANY STAGE.—At any of these stages of division the results may be taken as final for the purpose of the study,—and the operations, or final divisions of the work at that stage, may be measured.

To obtain results with the least expenditure of time, the operations must be subjected to motion study before they are timed as well as after. This motion study can be accurate and of permanent value only in so far as the divisions are final. The resulting improved operations are then ready to be timed.

ULTIMATE ANALYSIS THE FIELD OF PSYCHOLOGY.—When the analyst has proceeded as far as he can in dividing the work into prime factors the problem continues in the field of psychology. Here the opportunities for securing further data become almost limitless.

ULTIMATE ANALYSIS JUSTIFIABLE.—It is the justification for analysis to approach the ultimate as nearly as possible, that the smaller and more difficult of measurement the division is, the more often it will appear in various combinations of elements. The permanence and exactness of the result vary with the effort for obtaining it.

QUALIFICATIONS OF AN ANALYST.—To be most successful, an analyst should have ingenuity, patience, and that love of dividing a process into its component parts and studying each separate part that characterizes the analytic mind. The analyst must be capable of doing accurate work, and orderly work.

To get the most pleasure and profit from his work he should realize that his great, underlying purpose is to relieve the worker of unnecessary fatigue, to shorten his work period per day, and to increase the number of his days and years of higher earning power. With this realization will come an added interest in his subject.

WORKER SHOULD UNDERSTAND THE PROCESS OF ANALYSIS.—It is not enough that the worker should understand the methods of measurement. He can get most from the resultant standards and will most efficiently cooeperate if he understands the division into elements to be studied.

SCHOOLS SHOULD PROVIDE TRAINING.—Much of the training in analysis in the schools comes at such a late period of the course that the average industrial worker must miss a large part of it. This is a defect in school training that should be remedied. Even very young children soon are capable of, and greatly enjoy, dividing a process into elements. If the worker be taught, in his preparations, and in the work itself, to divide what he does into its elements, he will not only enjoy analysis of his work, but will be able to follow the analysis in his own mind, and to cooeperate better in the processes of measurement.

THE SYNTHESIST'S WORK IS SELECTION AND ADDITION.—The synthesist studies the individual results of the analyst's work, and their inter-relation, and determines which of these should be combined, and in what manner, for the most economic result. His duty is to construct that combination of the elements which will be most efficient.

IMPORTANCE OF SELECTION MUST BE EMPHASIZED.—If synthesis in Scientific Management were nothing more than combining all the elements that result from analysis into a whole, it would be valuable. Any process studied analytically will be performed more intelligently, even if there is no change in the method.

But the most important part of the synthesist's work is the actual elimination of elements which are useless, and the combination of the remaining elements in such a way, or sequence, or schedule, that a far better method than the one analyzed will result.

We may take an example from Bricklaying.[5] In "Stringing Mortar Method, on the Filling Tiers before the Days of the Pack-on-the-Wall-Method"—the division, which was into operations only, showed eighteen operations and eighteen motions for every brick that was laid. Study and synthesis of these elements resulted in a method that required only 1 3/4 motions to lay a brick. Over half the original motions were found to be useless, hence entirely omitted. In several other cases it was found possible to make one motion do work for two or four brick, with the same, or less, fatigue to the worker.

RESULT IS THE BASIS FOR THE TASK.—The result of synthesis is the basis for the task,—it becomes the standard that shows what has actually been done, and what can be expected to be repeated. It is important to note the relation between the task and synthesis. When it becomes generally understood that the "Task," under Scientific Management is neither an ideal which exists simply in the imagination, nor an impossibly high estimate of what can be expected,—but is actually the sum of observed and timed operations, plus a definite and sufficient percentage of allowance for overcoming the fatigue,—then much objection to it will cease.

GENERAL LACK OF KNOWLEDGE THE CHIEF CAUSE OF OBJECTION TO THE TASK.—As is the case with most objections to Scientific Management, or its elements, ignorance is the chief obstacle to the introduction and success of the Task Idea. This ignorance seems to be more or less prevalent everywhere among managers as well as workers.

Scientific Management can, and does, succeed even when the workers are ignorant of many of its fundamental principles, but it will never make the strides that it should until every man working under it, as well as all outside, understand why it is doing as it does, as well as what is done.

This educational campaign could find no better starting point than the word "task," and the "task idea."

THE NAME TASK IS UNFORTUNATE.[6]—The Century Dictionary defines "Task" as follows:

1. "a tax, an assessment, an impost 2. "labor imposed, especially a definite quantity or amount of labor; work to be done; one's stint; that which duty or necessity imposes; duty or duties collectively 3. "a lesson to be learned; a portion of study imposed by a teacher 4. "work undertaken,—an undertaking 5. "burdensome employment; toil."

Only the fourth meaning, as here given, covers in any way what is meant by the task in Scientific Management.

The ideas included in the other four definitions are most unpleasant. The thought of labor; the thought that the labor is imposed; the thought that the imposition is definite; that duty makes it necessary that it be done; that it is burdensome; that it is toilsome: these are most unfortunate ideas and have been associated with the word so long in the human mind that it will be a matter of years before a new set of associations can be formed which will be pleasant, and which will render the word "task" attractive and agreeable to the worker and to the public in general.

NO OTHER ADEQUATE WORD HAS BEEN SUGGESTED.—However, there seems to be no better word forthcoming; therefore, one can but follow the example of the masters in management, who have accepted this word, and have done their best to make it attractive by the way they themselves have used it.

To the writer, the word "stint" is far more attractive and more truly descriptive than is "task." Perhaps because of the old-fashioned idea that a reward, usually immediate, followed the completion of the "stint."

Opinions as to a preferable word will doubtless vary, but it is self-evident that the word "task" has already become so firmly established in Scientific Management that any attempt to change it would result in a confusion. It is far better to concentrate on developing a new set of associations for it in as many minds as possible.

DECIDED ADVANTAGE TO THE USE OF THE WORD TASK.—Perhaps in one way it is fortunate that the use of the word "task" does coincide more or less with the use of that word under Traditional Management. Under Traditional Management the task is the work to be done. It may be just as well that the same word should be used under Scientific Management, in order that both the worker and investigator may realize, that, after all the work that is to be done is, in its essentials, exactly the same. With this realization from the beginning, the mind of the worker or investigator may be the more predisposed to note the eliminations of waste and the cutting down of time, effort and fatigue under the scientifically derived methods.

DEFINITION OF TASK AS USED IN SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.—The task, under Scientific Management, differs from the task under Traditional Management in that—

1. The tools and surrounding conditions with which the work shall be done are standardized. 2. The method in which the work shall be done is prescribed. 3. The time that the work shall take is scientifically determined. 4. An allowance is made for rest from fatigue. 5. The quality of the output is prescribed.

When to this is added the fact that the method is taught, and that the reward is ample, fixed, prompt and assured, the attractive features of the task under Scientific Management have been made plain.

TASK IDEA APPLIES TO WORK OF EVERYONE.—Under Scientific Management there is a task for every member of the organization, from the head of the management to the worker at the most rudimentary work. This is too often not known, or not appreciated by the worker, who feels that what is deemed best for him should be good for everyone. The mental attitude will never be right till all understand that the task idea will increase efficiency when applied to any possible kind of work. With the application of the task idea to all, will come added cooeperation.

TASK IDEA APPLIES TO THE WORK OF THE ORGANIZATION.—The work which is to be done by the organization should be considered the task of the organization, and this organization task is studied before individual tasks are set. The methods used in determining this organization task are analysis and synthesis, just as in the case of the individual task.

INDIVIDUAL TASKS ARE ELEMENTS OF ORGANIZATION TASK.—The individual tasks are considered as elements of the organization task. The problem is, to determine the best arrangement of these individual tasks, the best schedule, and routing. The individual task may be thought of as something moving, that must be gotten out of the way.

Management has been called largely a matter of transportation. It may be "transportation" or moving of materials, revolution of parts of fixed machinery, or merely transportation of parts of one's body in manual movements;[7] in any case, the laws governing transportation apply to all. This view of management is most stimulating to the mind. A moving object attracts attention and holds interest. Work that is interesting can be accomplished with greater speed and less fatigue. Thinking in terms of the methods of Scientific Management as the most accurate and efficient in transporting the finished output and its "chips"[8] will be a great aid towards attaining the best results possible by means of a new method of visualizing the problem.

