Triticum vulgare.—Analogous trials were made on 8 radicles of the common wheat; and greasing their tips produced much less effect than in the case of the oats. After 22 h., 5 of them had come into contact with the bottom of the sieve; 2 had moved towards it 10o and 15o, and one alone remained perpendicular. Not one of the very numerous ungreased radicles failed to come into close contact with the sieve. These trials were made on Nov. 28th, when the temperature was only 4.8o C. at 10 A.M. We should hardly have thought this case worth notice, had it not been for the following circumstance. In the beginning of October, when the temperature was considerably higher, viz., 12o to 13o C., we found that only a few of the ungreased radicles became bent towards the sieve; and this indicates that sensitiveness to moisture in the air is increased by a low temperature, as we have seen with the radicles of Vicia faba relatively to objects attached to their tips. But in the present instance it is possible that a difference in the dryness [page 185] of the air may have caused the difference in the results at the two periods.]

Finally, the facts just given with respect to Phaseolus multiflorus, Vicia faba, and Avena sativa show, as it seems to us, that a layer of grease spread for a length of 1 to 2 mm. over the tip of the radicle, or the destruction of the tip by caustic, greatly lessens or quite annuls in the upper and exposed part the power of bending towards a neighbouring source of moisture. We should bear in mind that the part which bends most, lies at some little distance above the greased or cauterised tip; and that the rapid growth of this part, proves that it has not been injured by the tips having been thus treated. In those cases in which the radicles with greased tips became curved, it is possible that the layer of grease was not sufficiently thick wholly to exclude moisture, or that a sufficient length was not thus protected, or, in the case of the caustic, not destroyed. When radicles with greased tips are left to grow for several days in damp air, the grease is drawn out into the finest reticulated threads and dots, with narrow portions of the surface left clean. Such portions would, it is probable, be able to absorb moisture, and thus we can account for several of the radicles with greased tips having become curved towards the sieve after an interval of one or two days. On the whole, we may infer that sensitiveness to a difference in the amount of moisture in the air on the two sides of a radicle resides in the tip, which transmits some influence to the upper part, causing it to bend towards the source of moisture. Consequently, the movement is the reverse of that caused by objects attached to one side of the tip, or by a thin slice being cut off, or by being slightly cauterised. In a future chapter it will be shown that sensitiveness to the attraction of [page 186] gravity likewise resides in the tip; so that it is the tip which excites the adjoining parts of a horizontally extended radicle to bend towards the centre of the earth.

SECONDARY RADICLES BECOMING VERTICALLY GEOTROPIC BY THE DESTRUCTION OR INJURY OF THE TERMINAL PART OF THE PRIMARY RADICLE.

Sachs has shown that the lateral or secondary radicles of the bean, and probably of other plants, are acted on by geotropism in so peculiar a manner, that they grow out horizontally or a little inclined downwards; and he has further shown* the interesting fact, that if the end of the primary radicle be cut off, one of the nearest secondary radicles changes its nature and grows perpendicularly downwards, thus replacing the primary radicle. We repeated this experiment, and planted beans with amputated radicles in friable peat, and saw the result described by Sachs; but generally two or three of the secondary radicles grew perpendicularly downwards. We also modified the experiment, by pinching young radicles a little way above their tips, between the arms of a U-shaped piece of thick leaden wire. The part pinched was thus flattened, and was afterwards prevented from growing thicker. Five radicles had their ends cut off, and served as controls or standards. Eight were pinched; of these 2 were pinched too severely and their ends died and dropped off; 2 were not pinched enough and were not sensibly affected; the remaining 4 were pinched sufficiently to check the growth of the terminal part, but did not appear otherwise injured. When the U-shaped wires were removed, after an

* 'Arbeiten Bot. Institut., Wrzburg,' Heft iv. 1874, p. 622. [page 187]

interval of 15 days, the part beneath the wire was found to be very thin and easily broken, whilst the part above was thickened. Now in these four cases, one or more of the secondary radicles, arising from the thickened part just above the wire, had grown perpendicularly downwards. In the best case the primary radicle (the part below the wire being 1 inch in length) was somewhat distorted, and was not half as long as three adjoining secondary radicles, which had grown vertically, or almost vertically, downwards. Some of these secondary radicles adhered together or had become confluent. We learn from these four cases that it is not necessary, in order that a secondary radicle should assume the nature of a primary one, that the latter should be actually amputated; it is sufficient that the flow of sap into it should be checked, and consequently should be directed into the adjoining secondary radicles; for this seems to be the most obvious result of the primary radicle being pinched between the arms of a U-shaped wire.

This change in the nature of secondary radicles is clearly analogous, as Sachs has remarked, to that which occurs with the shoots of trees, when the leading one is destroyed and is afterwards replaced by one or more of the lateral shoots; for these now grow upright instead of sub-horizontally. But in this latter case the lateral shoots are rendered apogeotropic, whereas with radicles the lateral ones are rendered geotropic. We are naturally led to suspect that the same cause acts with shoots as with roots, namely, an increased flow of sap into the lateral ones. We made some trials with Abies communis and pectinata, by pinching with wire the leading and all the lateral shoots excepting one. But we believe that they were too old when experimented on; and some were pinched too severely, and [page 188] some not enough. Only one case succeeded, namely, with the spruce-fir. The leading shoot was not killed, but its growth was checked; at its base there were three lateral shoots in a whorl, two of which were pinched, one being thus killed; the third was left untouched. These lateral shoots, when operated on (July 14th) stood at an angle of 8o above the horizon; by Sept. 8th the unpinched one had risen 35o; by Oct. 4th it had risen 46o, and by Jan. 26th 48o, and it had now become a little curved inwards. Part of this rise of 48o may be attributed to ordinary growth, for the pinched shoot rose 12o within the same period. It thus follows that the unpinched shoot stood, on Jan. 26th, 56o above the horizon, or 34o from the vertical; and it was thus obviously almost ready to replace the slowly growing, pinched, leading shoot. Nevertheless, we feel some doubt about this experiment, for we have since observed with spruce-firs growing rather unhealthily, that the lateral shoots near the summit sometimes become highly inclined, whilst the leading shoot remains apparently sound.