QUALIFICATIONS OF THE SYNTHESIST.—The synthesist must have a constructive mind, for he determines the sequence of events as well as the method of attack. He must have the ability to see the completed whole which he is trying to make, and to regard the elements with which he works not only as units, but in relation to each other. He must feel that any combination is influenced not only by the elements that go into it, but by the inter-relation between these elements. This differs for different combinations as in a kaleidoscope.

THE SYNTHESIST A CONSERVER.—The Synthesist must never be thought of as a destructive critic. He is, in reality, a conserver of all that is valuable in old methods. Through his work and that of the analyst, the valuable elements of traditional methods are incorporated into standard methods. These standard methods will, doubtless, be improved as time goes on, but the valuable elements will be permanently conserved.

SYNTHESIST AN INVENTOR.—The valuable inventions referred to as the result of measurement are the work of the synthetic mind. It discovers new, better methods of doing work, and this results in the invention of better means, such as tools or equipment.

For example,—in the field of Bricklaying, the Non-stooping Scaffold, the Packet and the Fountain Trowel were not invented until the analysis of bricklaying was made, and the synthesis of the chosen elements into standard methods made plain the need and specifications for new equipment.

RELATION OF INVENTION TO SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IMPORTANT.—There has been much discussion as to the relation of Invention to Scientific Management. It has been claimed by many otherwise able authorities that many results claimed as due to Scientific Management are really the results of new machinery, tools or equipment that have been invented.[9] Scientific Management certainly can lay no claim to credit for efficiency which comes through inventions neither suggested nor determined by it. But the inventions from the results of which Scientific Management is said to have borrowed credit are usually, like the bricklaying inventions cited, not only direct results of Scientific Management, but probably would not have sprung from any other source for years to come.

SYNTHESIST A DISCOVERER OF LAWS.—It is the synthetic type of mind that discovers the laws. For example—it was Dr. Taylor, with the aid of a few of his specially trained co-workers, who discovered the following governing laws:

1. law of no ratio between the foot-pounds of work done and the fatigue caused in different kinds of work. 2. law of percentage of rest for overcoming fatigue. 3. law of classification of work according to percentage of fatigue caused. 4. laws for making high-speed steel. 5. laws relating to cutting metals. 6. laws that will predict the right speed, feed and cut on metals for the greatest output. 7. laws for predicting maximum quantity of output that a man can achieve and thrive. 8. laws for determining the selection of the men best suited for the work.

SYNTHESIST AN ADVISER ON INTRODUCTION OF NEW METHODS.—Having constructed the standard tasks or standard methods which are new, the synthesist must remember to introduce his new task or method with as few new variables as possible. He should so present it that all the old knowledge will come out to meet the new, that all the brain paths that have already been made will be utilized, and that the new path will lead out from paths which are well known and well traveled.

INTRODUCE WITH AS FEW NEW VARIABLES AS POSSIBLE.—The greatest speed in learning a new method will be attained by introducing it with as few new variables as possible.

For example,—learning to dictate to a dictaphone. The writer found it very difficult, at first, to dictate into the dictaphone,— the whirling of the cylinder distracted the eye, the buzzing of the motor distracted the ear, the rubber tube leading to the mouth-piece was constantly reminding the touch that something new was being attempted. At the suggestion of one well versed in Scientific Management, the mouth-piece of the dictaphone was propped on the desk telephone on a level with the mouth-piece of the latter. The writer then found that as soon as one became interested in the dictating and one's attention was concentrated on the thought, one was able absolutely to forget the new variable, because it is one which is kept constant, and to dictate fluently. The emphasis laid on the likeness in thus dictating to the old accustomed act of talking through the telephone, seemed to put all other differences into the background, and to allow of forming the new and desired habit very quickly.

SUMMARY

EFFECT OF ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS ON THE WORK.—As the outcome of Analysis and Synthesis is Standardization, so the effect of them upon work is standard work. Quantity of output can be predicted, quality of output is assured.

EFFECT ON THE WORKER.—The effect of Analysis and Synthesis upon the worker is to make him feel that the methods which he is using are right, and that, because of this, his work must be of value. The more the worker is induced to cooeperate in the determining and the combination of elements, the more will he share with the investigators the satisfaction in getting permanent results. The outcome of this cooeperation will, again, result in more perfect future results, and so on, progressively.

CHAPTER V FOOTNOTES: ===============================================

1. Compare Mechanical Analysis. Taylor and Thompson, Concrete, Plain and Reinforced, p. 193. 2. H. LeChatelier, Discussion of Paper 1119, A.S.M.E., p. 303. 3. H.L. Gantt, Work, Wages and Profits, p. 35. 4. F.B. Gilbreth, Cost Reducing System. 5. F.B. Gilbreth, Bricklaying System, p. 151. 6. James M. Dodge, Discussion of Paper 1119, A.S.M.E., para. 284. 7. F.B. Gilbreth, Motion Study. 8. James M. Dodge. 9. London, Engineering, Sept. 15, 1911.

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CHAPTER VI

STANDARDIZATION

DEFINITION OF STANDARDIZATION.—Standardization is "the act of standardizing, or the state of being standardized." "A standard," according to the Century Dictionary, "is that which is set up as a unit of reference; a form, type, example, incidence, or combination of conditions accepted as correct and perfect and hence as a basis of comparison. A criterion established by custom, public opinion or general consent; a model."[1]

We must note particularly that the standard is a "unit of reference," that it is a "basis of comparison," and that it is "a model." These three phrases describe the standard in management, and are particularly emphasized by the use of the standard in Scientific Management.

STANDARDS DERIVED FROM ACTUAL PRACTICE.—Management derives its standards not from theories as to best methods, but from scientific study of actual practice.[2] As already shown, the method of deriving a standard is—

1. to analyze the best practice known into the smallest possible elements, 2. to measure these elements, 3. to adopt the least wasteful elements as standard elements, 4. to synthesize the necessary standard elements into the standard.

THE STANDARD IS PROGRESSIVE.—A standard remains fixed only until a more perfect standard displaces it. The data from which the standard was derived may be reviewed because of some error, because a further subdivision of the elements studied may prove possible, or because improvements in some factor of the work, i.e., the worker, material, tools, equipment, etc., may make a new standard desirable.

The fact that a standard is recognized as not being an ultimate standard in no wise detracts from its working value. As Captain Metcalfe has said: "Whatever be the standard of measurement, it suffices for comparison if it be generally accepted, if it be impartially applied, and if the results be fully recorded."[3]

CHANGE IN THE STANDARD DEMANDS CHANGE IN THE TASK AND IN THE INCENTIVE.—Necessarily, with the change in the standard comes a change in the task and in the reward. All parts of Scientific Management are so closely related that it is impossible to make a successful progressive step in one branch without simultaneously making all the related progressions in other branches that go with it.

For example,—if the material upon which a standard was based caused more care or effort, a smaller task must be set, and wages must be proportionately lowered. Proportionately, note, for determining that change would necessitate a review and a redistribution of the cost involved.

In the same way, if an improvement in equipment necessitated a new method, as does the packet in laying brick, a new task would become imperative, and a reconsideration of the wage. The wage might remain the same, it might go down, it might go up. In actual practice, in the case of bricklayers, it has gone up. But the point is, it must be restudied. This provides effectually against cutting the rate or increasing the task in any unjust manner.

SIMILARITY BETWEEN THE STANDARD AND THE "JUDGMENT" OF PSYCHOLOGY.—There are many points of similarity between the "Standard," of management, and the "judgment" of psychology. Sully says, in speaking of the judgment,[4]—"This process of judging illustrates the two fundamental elements in thought activity, viz., analysis and synthesis." "To judge is clearly to discern and to mark off as a special object of thought some connecting relation." "To begin with, before we can judge we must have the requisite materials for forming a judgment." "In the second place, to judge is to carry out a process of reflection on given material." "In addition to clearness and accuracy, our judgments may have other perfections. So far as our statements accord with known facts, they should be adhered to,—at least, till new evidence proves them untrue."

PSYCHOLOGY A FINAL APPEAL AS TO PERMANENT VALUE OF ANY STANDARD.—The standard under management, even under Scientific Management, can lay no claim to being perfect. It can never nearly approach perfection until the elements are so small that it is practicable to test them psychologically and physiologically. The time when this can be done in many lines, when the benefit that will directly accrue will justify the necessary expenditure, may seem far distant, but every analysis of operations, no matter how rudimentary, is hastening the day when the underlying, permanently valuable elements can be determined and their variations studied.

COOePERATION WILL HASTEN THE DAY OF PSYCHOLOGICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL STUDY OF STANDARDS.—Cooeperation in collecting and comparing the results of motion study and time study everywhere will do much to assist toward more ultimate determination of elements. At the present time the problems that management submits to psychology are too indefinite and cover too large a field to be attacked successfully. Cooeperation between management standardizers would mean—

1. that all management data would be available to psychologists and physiologists. 2. that such data, being available also to all standardizers, would prevent reduplication of results. 3. that savings would result. 4. that, from a study and comparison of the collected data a trained synthetic mind could build up better standards than could be built from any set of individual data. 5. Savings would result from this. 6. Inventions would also result. 7. Savings would again result from these. 8. All of these various savings could be invested in more intensive study of elements. 9. These more valuable results would again be available to psychologists and physiologists.

This cycle would go on indefinitely. Meantime, all would benefit with little added cost to any. For the results of the psychological and physiological study would be available to all, and investigators in those lines have shown themselves ready and glad to undertake investigations.

PURPOSE OF STANDARDIZATION.—The purpose of standardizing is the same under all types of management; that is, it is the elimination of waste.

STANDARDIZATION FREQUENTLY ATTEMPTED UNDER TRADITIONAL MANAGEMENT.—In much progressive Traditional Management there is an appreciation of the necessity of standardizing tools and equipment, that is to say, of having these on the "duplicate part system," that assembling may be done quickly, and repairs made without delay.

The manager notices some particularly successful man, or method, or arrangement of tools, equipment, or the surroundings, and decides to have a record made thereof that the success may be repeated. These records, if made in sufficient detail, are very valuable. The difficulty is that so often the man making the records does not observe all the variables. Hence the very elements which caused the success may be overlooked entirely.

VALUE OF STANDARDIZATION NOT APPRECIATED UNDER TRADITIONAL MANAGEMENT.—It is surprising, under Traditional Management, to note, in many cases, the years that elapse before any need for standardization is felt. It is also surprising that, even when some standardization has been done, its importance is seldom realized. The new standard becomes a matter of course, and the management fails to be impressed enough with its benefits to apply the principle of standardization to other fields.

UNDER TRANSITORY MANAGEMENT STANDARDIZATION BECOMES CONSTANTLY MORE IMPORTANT.—Not until Motion Study and Time Study have been introduced can the full benefits of standardization be attained. But as soon as the Transitory Stage of Management appears, the importance of standardization is realized. This is brought about largely through the records of individual outputs, which constantly call attention to the necessity of making available to all the methods, tools and equipment of the most successful workers.

RECORDS OF SUCCESSES BECOME MORE PROFITABLE.—The rules which embody successful practice become more profitable as the necessity for more detailed recording of all the variables becomes possible. An appreciation of what scientific motion study and time study will ultimately do affects the minds of the management until the workers are given directions as to methods to be used, and the incentive of extra pay for following directions.

"SYSTEMS" SHOW AN APPRECIATION OF PSYCHOLOGY.—The "Systems," standing orders or collections of written directions, that are evolved at this stage have a permanent value. This is especially true when the directions, often called "rules," contain the reason for the rule. There is a decided awakening to the importance of Psychology in this appeal to the reason of the worker. He is not affronted by being forced to follow directions for which he is given no reason and which he has no reason to believe have been scientifically derived. These rules, in a certain typical case, are stated in simple language, some in the form of commands, some in the form of suggestions, and are obviously so prepared as to be understood and obeyed by the workers with the least possible amount of effort, opposition and time. As ample opportunity is given for suggestions, the worker's attention and interest are held, and any craving he may have for self-expression is gratified.

SYSTEMS PERMANENTLY USEFUL.—These systems, collections of rules, directions or standing orders are useful even when Ultimate Management is completely installed—

1. for use as records of successful methods which may be scientifically studied for elements. 2. for use by the instruction card clerk in explaining to the men why the rules on the instruction card are given.

RELATION OF SYSTEMS TO STANDARDS SHOULD BE EMPHASIZED.—The worker is too often not made to understand the relation of Systems to Standards. The average worker does not object to Systems, because he realizes that the System is a collection of his best, least wasteful methods of doing work. When he can be convinced that standards are only efficient elements of his own methods scientifically studied and combined, any opposition to them will disappear.

THE PERSONAL NOTE OF THE "SYSTEM" SHOULD BE PRESERVED.—Perhaps one thing that makes the typical "Systems" so attractive is the personal note that they contain. Illustrated with pictures of successful work that the workers themselves have done, often containing pictures of the men themselves that illustrate successful methods, with mention of the names of men who have offered valuable suggestions or inventions, they make the worker feel his part in successful results. They conserve the old spirit of cooeperation between the master and his apprentices.

The conditions of modern industry make it extremely difficult to conserve this feeling. Scientific Management is successful not only because it makes possible a more effective cooeperation than has ever existed since the old "master-and-apprentice" relation died out, but also because it conserves in the Systems the interim channel for personal communication between the various members of the organization.

SYSTEMS A VALUABLE ASSISTANCE IN TRANSITION TO SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.—One great problem which those introducing Scientific Management have to face is exactly how to make the worker understand the relation of the new type of management to the old. The usefulness of the written system in use in most places where it is planned to introduce Scientific Management as a means of making the worker understand the transition has, perhaps, not been appreciated.

The development of the standard from the system is easy to explain. This being done, all parts of Scientific Management are so closely related that their interrelation can be readily made apparent.

It is the worker's right as well as privilege to understand the management under which he works, and he only truly cooeperates, with his will and judgment as well as with his hands, when he feels that his mind is a part of the directing mind.

STANDARDIZATION UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT ELIMINATES WASTE SCIENTIFICALLY.—Under Scientific Management the elimination of waste by the use of standards becomes a science. Standards are no longer based on opinions, as under Traditional Management, but are based upon scientific investigation of the elements of experience.

As James says, in the "Psychology, Briefer Course," page 156, paragraph 4,—"It is obvious and palpable that our state of mind is never precisely the same. Every thought we have of a given fact is, strictly speaking, unique and only bears a resemblance of kind with our other thoughts of the same facts. When the identical fact recurs we must think of it in a fresh manner, see it under a somewhat different angle, apprehend it in different relations from those in which it last appeared."

THE STANDARD THE RESULT OF MEASUREMENT.—It is obvious, therefore, that a scientifically derived standard can never be the outcome of an opinion. Whenever the opinion returns, the different thoughts with which it would be accompanied would so color it as to change it, and the standard with it. It is obvious, therefore, that a standard must be the result of definite mathematical and other measured proof, and not of an opinion, and that the standard must be in such physical shape that the subject-matter will always be clearly defined, otherwise the ultimate losses resulting from dependent sequences of the standard schedule and time-tables would be enormous.

SUCCESSFUL STANDARDIZATION DEMANDS COMPLETE CONFORMITY TO STANDARDS.—The laws for establishment of standards; the laws of achieving them; the laws for preventing deviations from those paths that will permit of their achievement; the dependent sequences absolutely necessary to perform the complete whole; these have been worked out and given to the world by Dr. Taylor, who recognized, as James has said, page 157, that, "a permanently existing 'Idea' which makes its appearance before the footlights of consciousness at periodic intervals, is as mythological an entity as the Jack of Spades." The entire organization from the highest to the lowest must conform to these standards. It is out of the question to permit the deviations resulting from individual initiative. Individual initiative is quite as objectionable in obtaining the best results,—that is, high wages and low production cost,—as service would be on a railroad if each locomotive engineer were his own train despatcher, determining at what time and to what place he would go.

INITIATIVE PROVIDED FOR.—There is a distinct place for initiative in Scientific Management, but that place is not outside of the planning department, until the planning department's method has been proved to be fully understood by achieving it. The standards must be made by the men to whom this work is assigned, and they must be followed absolutely by the worker. He is willing to follow them, under Scientific Management, because he realizes that a place for his suggestions is supplied, and that, if his suggestions are accepted, they will be incorporated into the new standards which must then be followed by all thereafter.