A widely different agency not rarely causes shoots which naturally would have brown out horizontally to grow up vertically. The lateral branches of the Silver Fir (A. pectinata) are often affected by a fungus, Aecidium elatinum, which causes the branch to enlarge into an oval knob formed of hard wood, in one of which we counted 24 rings of growth. According to De Bary*, when the mycelium penetrates a bud beginning to elongate, the shoot developed from it grows vertically upwards. Such upright shoots after-

* See his valuable article in 'Bot. Zeitung,' 1867, p. 257, on these monstrous growths, which are called in German "Hexenbesen," or "witch-brooms." [page 189]

wards produce lateral and horizontal branches; and they then present a curious appearance, as if a young fir-tree had grown out of a ball of clay surrounding the branch. These upright shoots have manifestly changed their nature and become apogeotropic; for if they had not been affected by the Aecidium, they would have grown out horizontally like all the other twigs on the same branches. This change can hardly be due to an increased flow of sap into the part; but the presence of the mycelium will have greatly disturbed its natural constitution.

According to Mr. Meehan,* the stems of three species of Euphorbia and of Portulaca oleracea are "normally prostrate or procumbent;" but when they are attacked by an Aecidium, they "assume an erect habit." Dr. Stahl informs us that he knows of several analogous cases; and these seem to be closely related to that of the Abies. The rhizomes of Sparganium ramosum grow out horizontally in the soil to a considerable length, or are diageotropic; but F. Elfving found that when they were cultivated in water their tips turned upwards, and they became apogeotropic. The same result followed when the stem of the plant was bent until it cracked or was merely much bowed.**

No explanation has hitherto been attempted of such cases as the foregoing,- -namely, of secondary radicles growing vertically downwards, and of lateral shoots growing vertically upwards, after the amputation of

* 'Proc. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philadelphia,' June 16th, 1874, and July 23rd, 1875. ** See F. Elfving's interesting paper in 'Arbeiten Bot. Institut., in Wrzburg,' vol. ii. 1880, p. 489. Carl Kraus (Triesdorf) had previously observed ('Flora,' 1878, p. 324) that the underground shoots of Triticum repens bend vertically up when the parts above ground are removed, and when the rhizomes are kept partly immersed in water. [page 190]

the primary radicle or of the leading shoot. The following considerations give us, as we believe, the clue. Firstly, any cause which disturbs the constitution* is apt to induce reversion; such as the crossing of two distinct races, or a change of conditions, as when domestic animals become feral. But the case which most concerns us, is the frequent appearance of peloric flowers on the summit of a stem, or in the centre of the inflorescence,—parts which, it is believed, receive the most sap; for when an irregular flower becomes perfectly regular or peloric, this may be attributed, at least partly, to reversion to a primitive and normal type. Even the position of a seed at the end of the capsule sometimes gives to the seedling developed from it a tendency to revert. Secondly, reversions often occur by means of buds, independently of reproduction by seed; so that a bud may revert to the character of a former state many bud-generations ago. In the case of animals, reversions may occur in the individual with advancing age. Thirdly and lastly, radicles when they first protrude from the seed are always geotropic, and plumules or shoots almost always apogeotropic. If then any cause, such as an increased flow of sap or the presence of mycelium, disturbs the constitution of a lateral shoot or of a secondary radicle, it is apt to revert to its primordial state; and it becomes either apogeotropic or geotropic, as the case may be, and consequently grows either vertically upwards or downwards. It is indeed pos-

* The facts on which the following conclusions are founded are given in 'The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,' 2nd edit. 1875. On the causes leading to reversion see chap. xii. vol. ii. and p. 59, chap. xiv. On peloric flowers, chap. xiii. p. 32; and see p. 337 on their position on the plant. With respect to seeds, p. 340. On reversion by means of buds, p. 438, chap. xi. vol. i. [page 191]

sible, or even probable, that this tendency to reversion may have been increased, as it is manifestly of service to the plant.

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER.

A part or organ may be called sensitive, when its irritation excites movement in an adjoining part. Now it has been shown in this chapter, that the tip of the radicle of the bean is in this sense sensitive to the contact of any small object attached to one side by shellac or gum-water; also to a slight touch with dry caustic, and to a thin slice cut off one side. The radicles of the pea were tried with attached objects and caustic, both of which acted. With Phaseolus multiflorus the tip was hardly sensitive to small squares of attached card, but was sensitive to caustic and to slicing. The radicles of Tropaeolum were highly sensitive to contact; and so, as far as we could judge, were those of Gossypium herbaceum, and they were certainly sensitive to caustic. The tips of the radicles of Cucurbita ovifera were likewise highly sensitive to caustic, though only moderately so to contact. Raphanus sativus offered a somewhat doubtful case. With Aesculus the tips were quite indifferent to bodies attached to them, though sensitive to caustic. Those of Quercus robur and Zea mays were highly sensitive to contact, as were the radicles of the latter to caustic. In several of these cases the difference in sensitiveness of the tip to contact and to caustic was, as we believe, merely apparent; for with Gossypium, Raphanus, and Cucurbita, the tip was so fine and flexible that it was very difficult to attach any object to one of its sides. With the radicles of Aesculus, the tips were not at all sensitive to small bodies attached to them; but it does not follow from this [page 192] fact that they would not have been sensitive to somewhat greater continued pressure, if this could have been applied.

The peculiar form of sensitiveness which we are here considering, is confined to the tip of the radicle for a length of from 1 mm. to 1.5 mm. When this part is irritated by contact with any object, by caustic, or by a thin slice being cut off, the upper adjoining part of the radicle, for a length of from 6 or 7 to even 12 mm., is excited to bend away from the side which has been irritated. Some influence must therefore be transmitted from the tip along the radicle for this length. The curvature thus caused is generally symmetrical. The part which bends most apparently coincides with that of the most rapid growth. The tip and the basal part grow very slowly and they bend very little.

Considering the widely separated position in the vegetable series of the several above-named genera, we may conclude that the tips of the radicles of all, or almost all, plants are similarly sensitive, and transmit an influence causing the upper part to bend. With respect to the tips of the secondary radicles, those of Vicia faba, Pisum sativum, and Zea mays were alone observed, and they were found similarly sensitive.