STANDARDIZATION APPLIES TO THE WORK OF ALL.—It is important to note that standardizing is applied to the work of all. This, if understood by all, will do away with all question of discrimination or the lack of a "square deal." It will make the worker feel ready to follow his standard exactly, just as he knows the manager is following his. So, also, the worker should be made to realize that the very fact that there is a standardization means, under Scientific Management, that that applies to every man, and that there is no discrimination against him in any possible way.

STANDARDIZATION CONSERVES AND DEVELOPS INDIVIDUALITY.— Standardization conserves individual capacity by doing away with the wasteful process of trial and error of the individual workman. It develops individuality by allowing the worker to concentrate his initiative upon work that has not before been done, and by providing incentive and reward for inventions.

WASTE ELIMINATED IS ELIMINATED PERMANENTLY.—Scientific Management not only eliminates waste, but provides that waste shall be eliminated for all time in the future.

The standard once written down, there can be no slipping back into the old methods based upon opinions of the facts.

STANDARDIZATION UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT RESEMBLES STANDARDIZATION OF SPELLING.—The need for standardization has already been emphasized, but might further be illustrated by the discussions, pro and con, of the question of simplified spelling. Before the days of dictionaries, our spelling was not standardized— it was the privilege of any good writer to spell much as he desired; but the creation of written standards of spelling, that is to say the making of dictionaries, fixed the forms of spelling at that time, that is, created standards. The Simplified Spelling Board is now endeavoring to make some new standards, their action being based upon sufficient reasons for making a change, and also for not changing the spelling of any word until it is determined that the suggested spelling is more advisable than the old spelling.

Just so, under Scientific Management, the best known standards are used continuously until better have been discovered. The planning department, consisting of the best men available, whose special duty it is to create new standards, acts as does the Simplified Spelling Board, as a court of appeals for new standards, which must pass this court before they can hope to succeed the old, and which must, if they are to be accepted, possess many elements of the old and be changed only in such a way that the users can, without difficulty, shift to the new use.

UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT NOMENCLATURE IS STANDARDIZED.—Under Standardization in Scientific Management the standardization of the nomenclature, of the names and of the terms used must be noted. The effect of this upon the mind is excellent, because the use of a word very soon becomes a habit—its associations become fixed. If different names are used for the same thing,—that is to say, if different names are used indiscriminately, the thing itself becomes hazy, in just such a degree as it possesses many names. The use of the fixed term, the fixed word, leads to definiteness always. Just so, also, the Mnemonic Symbol system in use by Scientific Management, leads to swift identification of the subdivision of the classification to which it is applied, and to elimination of waste in finding and remembering where to find any particular thing or piece of information desired. By it may be identified "the various articles of manufacture and papers relating to it as well as the operations to be performed on each piece and the various charges of the establishment."

MNEMONIC SYMBOLS SAVE TIME AND EFFORT.—These Mnemonic Symbols save actual motions and time in speaking and writing, and save time in that they are so designed as to be readily remembered. They also save time and effort in that the mind accustomed to them works with them as collective groups of ideas, without stopping to elaborate them into their more detailed form.

STANDARD PHRASEOLOGY ELIMINATES WASTE.—As typical of the savings effected by standardization, we may cite a lineman talking to the Central Telephone Office:—

"John Doe—1234 L. Placing Extension Station," This signified— "My name is John Doe, I am telephoning from number 1234, party L. I have finished installing an extension station. Where shall I go next?"

In the same way standard signals are remembered best by the man who signals and are understood quickest by the man who receives them, with a direct increase in speed to the work done.

STANDARD MAN IS THE MAN UPON WHOM STUDIES ARE MADE.—The standard man is the ideal man to observe and with whom to obtain the best Motion Study and Time Study data. He is the fastest worker, working under the direction of the man best informed in the particular trade as to the motions of best present practice, and being timed by a Time Study Expert.

RELATION BETWEEN THE STANDARD MAN, THE FIRST-CLASS MAN, THE GIVEN MAN AND THE TASK.—The "first-class man" under Scientific Management means the man who is best fitted by nature and by training to do the task permanently or until promoted.

The "given man" is the man who is actually put to work at the task, whether or not he is well fitted for its performance.

The "task" is that percentage of the standard man's achievement that the given man to whom the task is to be assigned can do continuously and thrive, that he can do easily enough to win his bonus without injuring himself, temporarily or permanently, in any way.

WRITING THE STANDARD MEANS FOR CONVEYING INFORMATION.—Under Scientific Management, and even in the early stages of Transitory Management, writing is the standard means of conveying information.

All orders, without exception, should be in writing. This insures that the "eye workers" get their directions in the most impressive form; does away with the need of constant oral repetition; eliminates confusion; insures a clear impression in the mind of the giver as well as of the receiver of the order as to exactly what is wanted; and provides a record of all orders given. Putting the instructions in writing in no way precludes utilizing the worker's natural aptitude to learn by imitation, for he also always has the opportunity to watch and imitate the workings of the functional teachers as well as his scientifically taught fellow-workers.

THE INSTRUCTION CARD THE STANDARD METHOD OF CONVEYING INSTRUCTIONS AS TO THE TASK.—The records of the work of the standard man are contained in data of the Motion Study and Time Study department. These records, in the form in which they are to be used by the man who is to perform the task, are, for the benefit of that man, incorporated in what is known as the instruction card.

DEFINITION OF THE INSTRUCTION CARD.—The instruction card is a set of directions for the man, telling him what he is to do, how he is to do it, how long it should take him to do it, and what he will receive for doing it, and giving him an opportunity to call for, and obtain, assistance the instant that he finds he cannot do it, and to report back to the managers as to how he has succeeded in the performance.

The Instruction Card has been called "a self-producer of a predetermined product."

COMPARATIVE DEFINITION OF INSTRUCTION CARDS, UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.—There are three types of Instruction Cards, which may be described as follows:

Type One:—Largely geographical, telling 1. Where to Work. 2. From Whom to Take Orders. 3. What to Do.

Type Two:—Typical engineer's specification,—telling 1. Results desired. 2. Qualities of Products.

Type Three:—A list of elementary, step-by-step instructions, subdivided into their motions, with time allowed for each timable element, preferably for each motion, and a division between 1. Getting ready. 2. Making or constructing. 3. Clearing up. This is the only type used by Scientific Management.

DIRECTIONS, PAY ALLOWANCE AND TIME ALLOWANCE ESSENTIAL.— The Instruction Card under Scientific Management must contain directions, and state the pay allowance and time allowance.

Directions as to how the work shall be done eliminate waste by cutting out all wrong methods and prescribing the right method exactly.

The setting of a time in which the work is to be done is a great stimulus to the worker, and is also necessary, because upon the attainment of this set time depends the ability of the managers to pay the bonus to the worker, and also to maintain a schedule, or time-table, that will make possible the maintaining of necessary conditions for others, in turn, to earn their bonuses. It cannot be too often emphasized that the extra wages are paid to the men out of the savings, and are absolutely dependent upon the fact of there being savings. It is only when the worker does the work within the time prescribed, that the managers do save enough to warrant the payment of the extra wages that compensate the man for doing the stipulated quantity of work.

The instruction card contains a statement of the wage or bonus that will be earned for the complete performance of the task set therein, thus furnishing an incentive at the time that the work is done.

STANDARD DIVISION OF INSTRUCTION CARD NECESSARY.—There are many reasons for dividing an instruction card in the present standard way, namely,—

(a) to reduce the amount of time study observation necessary to be taken, (b) to reduce the difficulties of synthesizing the time studied element, (c) to locate quickly just where the worker needs help and instruction to enable him to achieve his task, (d) to keep up the interest of the worker by having short time elements with which to measure his relative ability, (e) to present the subject-matter of instruction in such natural subdivisions that resting places are automatically provided that allow the mind to recover from its absorption of each subdivision. This provides definite stopping places between co-related units of instruction holding the attention as a complete unit against distraction, and a complete resting place between subdivisions that permits the mind to relax and wander without losing complete grasp of each unit as a whole.

DETAILED INSTRUCTION EDUCATIVE.—The greater the perfection of the detail of the instruction card, the greater the educative value of this plan of management. The educative value of the instruction card will be discussed at length under Teaching.

Those inexperienced in Scientific Management have complained that the detail of Instruction Cards and other parts of Scientific Management is tiresome. Dr. Taylor has answered such objectors in Discussions, and also in his own directions for planning the Instruction Card, which are to be found in "Shop Management."

The advantages of the detailed instruction card are more than might appear on the surface. Not only does the man whose attention is easily distracted keep to his work better if he is told every possible detail, but also the cards when filed can be taken out again, and every detail and item of the method reviewed at length and revised if necessary.

The experienced worker who gets to know the instruction by rote is not bothered by extreme detail. On the contrary, he grasps it at a glance, and focuses his mind upon any new feature and upon the speed and exactness of muscular action needed for compliance with the card.

LANGUAGE OF INSTRUCTION CARD IMPORTANT.—The language in which instructions and commands are transmitted on the instruction card is of sufficient importance to warrant careful consideration. It would be helpful if the instruction card clerk and the man who is to use the instruction cards were both masters of English, but this is hardly to be expected. The best substitute for such special English training is a "System" for the use of the instruction card clerk that will give him some outline of English that will by degrees make his wording terse, simple and unambiguous.

He should be impressed with the value of short sentences, and of sentences that will require no punctuation other than a period at the end. The short sentence is the most important step toward brevity, terseness, conciseness and clear thinking.

The second most important feature is that the instruction card clerk always uses the same standard wording for the same instructions. Repetition of phrasing is a virtue, and the use of the same word for the same thing and the same meaning repeatedly is very desirable. The wording, phrasing and sentencing should be standard wherever possible.

STANDARD PHRASING DESIRABLE.—After a short time a phrase or sentence that is often repeated will be recognized as quickly as will a word or a letter. Men who cannot read and write at all are comparatively few. Men who can read and write but little are many. It is entirely possible to teach such men standard groupings, which they can recognize on the Instruction Card and use in a very short time.

For example,—laborers who do not even know their alphabets will learn quickly to read setting marks on cut stone.

Just as mnemonic symbols save time and effort, so standard phrasing aids toward finding out what is to be done, and remembering how it is to be done.[5] Both of these can be accomplished if the standardization is so complete that directions can be read and remembered almost at a glance.[6]

SPECIFIC TERMS HELPFUL.—To be most effective, directions should be in the imperative form, and in specific terms.

The history and growth of language shows that the language of the savage consisted of vague general terms as compared to the specific individual terms of the modern language of civilized man. There are examples to be seen on every hand to-day where the oral language of instructions and orders to proceed, that are given to the worker, are still more vague, comparatively, than the language between savages.

SIMILARITY OF FORM AND SHAPE ADVISABLE.—As for the form and shape, as Dr. Taylor says, "anything that will transmit ideas by sketch or wording will serve as an instruction card." He advises, however, taking advantage of the saving in time to be gained by having the instruction cards as nearly alike as possible. They may, for convenience' sake, vary as to length, but in width, ruling, spacing and wording they should be as nearly alike as possible.

STANDARD SURROUNDINGS VALUABLE.—Standard environment, or surroundings, of the worker are valuable for two reasons:

1. Because they directly increase output by eliminating everything which might distract attention or cause needless fatigue, and by assisting in the attainment of more output by having the best possible surroundings for greater output.

2. Because all surroundings suggest an easy achievement. Knowing that everything has been done to make his work possible and easy, the worker feels this atmosphere of possibility and ease around him, and the suggestive power of this is strong.

UNNECESSARY FATIGUE SHOULD BE ELIMINATED.—The walls, appliances and furniture, and the clothing of the worker should be of that color which will rest his eyes from the fatigue of the work. All unnecessary noise should be eliminated, and provision should be made, where possible, that the workers may enjoy their sleep or their rest hours in perfect quiet.

Records show the value of having quiet reign in and near the camp, that the workers may not be disturbed. Even though they are not disturbed enough to be waked up, every noise that is registered in the brain affects the body, for it is now conceded that the body reflects every phase of mental activity.

ALL MENTAL STATES AFFECT BODILY STATES—Dr. Stratton says: "It is now generally accepted that the body reflects every shade of psychic operations; that in all manner of mental action there is some physical expression."[7] All consciousness is motor "is the brief expression of this important truth; every mental state somehow runs over into a corresponding bodily state."

ELIMINATION OF WORRY ASSISTS IN CONCENTRATING ATTENTION.—The more fireproof the building, and the more stable the other conditions, the greater the efficiency of the inmate. Burglar-proof buildings not only actually induce better sleep, in that possible intrusions are eliminated, but give a state of mental peace by the removal of apprehension. So also, a "germ proof" house is not only really more healthful for an inmate, but eliminates worry over possible danger of ill health. The mental health of the worker not only controls, in a measure, his physical health, but also his desire to work. Having no distractions, he can put his mind upon that which is given him to do.

DISTRACTED ATTENTION CAUSES FATIGUE.—The attention of the worker is apt to be distracted not only by recognized dangers, such as burglars, fires, and disease, but also by other transitory things that, involuntarily on his part, take his mind from the work in hand. A flickering light distracts the attention and causes fatigue, whether we have consciously noticed it or not. Many things are recorded by the senses without one's being conscious of them.

For example, the ceasing of a clock to tick, although we have not noticed that it was ticking. Another example is the effect upon the pulse or the brain of being spoken to when asleep.

The flickering lamp of the chronocyclegraph device is much more fatiguing than the steady lamp of plain cyclegraphs.

PROPER PLACING OF WORKERS ELIMINATES DISTRACTED ATTENTION.— Workers must be placed so that they do not see intermittently moving objects out of the corners of their eyes. In the early history of man it was continuously necessary to watch for first evidence of things behind one, or at a distance, in order to be safe from an enemy. From generations of survival of the most fit there have developed human eyes most sensitive to moving objects that are seen out of the corner of the eye. Even civilized man has his attention distracted quickest, and most, by those moving objects that he sees the least distinctly, and furthest to one side from the direction in which he is looking.

The leaf that moves or the grass that trembles may attract the attention where seen "out of the corner of the eye" to a point where it will even cause a start and a great fear.

As an example of the distracting effect of moving objects seen "out of the corner of the eye," try reading a book facing a window in a car where the moving scenery can be seen on each side of the book. The flitting object will interrupt one, one cannot get the full meaning out of what one is reading—yet if one lays down the book and looks directly at the scenery, the mind can concentrate to a point where one does not see that moving scenery which is directly in front of the eyes.

There is a great difference in this power of sensitiveness of the corners of some workers' eyes from that of others. The first move of Scientific Management is to place and arrange all workers, as far as is possible, in such a position that nothing to distract them will be behind them, and later to see that the eyes of workers are tested, that those whose eyes are most sensitive may be placed accordingly.

THIS ELIMINATION MAY TAKE PLACE IN ALL KINDS OF WORK.—The necessity of removing all things which will distract the attention is as great for the brain worker as for the shop or construction worker. All papers that attract the eye, and hence the attention, should be cleaned from the desk, everything except that on which the worker is working. The capability of being distracted by the presence of other things varies in all workers.

In using the dictaphone, one can do much better work if one is in a room where there is little or nothing to distract attention. An outline of work ahead, may tempt to study and planning of what is ahead, rather than to carrying out the task scheduled for immediate performance. The presence of a paper with an outline merely of what is being done is found to be a great help, as the eye can rest on that, and after a few moments, will become so accustomed to it that the whole attention will be given to the dictating.

BENEFITS OF ELIMINATING "DECISION OF CHOICE."—There is always time lost by "decision of choice." The elimination of this is well illustrated by the bricks that are piled on the packet, which decides for the bricklayer which brick is next, making an obvious sequence, hence the saving of time of decision regarding motions, also the saving coming from the play for position. Oftentimes a handicap of slow mental action can be compensated for, in a measure, by planning ahead in great detail. In this way, if the plan is made sufficiently in detail, there is absolutely no time possible left to be wasted in "decision of choice." The worker goes from one step to another, and as these steps are arranged logically, his mind does not tend to wander away, but to keep on in an uninterrupted sequence to the goal.

STANDARD EQUIPMENT IMPORTANT.—As for equipment, the phenomena of habit are among the most important features of the psychology of management and the possibilities of the elimination of unnecessary waste resulting from taking advantage of this feature is possible only when the equipment, surroundings and methods of the worker are standardized. Therefore the insistence upon standardization, even down to the smallest things, is vital for achieving the greatest output.