In order that these movements should be properly displayed, it appears necessary that the radicles should grow at their normal rate. If subjected to a high temperature and made to grow rapidly, the tips seem either to lose their sensitiveness, or the upper part to lose the power of bending. So it appears to be if they grow very slowly from not being vigorous, or from being kept at too low a temperature; also when they are forced to germinate in the middle of the winter. [page 193]

The curvature of the radicle sometimes occurs within from 6 to 8 hours after the tip has been irritated, and almost always within 24 h., excepting in the case of the massive radicles of Aesculus. The curvature often amounts to a rectangle,—that is, the terminal part bends upwards until the tip, which is but little curved, projects almost horizontally. Occasionally the tip, from the continued irritation of the attached object, continues to bend up until it forms a hook with the point directed towards the zenith, or a loop, or even a spire. After a time the radicle apparently becomes accustomed to the irritation, as occurs in the case of tendrils, for it again grows downwards, although the bit of card or other object may remain attached to the tip. It is evident that a small object attached to the free point of a vertically suspended radicle can offer no mechanical resistance to its growth as a whole, for the object is carried downwards as the radicle elongates, or upwards as the radicle curves upwards. Nor can the growth of the tip itself be mechanically checked by an object attached to it by gum-water, which remains all the time perfectly soft. The weight of the object, though quite insignificant, is opposed to the upward curvature. We may therefore conclude that it is the irritation due to contact which excites the movement. The contact, however, must be prolonged, for the tips of 15 radicles were rubbed for a short time, and this did not cause them to bend. Here then we have a case of specialised sensibility, like that of the glands of Drosera; for these are exquisitely sensitive to the slightest pressure if prolonged, but not to two or three rough touches.

When the tip of a radicle is lightly touched on one side with dry nitrate of silver, the injury caused is [page 194] very slight, and the adjoining upper part bends away from the cauterised point, with more certainty in most cases than from an object attached on one side. Here it obviously is not the mere touch, but the effect produced by the caustic, which induces the tip to transmit some influence to the adjoining part, causing it to bend away. If one side of the tip is badly injured or killed by the caustic, it ceases to grow, whilst the opposite side continues growing; and the result is that the tip itself bends towards the injured side and often becomes completely hooked; and it is remarkable that in this case the adjoining upper part does not bend. The stimulus is too powerful or the shock too great for the proper influence to be transmitted from the tip. We have strictly analogous cases with Drosera, Dionaea and Pinguicula, with which plants a too powerful stimulus does not excite the tentacles to become incurved, or the lobes to close, or the margin to be folded inwards.

With respect to the degree of sensitiveness of the apex to contact under favourable conditions, we have seen that with Vicia faba a little square of writing-paper affixed with shellac sufficed to cause movement; as did on one occasion a square of merely damped goldbeaters' skin, but it acted very slowly. Short bits of moderately thick bristle (of which measurements have been given) affixed with gum-water acted in only three out of eleven trials, and beads of dried shellac under 1/200th of a grain in weight acted only twice in nine cases; so that here we have nearly reached the minimum of necessary irritation. The apex, therefore, is much less sensitive to pressure than the glands of Drosera, for these are affected by far thinner objects than bits of bristle, and by a very much less weight than 1/200th of a grain. [page 195] But the most interesting evidence of the delicate sensitiveness of the tip of the radicle, was afforded by its power of discriminating between equal-sized squares of card-like and very thin paper, when these were attached on opposite sides, as was observed with the radicles of the bean and oak.

When radicles of the bean are extended horizontally with squares of card attached to the lower sides of their tips, the irritation thus caused was always conquered by geotropism, which then acts under the most favourable conditions at right angles to the radicle. But when objects were attached to the radicles of any of the above-named genera, suspended vertically, the irritation conquered geotropism, which latter power at first acted obliquely on the radicle; so that the immediate irritation from the attached object, aided by its after-effects, prevailed and caused the radicle to bend upwards, until sometimes the point was directed to the zenith. We must, however, assume that the after-effects of the irritation of the tip by an attached object come into play, only after movement has been excited. The tips of the radicles of the pea seem to be more sensitive to contact than those of the bean, for when they were extended horizontally with squares of card adhering to their lower sides, a most curious struggle occasionally arose, sometimes one and sometimes the other force prevailing, but ultimately geotropism was always victorious; nevertheless, in two instances the terminal part became so much curved upwards that loops were subsequently formed. With the pea, therefore, the irritation from an attached object, and from geotropism when acting at right angles to the radicle, are nearly balanced forces. Closely similar results were observed with the horizontally extended radicles of Cucurbita ovifera, [page 196] when their tips were slightly cauterised on the lower side.

Finally, the several co-ordinated movements by which radicles are enabled to perform their proper functions are admirably perfect. In whatever direction the primary radicle first protrudes from the seed, geotropism guides it perpendicularly downwards; and the capacity to be acted on by the attraction of gravity resides in the tip. But Sachs has proved* that the secondary radicles, or those emitted by the primary one, are acted on by geotropism in such a manner that they tend to bend only obliquely downwards. If they had been acted on like the primary radicle, all the radicles would have penetrated the ground in a close bundle. We have seen that if the end of the primary radicle is cut off or injured, the adjoining secondary radicles become geotropic and grow vertically downwards. This power must often be of great service to the plant, when the primary radicle has been destroyed by the larvae of insects, burrowing animals, or any other accident. The tertiary radicles, or those emitted by the secondary ones, are not influenced, at least in the case of the bean, by geotropism; so they grow out freely in all directions. From this manner of growth of the various kinds of radicles, they are distributed, together with their absorbent hairs, throughout the surrounding soil, as Sachs has remarked, in the most advantageous manner; for the whole soil is thus closely searched.

Geotropism, as was shown in the last chapter, excites the primary radicle to bend downwards with very little force, quite insufficient to penetrate the ground. Such penetration is effected by the pointed