For example,—suppose the keys of the monotype machine, piano or typewriter were not located permanently in the same relative position. Consider the loss of time in not being able to use habits in finding each key. Such an arrangement sounds ridiculous on the face of it, yet it is a common practice for many operators, especially of monotype machines, to make a complete mental decision as to the muscles and fingers with which they will strike the desired key.

Imagine the records of output of a typist who was using a different keyboard every day, if there were that many kinds of keyboards. It is easy for anyone to conceive the great advantages of standard keyboards for such machines, but only those who have made a study of output of all kinds of workers can fully realize that similar differences in sizes of output are being produced by the workers of the country for lack of similar standardization of working conditions and equipment.

UTMOST STANDARDIZATION DOES NOT MAKE "MACHINES" OF THE WORKERS OPERATING UNDER IT.—The attention of those who believe that standardization makes machines out of the workers themselves, is called to the absence of such effect upon the typist as compared with the scribe, the monotype and linotype operator as compared with the compositor, and the mechanical computing machine operator as compared with the arithmetician.

STANDARD METHODS DEMAND STANDARD TOOLS AND DEVICES.—Habits cannot be standardized until the devices and tools used are of standard pattern. It is not nearly so essential to have the best tools as it is to have standard tools.[8] Experience in the hospitals points to the importance of this fact in surgery. Tools once adopted as standard should not be changed until the improvement or greater efficiency from their use will compensate for the loss during the period of "breaking in" the user, that is, of forming new habits in order to handle strange tools. As will be brought out more fully under "Teaching," good habits are as difficult to break as bad ones, the only difference being that one does not usually desire to break good ones. Naturally, if a new device is introduced, what was an excellent habit for the old device becomes, perhaps, a very bad habit for the new device. There must come a time before the manipulation of the new device has become a habit when output will go down and costs will go up. It is necessary, before introducing this device, to investigate whether the ultimate reduction of costs will be sufficient to allow for this period of lower production. It is not fair, however, to the new device or method really to consider its record until the use of it has become such a habit with the workers as was the use of the old device.

No one who has not made a study of cutting tools can realize the crying need for standardizing in that field. Dr. Taylor says, writing in the Revised "Shop Management" of 1911,—"Hardly a shop can be found in which tools made from a dozen different qualities of steel are not used side by side, in many cases with little or no means of telling one make from another."[9] The effect of the slightest variation in the shape or the method of handling the tool upon the three dimensions of the work that the tool can do in a given time, is astounding.[10] More important, from the psychological point of view, is the effect upon the mind of the worker of seeing such unstandardized equipment; of having to stop to select the particular tool that he desires, and thus having his attention distracted from his work; and of knowing that his act of judgment in so selecting is of no permanent value, as the next time he needs a similar tool he will probably have to reselect.

STANDARD CLOTHING A CRYING NEED.—There is a great need today for standardization in the field of clothing. The idea prevalent that wearing apparel is attractive only when it is "different" is unfortunate in its influence upon the cost of living. How much more unfortunate is it, when it affects the mind of the worker, and leads him to look upon standard working clothes with distaste.

To a careful observer, there is nothing more disheartening than a study of workers' clothes, especially the clothes of women workers. Too warm clothes where work requiring high temperature is done, with no provision for adding needed wraps for the trip home; high-heeled shoes where the worker must stand at her task for hours at a time; tight waists and ill fitting skirts, where every muscle should have free play,—these are but examples of hundreds of places where reforms are needed.

Little or no blame attaches to the worker for this state of affairs. Seldom, if ever, does the management attempt to standardize working clothes. Moreover, the underlying idea is not made clear that such clothes bear no resemblance to the meaningless uniforms which are badge and symbol of service. They resemble rather the blouse or pinafore of the artist, the outfit of the submarine diver or the fireman.

THE SPORTS PRESENT A FINE EXAMPLE OF THIS.—The greatest advance toward standardizing clothing has come in the sports, which, in many respects, present admirable object-lessons. In the tennis court, on the links, on the gridiron, the diamond, or track, the garment worn of itself does not increase fatigue. On the contrary, it is so designed as not to interfere with the efficiency of the wearer.

MANAGEMENT SHOULD PROVIDE CLOTHING STANDARDS.—Under Ultimate Management the most efficient clothing for any kind of work will be standardized. The expense of such articles of clothing as will add to the quantity or quality of output will, directly or indirectly, be borne by the management, just as it now bears the expense for equipment and tools. These essentials being supplied, and the underlying dignity and importance of standardization understood, the worker will gladly conform, and supply the minor accessories.

SUCH STANDARDS MUST APPLY TO ALL.—It is of the utmost importance that such standardization, when adopted, should apply to the clothing of all, managers as well as employes. When the old pride in the "crafts" returns, or when efficiency is as universal in the industrial world as it is in the world of sport,—then one may look for results.

EFFECTS OF SUCH STANDARDS ENORMOUS.—The effect which such standardized clothing would have on the physical and mental well-being of the wearers can scarcely be overestimated. Fatigue would be eliminated, and the old "joy in working" might return. Not being based upon looks alone,—though the aesthetic appeal should not be neglected,—the worker's ability to work more and better with greater content of mind would be the criterion. The success of the clothing would be scientifically measured, the standards improved, and progress itself become standardized.

STANDARD METHODS ELIMINATE FATIGUE.—There is no doubt in the minds of those who have made it a study, that the constant receipt of the same kind of impressions, caused by the same kind of stimulation of the same terminal sense organs, causes semi-automatic response with less resulting fatigue, corresponding to the lessened effort. All methods should, therefore, as far as possible, be made up of standard elements under standard conditions, with standard devices and appliances, and they should be standardized from the standpoint of all of our senses as to color, shape, size, weight, location, position and surface texture, that the worker may grasp at a single thought by means of each or all his senses, that no special muscles or other fatiguing processes need be operated to achieve the standard result desired.

MUSCLES THAT TIRE EASILY SHOULD BE SAVED.—It must be remembered that all work should be so arranged that the muscle that changes the position or shape of the eye or the size of its pupil should not be operated except when necessary. Care in planning can oftentimes standardize conditions so as to relieve these and other muscles, which grow tired easily, or transfer this work to other muscles which are not so easily tired.

Not only do the reactions from such standards require less bodily effort, but it also requires less mental effort to work under methods that are standardized. Therefore, both directly and indirectly, the worker benefits by the standardization.

REST FROM FATIGUE IS PROVIDED FOR SCIENTIFICALLY.—Scientific Management provides and prescribes rest for overcoming fatigue of the worker more scientifically and economically than he could possibly provide it for himself. Weber's law is that "our power of detecting differences between sensations does not depend on the absolute amount of difference in the stimuli, but on the relative amount."[11] The additional fatigue from handling additional weights causes fatigue to increase with the weight, but not in direct proportion to the extra weight handled. When the correct weight of the unit to be handled has been determined, the additional weight will cause fatigue in quantities greater in proportion than the extra weight handled.

REST PERIODS ARRANGED FOR BEST GOOD OF WORK AND WORKER.—If possible, rest from fatigue is so arranged as to interfere with work the least. The necessary rest periods of the individuals of a gang should come at that period of the cycle that does not cause any allowance to be made for rest in between the performance of the dependent operations of different members of the gang. Such an arrangement will enable the worker to keep a sustained interest in the work.

WORK WITH ANIMALS SHOULD BE STANDARDIZED.—The necessity for standardizing work with animals has been greatly underestimated, although it has been done more or less successfully in systems for construction work. For work with horses and carts, the harnesses and the carts should be standardized and standards only should be used. The instruction card dealing with the action, motions and their sequence should be standard to save time in changing teams from the full to the empty cart and vice versa. While standardized action is necessary with men, it is even more necessary for men in connection with the work of animals, such as horses, mules and oxen. The instruction card for the act of changing of teams from an empty cart to a full cart should state the side that the driver gets down from his seat to the ground, the sequence in which he unhooks the harness and hooks it up again, and the side on which he gets up to his seat in the cart. Even the wording of his orders to his horse should be standardized.

While this book will deal with the human mind only, it is in order to state that a book could be written to advantage on training the horse by means of a standard man-horse language and a standard practice of their combined action.

Animals have not the capacity for forming new habits that they have for remembering the sequence of former acts. They have little ability to adapt themselves to a sequence of motions caused by unexpected conditions, unless those conditions suggest the opportunity of revenge, or the necessity of self-preservation, or immediate welfare. This is only touched upon here from the man side.

Naturally, the output earning power of a man working with animals depends largely upon the handling of the animal, and the man can never attain his full output, or the managers get what they might expect to get from the man-horse combination, until the psychology of the horse, or mule, or elephant, or whatever animal is used, is also studied and combined with the other studies on Scientific Management.

An example of the benefits of standardized work with animals:—The standard fire signals in the Fire House cause such perfect horse action that fire horses always have a reputation for superior intelligence.

THE WORKER WHO IS BEST SUITED FOR HIS WORK IN THE PERFORMING DEPARTMENT IS INCAPABLE OF DISCOVERING THE BEST METHOD.—An exaggerated case of the result of leaving the selection of the method to the worker is that of the West Indian negro who carried the wheelbarrow on his head.[12] This well-known example, though it seems impossible and absurd, is no more inefficient than are hundreds of methods in use in the industrial world to-day.

UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT QUALITY IS STANDARDIZED.—Scientific Management determines exactly what quality as well as what quantity of work is needed, and the method prescribed is that one not only of lower costs, but which fits the particular need of the particular occasion most accurately.

Workers are kept under pressure for quality, yet the pressure is not irksome, because the worker understands exactly what quality is desired, and what variations from exactness are permitted.

VARIATIONS IN QUALITY OR EXACTNESS INDICATED BY STANDARD SIGNS.—All dimensions on the drawings of work have either a letter or symbol or plus or minus signs. There is much to be said about the effect this has on the worker.

1. It gives the worker immediate knowledge of the prescribed quality demanded. 2. He does not have to worry as to the maximum variation that he can make without interfering with his bonus. 3. There is no fear of criticism or discharge for using his own faulty judgment.

SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT HAS A STANDARD "METHOD OF ATTACK."—We must note next the standard "method of attack" in Scientific Management. It is recognized that sensations are modified by those that come before, by those that come simultaneously, and by those that follow. The psychic effect of each and every kind of sensation depends upon what other sensations have been experienced, are being experienced at that time, or will presently be experienced. The scientific manager realizes this, and provides for the most desirable sequence of sensation; then, having seen, to the best of his ability, that the sensation occurs at the time which he desires it to occur, he provides for concentration upon that one sensation and elimination of all other thoughts or desires.

Professor Faraday says: "That part of self-education which consists in teaching the mind to resist the desires and inclinations until they are proved to be right is the most important of all." How this is shown under Scientific Management will be shown in "Teaching." It is sufficient to say here that the method of attack of Scientific Management is to eliminate all possible bodily as well as mental exertion,—to cut down motions, to cut down even sensations and such mental acts as visualizing. The object is, not so much to eliminate these motions and these sensations, and this visualizing from the life of the worker, as simply to use up less energy in producing the output. This allows the worker an extra supply of energy upon which to fall back to produce greater output and to get greater wages. If his energy is not all utilized in his working hours, then, as will be shown more clearly under "Welfare," there is that much more left for him to enjoy in his own leisure time.

SUMMARY

RESULT TO THE WORK.—Under Traditional Management, where standards are not established, the worker is constantly delayed by the necessity for decision of choice, by the lack of knowing what should be chosen, and by a dearth of standard equipment, materials and tools from which to choose.

Under Transitory Management, with the introduction of standards, the elimination of delays and the provision for standard surroundings and supplies of all kinds, comes increased output of the desired quality.

Under Scientific Management, not only is output increased and quality assured, but results of work can be predicted.[13]

RESULTS TO THE WORKER.—Results from standardization to the worker under Traditional and Transitory Management are the same as, and are included in, results under Scientific Management.

STATE OF WORKER'S FEELINGS IMPROVED.—Under Scientific Management the state of the employe's feelings is improved by the standardization. It is a recognized fact that mental disturbance from such causes as fear of losing his job will sometimes have the same ill effect upon a workman as does overwork, or insufficient rest for overcoming fatigue. It will occasionally wear upon the nervous system and the digestive organs. Now Scientific Management by standardization removes from the workman this fear of losing his job, for the worker knows that if he conforms to the standard instructions he certainly will not lose his position unless the business as a whole is unsuccessful.

On the other hand, feelings, such as happiness and contentment, and even hearing rhythmic sounds, music, etc., are an aid toward increasing output. For the best results, therefore, under Scientific Management the worker is furnished with standard conditions; his train of ideas is held upon the work in hand without interruption, and the working conditions are such that the managers furnish the worker with inducements to conform to the standard conditions happily.

WORKER'S RETENTIVE POWER INCREASED.—We note in the second place, the increased retentive power of anyone who is working with standards. There is great difference between different people of the same degree of intelligence as to their ability to memorize certain things, especially such as sequences of the elements of a process. This lack of retentive power is illustrated particularly well in the cases often found where the student has difficulty in learning to spell. It is here that the standard instruction card comes into play to good effect. Its great detail remedies the defect in memorizing of certain otherwise brilliant workers, and its standard form and repetition of standard phrases aid the retentive power of the man who has a good memory.

STANDARD ELEMENTS SERVE AS MEMORY DRILLS.—This use of standardized elements makes the time elapsing between repetitions shorter, for, while it may be a long time before the worker again encounters the identical work or method, still, the fact that elements are standard means that he will have occasion to repeat elements frequently, and that his memory will each time be further drilled by these repetitions.

GANG INSTRUCTION CARD AN AID TO MEMORY.—The gang instruction card has been used with good effect at the beginning of unfamiliar repetitive cycles of work to train the memory of whole gangs of men at once, and to cut down the elapsed time from the time when one man's operation is sufficiently completed to permit the next man to commence his. It has been found, in the case of setting timbers in mill construction for example, that to have one man call out the next act in the sequence as fast as the preceding one is finished, until all have committed the sequence to memory, will materially decrease the time necessary for the entire sequence of elements in a cycle of work.

INDIVIDUAL INSTRUCTION CARD AN INANIMATE MEMORY.—The instruction card supplies a most accurate memory in inanimate form, that neither blurs nor distorts with age.

The ranter against this standard memory is no more sensible than a man who would advocate the worker's forgetting the result of his best experience, that his mind might be periodically exercised by rediscovering the method of least waste anew with each problem.

Other things being equal, that worker has the longest number of years of earning power who remembers the largest number of right methods; or at least remembers where to find them described in detail; and, conversely, those who have no memory, and know not where to look for or to lay their hand on the method of least waste, remain at the beginning of their industrial education. "Experience," from an earning standpoint, does not exist when the mind does not retain a memory of the method. The instruction card, then, acts as a form of transferable memory—it conserves memory. Once it is made, it furnishes the earning power without the necessity of the former experience having been had more than once.

Plans, details, free-hand sketches, and two-dimension photographs surpass the highest form of mental imagery, and such cultivated imagery is undoubtedly a high achievement. There is no kind of memory, visualization, nor constructive imagination that can equal the stereoscopic or three-dimension photographs that may accompany the instruction card for enabling the worker to "see the completed work before it is begun." Probably the greatest hindrance to development of lower forms of animal life is their inability to picture past experiences, and the reason for the intellectual strides made by the worker under Scientific Management is the development of this faculty.

A CONSERVER OF INDIVIDUAL MEMORIES.—Many people believe that the memory of a person ceases at his death. Whether this is so or not, the loss to the world, and particularly the industrial world, of not having the instruction card for the passing on of the worker's experience to the workers who follow is stupendous and incalculable, and this loss, like so many other losses, can be eliminated by the process of making written standards.

MOTOR MEMORY IMPROVED BY STANDARDIZATION.—Not only are the retentive powers of the brain improved, but also the brain centers, and the muscles, etc., become trained through standardization. With standardization a long sequence of muscular motions or operations can be noted at a glance, and can be remembered without difficulty.

STANDARDS PREVENT MEN FROM BECOMING MACHINES.—Those who object to the worker taking advantage of these scientifically derived standards which aid the memory, can only be compared to such people as desire the workers to turn into unthinking animals. Psychologists believe that some of the lower animals have no memory. Turning the workers into machines which do not in any way utilize thought-saving devices is simply putting them but little above the class of these lower, memory-less, animals.