* 'Arbeiten Bot. Institut, Wrzburg,' Heft iv. 1874, pp. 605-631. [page 197]

apex (protected by the root-cap) being pressed down by the longitudinal expansion or growth of the terminal rigid portion, aided by its transverse expansion, both of which forces act powerfully. It is, however, indispensable that the seeds should be at first held down in some manner. When they lie on the bare surface they are held down by the attachment of the root-hairs to any adjoining objects; and this apparently is effected by the conversion of their outer surfaces into a cement. But many seeds get covered up by various accidents, or they fall into crevices or holes. With some seeds their own weight suffices. The circumnutating movement of the terminal growing part both of the primary and secondary radicles is so feeble that it can aid them very little in penetrating the ground, excepting when the superficial layer is very soft and damp. But it must aid them materially when they happen to break obliquely into cracks, or into burrows made by earth-worms or larvae. This movement, moreover, combined with the sensitiveness of the tip to contact, can hardly fail to be of the highest importance; for as the tip is always endeavouring to bend to all sides it will press on all sides, and will thus be able to discriminate between the harder and softer adjoining surfaces, in the same manner as it discriminated between the attached squares of card-like and thin paper. Consequently it will tend to bend from the harder soil, and will thus follow the lines of least resistance. So it will be if it meets with a stone or the root of another plant in the soil, as must incessantly occur. If the tip were not sensitive, and if it did not excite the upper part of the root to bend away, whenever it encountered at right angles some obstacle in the ground, it would be liable [page 198] to be doubled up into a contorted mass. But we have seen with radicles growing down inclined plates of glass, that as soon as the tip merely touched a slip of wood cemented across the plate, the whole terminal growing part curved away, so that the tip soon stood at right angles to its former direction; and thus it would be with an obstacle encountered in the ground, as far as the pressure of the surrounding soil would permit. We can also understand why thick and strong radicles, like those of Aesculus, should be endowed with less sensitiveness than more delicate ones; for the former would be able by the force of their growth to overcome any slight obstacle.

After a radicle, which has been deflected by some stone or root from its natural downward course, reaches the edge of the obstacle, geotropism will direct it to grow again straight downward; but we know that geotropism acts with very little force, and here another excellent adaptation, as Sachs has remarked,* comes into play. For the upper part of the radicle, a little above the apex, is, as we have seen, likewise sensitive; and this sensitiveness causes the radicle to bend like a tendril towards the touching object, so that as it rubs over the edge of an obstacle, it will bend downwards; and the curvature thus induced is abrupt, in which respect it differs from that caused by the irritation of one side of the tip. This downward bending coincides with that due to geotropism, and both will cause the root to resume its original course.

As radicles perceive an excess of moisture in the air on one side and bend towards this side, we may infer that they will act in the same manner with respect to moisture in the earth. The sensitiveness to moisture

* 'Arbeiten Bot. Inst., Wrzburg,' Heft iii. p. 456. [page 199]

resides in the tip, which determines the bending of the upper part. This capacity perhaps partly accounts for the extent to which drain-pipes often become choked with roots.

Considering the several facts given in this chapter, we see that the course followed by a root through the soil is governed by extraordinarily complex and diversified agencies,—by geotropism acting in a different manner on the primary, secondary, and tertiary radicles,—by sensitiveness to contact, different in kind in the apex and in the part immediately above the apex, and apparently by sensitiveness to the varying dampness of different parts of the soil. These several stimuli to movement are all more powerful than geotropism, when this acts obliquely on a radicle, which has been deflected from its perpendicular downward course. The roots, moreover, of most plants are excited by light to bend either to or from it; but as roots are not naturally exposed to the light it is doubtful whether this sensitiveness, which is perhaps only the indirect result of the radicles being highly sensitive to other stimuli, is of any service to the plant. The direction which the apex takes at each successive period of the growth of a root, ultimately determines its whole course; it is therefore highly important that the apex should pursue from the first the most advantageous direction; and we can thus understand why sensitiveness to geotropism, to contact and to moisture, all reside in the tip, and why the tip determines the upper growing part to bend either from or to the exciting cause. A radicle may be compared with a burrowing animal such as a mole, which wishes to penetrate perpendicularly down into the ground. By continually moving his head from side to side, or circumnutating, he will feel any stone [page 200] or other obstacle, as well as any difference in the hardness of the soil, and he will turn from that side; if the earth is damper on one than on the other side he will turn thitherward as a better hunting-ground. Nevertheless, after each interruption, guided by the sense of gravity, he will be able to recover his downward course and to burrow to a greater depth. [page 201]



CHAPTER IV.

THE CIRCUMNUTATING MOVEMENTS OF THE SEVERAL PARTS OF MATURE PLANTS.

Circumnutation of stems: concluding remarks on—Circumnutation of stolons: aid thus afforded in winding amongst the stems of surrounding plants— Circumnutation of flower-stems—Circumnutation of Dicotyledonous leaves— Singular oscillatory movement of leaves of Dionaea—Leaves of Cannabis sink at night—Leaves of Gymnosperms—Of Monocotyledons—Cryptogams—Concluding remarks on the circumnutation of leaves; generally rise in the evening and sink in the morning.

WE have seen in the first chapter that the stems of all seedlings, whether hypocotyls or epicotyls, as well as the cotyledons and the radicles, are continually circumnutating—that is they grow first on one side and then on another, such growth being probably preceded by increased turgescence of the cells. As it was unlikely that plants should change their manner of growth with advancing age, it seemed probable that the various organs of all plants at all ages, as long as they continued to grow, would be found to circumnutate, though perhaps to an extremely small extent. As it was important for us to discover whether this was the case, we determined to observe carefully a certain number of plants which were growing vigorously, and which were not known to move in any manner. We commenced with stems. Observations of this kind are tedious, and it appeared to us that it would be sufficient to observe the stems in about a score of genera, belonging to widely distinct families and inhabitants of various countries. Several plants [page 202] were selected which, from being woody, or for other reasons, seemed the least likely to circumnutate. The observations and the diagrams were made in the manner described in the Introduction. Plants in pots were subjected to a proper temperature, and whilst being observed, were kept either in darkness or were feebly illuminated from above. They are arranged in the order adopted by Hooker in Le Maout and Decaisne's 'System of Botany.' The number of the family to which each genus belongs is appended, as this serves to show the place of each in the series.

[(1.) Iberis umbellata (Cruciferae, Fam. 14).—The movement of the stem of a young plant, 4 inches in height, consisting of four internodes (the hypocotyl included) besides a large bud

Fig. 70. Iberis umbellata: circumnutation of stem of young plant, traced from 8.30 A.M. Sept. 13th to same hour on following morning. Distance of summit of stem beneath the horizontal glass 7.6 inches. Diagram reduced to half of original size. Movement as here shown magnified between 4 and 5 times.

on the summit, was traced, as here shown, during 24 h. (Fig. 70). As far as we could judge the uppermost inch alone of the stem circumnutated, and this in a simple manner. The movement was slow, and the rate very unequal at different times. In part of its course an irregular ellipse, or rather triangle, was completed in 6 h. 30 m.

(2.) Brassica oleracea (Cruciferae).—A very young plant, bearing three leaves, of which the longest was only three-quarters of an inch in length, was placed under a microscope, furnished with an eye-piece micrometer, and the tip of the largest leaf was [page 203] found to be in constant movement. It crossed five divisions of the micrometer, that is, 1/100th of an inch, in 6 m. 20 s. There could hardly be a doubt that it was the stem which chiefly moved, for the tip did not get quickly out of focus; and this would have occurred had the movement been confined to the leaf, which moves up or down in nearly the same vertical plane.

(3.) Linum usitatissimum (Lineae, Fam. 39).—The stems of this plant, shortly before the flowering period, are stated by Fritz Mller ('Jenaische Zeitschrift,' B. v. p. 137) to revolve, or circumnutate.

(4.) Pelargonium zonale (Geraniaceae, Fam. 47).—A young plant, 7 inches in height, was observed in the usual manner; but, in order to see the bead at the end of the glass filament

Fig. 71. Pelargonium zonale: circumnutation of stem of young plant, feebly illuminated from above. Movement of bead magnified about 11 times; traced on a horizontal glass from noon on March 9th to 8 A.M. on the 11th.

and at the same time the mark beneath, it was necessary to cut off three leaves on one side. We do not know whether it was owing to this cause, or to the plant having previously become bent to one side through heliotropism, but from the morning of the 7th of March to 10.30 P.M. on the 8th, the stem moved a considerable distance in a zigzag line in the same general direction. During the night of the 8th it moved to some distance at right angles to its former course, and next morning (9th) stood for a time almost still. At noon on the 9th a new tracing was begun (see Fig. 71), which was continued till 8 A.M. on the 11th. Between noon on the 9th and 5 P.M. on the 10th (i.e. in the course of 29 h.), the stem described a circle. This plant therefore circumnutates, but at a very slow rate, and to a small extent.

(5.) Tropaeolum majus (?) (dwarfed var. called Tom Thumb); (Geraniaceae, Fam. 47).—The species of this genus climb by the [page 204] aid of their sensitive petioles, but some of them also twine round supports; but even these latter species do not begin to circumnutate in a conspicuous manner whilst young. The

Fig. 72. Tropaeolum majus (?): circumnutation of stem of young plant, traced on a horizontal glass from 9 A.M. Dec. 26th to 10 A.M. on 27th. Movement of bead magnified about 5 times, and here reduced to half of original scale.

variety here treated of has a rather thick stem, and is so dwarf that apparently it does not climb in any manner. We therefore wished to ascertain whether the stem of a young plant, consisting of two internodes, together 3.2 inches in height, circumnutated. It was observed during 25 h., and we see in Fig. 72 that the stem moved in a zigzag course, indicating circumnutation.

Fig. 73. Trifolium resupinatum: circumnutation of stem, traced on vertical glass from 9.30 A.M. to 4.30 P.M. Nov. 3rd. Tracing not greatly magnified, reduced to half of original size. Plant feebly illuminated from above.

(6.) Trifolium resupinatum (Leguminosae, Fam. 75).—When we treat of the sleep of plants, we shall see that the stems in several Leguminous genera, for instance, those of Hedysarum, Mimosa, Melilotus, etc., which are not climbers, circumnutate in a conspicuous manner. We will here give only a single instance (Fig. 73), showing the circumnutation of the stem of a large plant of a clover, Trifolium resupinatum. In the course of 7 h. the stem changed [page 205] its course greatly eight times and completed three irregular circles or ellipses. It therefore circumnutated rapidly. Some of the lines run at right angles to one another.

Fig. 74. Rubus (hybrid): circumnutation of stem, traced on horizontal glass, from 4 P.M. March 14th to 8.30 A.M. 16th. Tracing much magnified, reduced to half of original size. Plant illuminated feebly from above.

(7.) Rubus idaeus (hybrid) (Rosaceae, Fam. 76).—As we happened to have a young plant, 11 inches in height and growing vigorously, which had been raised from a cross between the raspberry (Rubus idaeus) and a North American Rubus, it was observed in the usual manner. During the morning of March 14th the stem almost completed a circle, and then moved far to the right. At 4 P.M. it reversed its course, and now a fresh tracing was begun, which was continued during 40 h., and is given in Fig. 74. We here have well-marked circumnutation.

(8.) Deutzia gracilis (Saxifrageae, Fam. 77).—A shoot on a bush about 18 inches in height was observed. The bead changed its course greatly eleven times in the course of 10 h. 30 m. (Fig. 75), and there could be no doubt about the circumnutation of the stem.

Fig. 75. Deutzia gracilis: circumnutation of stem, kept in darkness, traced on horizontal glass, from 8.30 A.M. to 7 P.M. March 20th. Movement of bead originally magnified about 20 times, here reduced to half scale.

(9.) Fuchsia (greenhouse var., with large flowers, probably a hybrid) (Onagrarieae, Fam. 100).—A young plant, 15 inches in height, was observed during nearly 48 h. The [page 206] accompanying figure (Fig. 76) gives the necessary particulars, and shows that the stem circumnutated, though rather slowly.

Fig. 76. Fuchsia (garden var.): circumnutation of stem, kept in darkness, traced on horizontal glass, from 8.30 A.M. to 7 P.M. March 20th. Movement of bead originally magnified about 40 times, here reduced to half scale.

(10.) Cereus speciocissimus (garden var., sometimes called Phyllocactus multiflorus) (Cacteae, Fam. 109).—This plant, which was growing vigorously from having been removed a few days before from the greenhouse to the hot-house, was observed with especial interest, as it seemed so little probable that the stem would circumnutate. The branches are flat, or flabelliform; but some of them are triangular in section, with the three sides hollowed out. A branch of this latter shape, 9 inches in length and 1 in diameter, was chosen for observation, as less likely to circumnutate than a flabelliform branch. The movement of the bead at the end of the glass filament, affixed to the summit of the branch, was traced (A, Fig. 77) from 9.23 A.M. to 4.30 P.M. on Nov. 23rd, during which time it changed its course greatly six times. On the 24th another tracing was made (see B), and the bead on this day changed its course oftener, making in 8 h. what may be considered as four ellipses, with their longer axes differently directed. The position of the stem and its commencing course on the following morning are likewise shown. There can be no doubt that this branch, though appearing quite rigid, circumnutated; but the [page 207] extreme amount of movement during the time was very small, probably rather less than the 1/20th of an inch.