THROUGH STANDARDS THE WORKER'S ATTENTION IS GAINED AT THE START.—The general act of attention plays an important part in Scientific Management. The insistence upon standardized performance requires the utmost attention at the beginning of learning a new method of performance. This extra output of mental activity, which is always required for accomplishing new methods of work, could not be continuously maintained, but after the new method has once been learned, its repetition requires less attention, consequently less fatigue. The attention of the worker is, therefore, strongly demanded at the beginning and when, later, it is not needed except for new and unfamiliar work, an opportunity arises for invention and mental advancement.

ATTENTION ALLOWED TO LAPSE AND THEN RECALLED.—Standardization shifts the objects of attention and eliminates the need for constant concentration. The standardization of processes relieves the worker to a marked extent from the extremely fatiguing mental effort of unproductive fixed, valueless, and unnecessary attention on the stream of consciousness. The repeated elements which form a part of all standards reconcentrates the attention if it is allowed to lapse.

STANDARDIZATION ELIMINATES THE SHIFTING VIEWPOINT.—Under old-time Traditional Management the way that the man happened to feel at the particular time made a great difference, not only in his work, but in his relations with other men. The standardization not only of the relationship between the men, but of the relationships between the foreman, the manager, and the worker, the fact that the disciplining is put in the hands of a man who is not biased by his personal feelings in his dealings with the men;—all of these things mean that the viewpoint of the men as to their work and their relationship remains fixed. This standardizing of the viewpoint is an enormous help toward increasing output.

THE COMMON VIEWPOINT IS AN IMPETUS.—There are those who believe that the concerted standard process of thought of the many minds assists the operation of any one mind. However this may be, there is no doubt that the fact that the standard thought is present in all minds at one time at least eliminates some cause for discussion and leads to unity and consequent success in the work.

INVENTION IS STIMULATED.—Chances for invention and construction are provided by standardization.[14] By having a scientifically derived standard method as a starter, the worker can exert much of his mental power toward improvement from that point upward, instead of being occupied with methods below it and in wasting, perhaps, a lifetime in striving to get up to it,[15] this in distinction to the old plan, where a worker knew only what he could personally remember of what had been handed down by tradition, tradition being the memory of society. Under Scientific Management a worker has many repetitions of experience, some of which he does not always recognize as such. When he does recognize them, he has the power and daring for rapid construction that come to those only who "know that they know."

Standardization of ultimate subdivisions, as such, brings that power to the worker sooner. The conscious knowledge of familiarity of process is an essential for attaining the complete benefits of experience.

Far from making machines out of the men, standardization causes a mental state that leads to invention, for the reason that the worker's brain is in most intimate contact with the work, and yet has not been unnecessarily fatigued by the work itself. No more monotonous work could be cited than that of that boy whose sole duty was to operate by hand the valve to the engine, yet he invented the automatic control of the slide valve used throughout the world to-day.

STANDARDIZATION PREVENTS ACCIDENTS.—The results of standardization so far given, concern changes in the worker's mental capacity, or attitude. Such changes, and other changes, will be discussed from a different viewpoint under "Teaching." As for results to the worker's body, one of the most important is the elimination of causes for accidents.

The rigid inspection, testing, and repairing provided for by Scientific Management provides against accidents from defects in equipment, tools, or material. The fact that instructions are written, provides against wrong methods of handling work.[16] The concentrated attention caused by standardization, is a safeguard against accidents that occur from the worker's carelessness.[17] The proper allowance of rest for overcoming fatigue, insures that the worker's mind is fresh enough to enable him to comply with standards, and, finally, the spirit of cooeperation that underlies Scientific Management is an added check against accidents, in that everyone is guarding his fellows as well as himself.

PROGRESS OF STANDARDIZATION ASSURED.—As Scientific Management becomes older, progress will be faster, because up to this time there has been a hindrance standing in the way of rapid advancement of the best standards. This hindrance has been the tendency of habits of thought coinciding with former practice. For example, the design of concrete building for years followed the habit of thinking in terms of brick, or wood, or steel, and then attempting to design and construct in reinforced concrete. Again, in the case of the motor car, habits of thinking in vehicles drawn by animals for years kept the design unnecessarily leaning toward that of horse vehicles. As soon as thought was in terms of power vehicles, the efficient motor truck of to-day was made, using the power also for power loading and power hoisting, as is now done in motor trucks specially designed for transporting and handling pianos and safes. So, also, while the thought was of traditional practice, standard practice was held back. Now that the theories of standardization are well understood, standardization and standards in general can advance with great rapidity.

CHAPTER VI FOOTNOTES: ==============================================

1. Compare R.T. Dana and W.L. Sanders, Rock Drilling, chap. XVI. 2. The idea of perfection is not involved in the standard of Scientific Management. Morris Llewellyn Cooke, Bulletin No. 5, of The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, p. 6. 3. Cost of Manufactures. 4. Sully, The Teacher's Handbook of Psychology, pp. 290-292. 5. C.B. Going, Methods of the Sante Fe, p. 66. 6. For desirability of standard signals see R.T. Dana, Handbook of Steam Shovel Work, p. 32. 7. Stratton, Experimental Psychology and Culture, pp. 268-269. 8. F.W. Taylor, Shop Management, para. 285, Harper Ed., pp. 123-124. 9. F.W. Taylor, Shop Management, revised 1911, pp. 124-125. 10. F.W. Taylor, On the Art of Cutting Metals, A.S.M.E., No. 1119. 11. Stratton, Experimental Psychology and Culture, p. 11. 12. Mary Whiton Calkins, A First Book in Psychology, p. 65. 13. C.G. Barth, A.S.M.E., Vol. 25, Paper 1010, p. 46. 14. Charles Babbage, On the Economy of Machinery and Manufactures, Secs. 224-225. Adam Smith, Wealth of Nations, Book 1, chap. 1, p. 4. 15. F.W. Taylor, paper 1119, A.S.M.E., para. 51; para. 98-100. 16. F.A. Parkhurst, Applied Methods of Scientific Management, Industrial Engineering, Oct. 1911, p. 251. 17. H.L. Gantt, paper 928, A.S.M.E., para. 15.

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CHAPTER VII

RECORDS AND PROGRAMMES

DEFINITION OF RECORD.—A record is, according to the Century Dictionary—"something set down in writing or delineated for the purpose of preserving memory; specifically a register; an authentic or official copy of any writing, or an account of any fact and proceedings, whether public or private, usually entered in a book for preservation; also the book containing such copy or account."[1] The synonyms given are "note, chronicle, account, minute, memorandum."

FEW WRITTEN RECORDS UNDER TRADITIONAL MANAGEMENT.—For the purposes of this preliminary study of records, emphasis will be laid on the fact that the record is written. Under Traditional Management there are practically no such labor records. What records are kept are more in the nature of "bookkeeping records," as Gillette and Dana call them, records "showing debits and credits between different accounts." In many cases, under Traditional Management, not even such records of profit or loss from an individual piece of work were kept, the manager, in extreme cases, oftentimes "keeping his books in his head" and having only the vaguest idea of the state of his finances.

IMPORTANCE OF RECORDS REALIZED UNDER TRANSITORY MANAGEMENT.—As has been amply demonstrated in discussing Individuality and Standardization, the recognition of the value of records is one of the first indications of Transitory Management. Since this stage of management has Scientific Management in view as "a mark to come to," the records evolved and used are not discarded by Scientific Management, but are simply perfected. Therefore, there is no need to discuss these transitory records, except to say that, from the start, quality of records is insisted upon before quantity of records.

NO "BOOKKEEPING" RECORDS UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.—Under Scientific Management there are no "bookkeeping records" kept of costs as such. Instead, there are "time and cost records," so called, of the time and efficiency of performance. From these, costs can be deduced at any time. Items of cost without relation to their causes, on work that is not to be repeated, have little value. Cost records, as such, usually represent a needless, useless expenditure of time and money. It must be emphasized that Scientific Management can in no way be identified with "cost keeping," in the sense that is understood to mean aimlessly recording unrelated costs. Under Scientific Management costs are an ever-present by-product of the system, not a direct product.