Fig 77. Cereus speciocissimus: circumnutation of stem, illuminated from above, traced on a horizontal glass, in A from 9 A.M. to 4.30 P.M. on Nov. 23rd; and in B from 8.30 A.M. on the 24th to 8 A.M. on the 25th. Movement of the bead in B magnified about 38 times.

(11.) Hedera helix (Araliaceae, Fam. 114).—The stem is known to be apheliotropic, and several seedlings growing in a pot in the greenhouse became bent in the middle of the summer at right angles from the light. On Sept. 2nd some of these stems were tied up so as to stand vertically, and were placed before a north-east window; but to our surprise they were now decidedly heliotropic, for during 4 days they curved themselves towards the light, and their course being traced on a horizontal glass, was strongly zigzag. During the 6 succeeding days they circumnutated over the same small space at a slow rate, but there could be no doubt about their circumnutation. The plants were kept exactly in the same place before the window, and after an interval of 15 days the stems were again observed during 2 days and their movements traced, and [page 208] they were found to be still circumnutating, but on a yet smaller scale.

(12.) Gazania ringens (Compositae, Fam. 122).—The circumnutation of the stem of a young plant, 7 inches in height, as measured to the tip of the highest leaf, was traced during 33 h., and is shown in the accompanying figure (Fig. 78). Two

Fig. 78. Gazania ringens: circumnutation of stem traced from 9 A.M. March 21st to 6 P.M. on 22nd; plant kept in darkness. Movement of bead at the close of the observations magnified 34 times, here reduced to half the original scale.

main lines may be observed running at nearly right angles to two other main lines; but these are interrupted by small loops.

(13.) Azalea Indica (Ericineae, Fam. 128).—A bush 21 inches in height was selected for observation, and the circumnutation of its leading shoot was traced during 26 h. 40 m., as shown in the following figure (Fig. 79).

(14.) Plumbago Capensis (Plumbagineae, Fam. 134).—A small lateral branch which projected from a tall freely growing bush, at an angle of 35o above the horizon, was selected for observation. For the first 11 h. it moved to a considerable distance in a nearly straight line to one side, owing probably to its having been previously deflected by the light whilst standing in the greenhouse. At 7.20 P.M. on March 7th a fresh tracing was begun and continued for the next 43 h. 40 m. (see Fig. 80). During the first 2 h. it followed nearly the same direction as before, and then changed it a little; during the night it moved at nearly right angles to its previous course. Next [page 209] day (8th) it zigzagged greatly, and on the 9th moved irregularly round and round a small circular space. By 3 P.M. on the 9th the figure had become so complicated that no more dots could be made; but the shoot continued during the evening of the 9th, the whole of the 10th, and the morning of the 11th to

Fig. 79. Azalea Indica: circumnutation of stem, illuminated from above, traced on horizontal glass, from 9.30 A.M. March 9th to 12.10 P.M. on the 10th. But on the morning of the 10th only four dots were made between 8.30 A.M. and 12.10 P.M., both hours included, so that the circumnutation is not fairly represented in this part of the diagram. Movement of the bead here magnified about 30 times.

Fig. 80. Plumbago Capensis: circumnutation of tip of a lateral branch, traced on horizontal glass, from 7.20 P.M. on March 7th to 3 P.M. on the 9th. Movement of bead magnified 13 times. Plant feebly illuminated from above.

circumnutate over the same small space, which was only about the 1/26th of an inch (.97 mm.) in diameter. Although this branch circumnutated to a very small extent, yet it changed its course frequently. The movements ought to have been more magnified.

(15.) Aloysia citriodora (Verbenaceae, Fam. 173).—The following figure (Fig. 81) gives the movements of a shoot during [page 210] 31 h. 40 m., and shows that it circumnutated. The bush was 15 inches in height.

Fig. 81. Aloysia citriodora: circumnutation of stem, traced from 8.20 A.M. on March 22nd to 4 P.M. on 23rd. Plant kept in darkness. Movement magnified about 40 times.

(16.) Verbena melindres (?) (a scarlet-flowered herbaceous var.) (Verbenaceae).—A shoot 8 inches in height had been laid horizontally, for the sake of observing its apogeotropism, and the terminal portion had grown vertically upwards for a length of 1 inch. A glass filament, with a bead at the end, was fixed

Fig. 82. Verbena melindres: circumnutation of stem in darkness, traced on vertical glass, from 5.30 P.M. on June 5th to 11 A.M. June 7th. Movement of bead magnified 9 times.

upright to the tip, and its movements were traced during 41 h. 30 m. on a vertical glass (Fig. 82). Under these circumstances the lateral movements were chiefly shown; but as the lines from side to side are not on the same level, the shoot [page 211] must have moved in a plane at right angles to that of the lateral movement, that is, it must have circumnutated. On the next day (6th) the shoot moved in the course of 16 h. four times to the right, and four times to the left; and this apparently represents the formation of four ellipses, so that each was completed in 4 h. (17.) Ceratophyllum demersum (Ceratophylleae, Fam. 220).—An interesting account of the movements of the stem of this water-plant has been published by M. E. Rodier.* The movements are confined to the young internodes, becoming less and less lower down the stem; and they are extraordinary from their amplitude. The stems sometimes moved through an angle of above 200o in 6 h., and in one instance through 220o in 3 h. They generally bent from right to left in the morning, and in an opposite direction in the afternoon; but the movement was sometimes temporarily reversed or quite arrested. It was not affected by light. It does not appear that M. Rodier made any diagram on a horizontal plane representing the actual course pursued by the apex, but he speaks of the "branches executing round their axes of growth a movement of torsion." From the particulars above given, and remembering in the case of twining plants and of tendrils, how difficult it is not to mistake their bending to all points of the compass for true torsion, we are led to believe that the stems of this Ceratophyllum circumnutate, probably in the shape of narrow ellipses, each completed in about 26 h. The following statement, however, seems to indicate something different from ordinary circumnutation, but we cannot fully understand it. M. Rodier says: "Il est alors facile de voir que le mouvement de flexion se produit d'abord dans les mrithalles suprieurs, qu'il se propage ensuite, en s'amoindrissant du haut en bas; tandis qu'au contraire le movement de redressement commence par la partie infrieur pour se terminer a la partie suprieure qui, quelquefois, peu de temps avant de se relever tout fait, forme avec l'axe un angle trs aigu."

(18.) Coniferae.—Dr. Maxwell Masters states ('Journal Linn. Soc.,' Dec. 2nd, 1879) that the leading shoots of many Coniferae during the season of their active growth exhibit very remarkable movements of revolving nutation, that is, they circumnutate. We may feel sure that the lateral shoots whilst growing would exhibit the same movement if carefully observed.

* 'Comptes Rendus,' April 30th, 1877. Also a second notice published separately in Bourdeaux, Nov. 12th, 1877. [page 212]

(19.) Lilium auratum (Fam. Liliaceae).—The circumnutation

Fig. 83. Lilium auratum: circumnutation of a stem in darkness, traced on a horizontal glass, from 8 A.M. on March 14th to 8.35 A.M. on 16th. But it should be noted that our observations were interrupted between 6 P.M. on the 14th and 12.15 P.M. on the 15th, and the movements during this interval of 18 h. 15 m. are represented by a long broken line. Diagram reduced to half original scale.

of the stem of a plant 24 inches in height is represented in the above figure (Fig. 83).

Fig. 84. Cyperus alternifolius: circumnutation of stem, illuminated from above, traced on horizontal glass, from 9.45 A.M. March 9th to 9 P.M. on 10th. The stem grew so rapidly whilst being observed, that it was not possible to estimate how much its movements were magnified in the tracing.

(20.) Cyperus alternifolius (Fam. Cyperaceae.)—A glass [page 213] filament, with a bead at the end, was fixed across the summit of a young stem 10 inches in height, close beneath the crown of elongated leaves. On March 8th, between 12.20 and 7.20 P.M. the stem described an ellipse, open at one end. On the following day a new tracing was begun (Fig. 84), which plainly shows that the stem completed three irregular figures in the course of 35 h. 15 m.]

Concluding Remarks on the Circumnutation of Stems.—Any one who will inspect the diagrams now given, and will bear in mind the widely separated position of the plants described in the series,—remembering that we have good grounds for the belief that the hypocotyls and epicotyls of all seedlings circumnutate,—not forgetting the number of plants distributed in the most distinct families which climb by a similar movement,—will probably admit that the growing stems of all plants, if carefully observed, would be found to circumnutate to a greater or less extent. When we treat of the sleep and other movements of plants, many other cases of circumnutating stems will be incidentally given. In looking at the diagrams, we should remember that the stems were always growing, so that in each case the circumnutating apex as it rose will have described a spire of some kind. The dots were made on the glasses generally at intervals of an hour, or hour and a half, and were then joined by straight lines. If they had been made at intervals of 2 or 3 minutes, the lines would have been more curvilinear, as in the case of the tracks left on the smoked glass-plates by the tips of the circumnutating radicles of seedling plants. The diagrams generally approach in form to a succession of more or less irregular ellipses or ovals, with their longer axes directed to different points of the compass during the same day or on succeeding days. The stems there- [page 214] fore, sooner or later, bend to all sides; but after a stem has bent in any one direction, it commonly bends back at first in nearly, though not quite, the opposite direction; and this gives the tendency to the formation of ellipses, which are generally narrow, but not so narrow as those described by stolons and leaves. On the other hand, the figures sometimes approach in shape to circles. Whatever the figure may be, the course pursued is often interrupted by zigzags, small triangles, loops, or ellipses. A stem may describe a single large ellipse one day, and two on the next. With different plants the complexity, rate, and amount of movement differ much. The stems, for instance, of Iberis and Azalea described only a single large ellipse in 24 h.; whereas those of the Deutzia made four or five deep zigzags or narrow ellipses in 11 h., and those of the Trifolium three triangular or quadrilateral figures in 7 h.

CIRCUMNUTATION OF STOLONS OR RUNNERS.

Stolons consist of much elongated, flexible branches, which run along the surface of the ground and form roots at a distance from the parent-plant. They are therefore of the same homological nature as stems; and the three following cases may be added to the twenty previously given cases.

[Fragaria (cultivated garden var.): Rosaceae.—A plant growing in a pot had emitted a long stolon; this was supported by a stick, so that it projected for the length of several inches horizontally. A glass filament bearing two minute triangles of paper was affixed to the terminal bud, which was a little upturned; and its movements were traced during 21 h., as shown in Fig. 85. In the course of the first 12 h. it moved twice up and twice down in somewhat zigzag lines, and no doubt travelled in the same manner during the night. On the following [page 215] morning after an interval of 20 h. the apex stood a little higher than it did at first, and this shows that the stolon had not been Fig. 85. Fragaria: circumnutation of stolon, kept in darkness, traced on vertical glass, from 10.45 A.M. May 18th to 7.45 A.M. on 19th.

acted on within this time by geotropism;* nor had its own weight caused it to bend downwards.

On the following morning (19th) the glass filament was detached and refixed close behind the bud, as it appeared possible that the circumnutation of the terminal bud and of the adjoining part of the stolon might be different. The movement was now traced during two consecutive days (Fig. 86). During the first day the filament travelled in the course of 14 h. 30 m. five times up and four times down, besides some lateral movement. On the 20th the course was even more complicated, and can hardly be followed in the figure; but the filament moved in 16 h. at least five times up and five times down, with very little

* Dr. A. B. Frank states ('Die Naturliche wagerechte Richtung von Pflanzentheilen,' 1870, p. 20) that the stolons of this plant are acted on by geotropism, but only after a considerable interval of time. [page 216]

lateral deflection. The first and last dots made on this second day, viz., at 7 A.M. and 11 P.M., were close together, showing that the stolon had not fallen or risen. Nevertheless, by comparing its position on the morning of the 19th and 21st, it is obvious that the stolon had sunk; and this may be attributed to slow bending down either from its own weight or from geotropism.

Fig. 86. Fragaria: circumnutation of the same stolon as in the last figure, observed in the same manner, and traced from 8 A.M. May 19th to 8 A.M. 21st.

During a part of the 20th an orthogonal tracing was made by applying a cube of wood to the vertical glass and bringing the apex of the stolon at successive periods into a line with one edge; a dot being made each time on the glass. This tracing therefore represented very nearly the actual amount of movement of the apex; and in the course of 9 h. the distance of the extreme dots from one another was .45 inch. By the same method it was ascertained that the apex moved between 7 A.M. on the 20th and 8 A.M. on the 21st a distance of .82 inch.

A younger and shorter stolon was supported so that it projected at about 45o above the horizon, and its movement was traced by the same orthogonal method. On the first day the apex soon rose above the field of vision. By the next morning it had sunk, and the course pursued was now traced during 14 h. 30 m. (Fig. 87). The amount of movement was almost the same, [page 217] from side to side as up and down; and differed in this respect remarkably from the movement in the previous cases. During the latter part of the day, viz., between 3 and 10.30 P.M., the

Fig. 87. Fragaria: circumnutation of another and younger stolon, traced from 8 A.M. to 10.30 P.M. Figure reduced to one-half of original scale.

actual distance travelled by the apex amounted to 1.15 inch; and in the course of the whole day to at least 2.67 inches. This is an amount of movement almost comparable with that of some climbing plants. The same stolon was observed on the following day, and now it moved in a somewhat less complex manner, in a plane not far from vertical. The extreme amount of actual movement was 1.55 inch in one direction, and .6 inch in another direction at right angles. During neither of these days did the stolon bend downwards through geotropism or its own weight.

Four stolons still attached to the plant were laid on damp sand in the back of a room, with their tips facing the north-east windows. They were thus placed because De Vries says* that they are apheliotropic when exposed to the light of the sun; but we could not perceive any effect from the above feeble degree of illumination. We may add that on another occasion, late in the summer, some stolons, placed upright before a south-west window

* 'Arbeiten Bot Inst., Wrzburg,' 1872, p. 434. [page 218]

on a cloudy day, became distinctly curved towards the light, and were therefore heliotropic. Close in front of the tips of the prostrate stolons, a crowd of very thin sticks and the dried haulms of grasses were driven into the sand, to represent the crowded stems of surrounding plants in a state of nature. This was done for the sake of observing how the growing stolons would pass through them. They did so easily in the course of 6 days, and their circumnutation apparently facilitated their passage. When the tips encountered sticks so close together that they could not pass between them, they rose up and passed over them. The sticks and haulms were removed after the passage of the four stolons, two of which were found to have assumed a permanently sinuous shape, and two were still straight. But to this subject we shall recur under Saxifraga.

Saxifraga sarmentosa (Saxifrageae).—A plant in a suspended pot had emitted long branched stolons, which depended like

Fig. 88. Saxifraga sarmentosa: circumnutation of an inclined stolon, traced in darkness on a horizontal glass, from 7.45 A.M. April 18th to 9 A.M. on 19th. Movement of end of stolon magnified 2.2 times.

threads on all sides. Two were tied up so as to stand vertically, and their upper ends became gradually bent downwards, but so slowly in the course of several days, that the bending was probably due to their weight and not to geotropism. A glass filament with little triangles of paper was fixed to the end of one of these stolons, which was 17 inches in length, and had already become much bent down, but still projected at a considerable angle above the horizon. It moved only slightly three times from side to side and then upwards; on the following day [page 219] the movement was even less. As this stolon was so long we thought that its growth was nearly completed, so we tried another which was thicker and shorter, viz., 10 1/4 inches in length. It moved greatly, chiefly upwards, and changed its course five times in the course of the day. During the night it curved so much upwards in opposition to gravity, that the movement could no longer be traced on the vertical glass, and a horizontal one had to be used. The movement was followed during the next 25 h., as shown in Fig. 88. Three irregular ellipses, with their longer axes somewhat differently directed, were almost completed in the first 15 h. The extreme actual amount of movement of the tip during the 25 h. was .75 inch. Several stolons were laid on a flat surface of damp sand, in the same manner as with those of the strawberry. The friction of the sand did not interfere with their circumnutation; nor could we detect any evidence of their being sensitive to contact. In order to see how in a state of nature they would act, when encountering a stone or other obstacle on the ground, short pieces of smoked glass, an inch in height, were stuck upright into the sand in front of two thin lateral branches. Their tips scratched the smoked surface in various directions; one made three upward and two downward lines, besides a nearly horizontal one; the other curled quite away from the glass; but ultimately both surmounted the glass and pursued their original course. The apex of a third thick stolon swept up the glass in a curved line, recoiled and again came into contact with it; it then moved to the right, and after ascending, descended vertically; ultimately it passed round one end of the glass instead of over it.

Many long pins were next driven rather close together into the sand, so as to form a crowd in front of the same two thin lateral branches; but these easily wound their way through the crowd. A thick stolon was much delayed in its passage; at one place it was forced to turn at right angles to its former course; at another place it could not pass through the pins, and the hinder part became bowed; it then curved upwards and passed through an opening between the upper part of some pins which happened to diverge; it then descended and finally emerged through the crowd. This stolon was rendered permanently sinuous to a slight degree, and was thicker where sinuous than elsewhere, apparently from its longitudinal growth having been checked.

Cotyledon umbilicus (Crassulaceae).—A plant growing in a pan [page 220] of damp moss had emitted 2 stolons, 22 and 20 inches in length. One of these was supported, so that a length of 4 inches projected in a straight and horizontal line, and the movement of the apex was traced. The first dot was made at 9.10 A.M.;

Fig. 89. Cotyledon umbilicus: circumnutation of stolon, traced from 11.15 A.M. Aug. 25th to 11 A.M. 27th. Plant illuminated from above. The terminal internode was .25 inch in length, the penultimate 2.25 and the third 3.0 inches in length. Apex of stolon stood at a distance of 5.75 inches from the vertical glass; but it was not possible to ascertain how much the tracing was magnified, as it was not known how great a length of the internode circumnutated.

the terminal portion soon began to bend downwards and continued to do so until noon. Therefore a straight line, very nearly as long as the whole figure here given (Fig. 89), was first traced on the glass; but the upper part of this line has not been copied in the diagram. The curvature occurred in the middle [page 221] of the penultimate internode; and its chief seat was at the distance of 1 1/4 inch from the apex; it appeared due to the weight of the terminal portion, acting on the more flexible part of the internode, and not to geotropism. The apex after thus sinking down from 9.10 A.M. to noon, moved a little to the left; it then rose up and circumnutated in a nearly vertical plane until 10.35 P.M. On the following day (26th) it was ob-

Fig. 90. Cotyledon umbilicus: circumnutation and downward movement of another stolon, traced on vertical glass, from 9.11 A.M. Aug. 25th to 11 A.M. 27th. Apex close to glass, so that figure but little magnified, and here reduced to two-thirds of original size.

served from 6.40 A.M. to 5.20 P.M., and within this time it moved twice up and twice down. On the morning of the 27th the apex stood as high as it did at 11.30 A.M. on the 25th. Nor did it sink down during the 28th, but continued to circumnutate about the same place.

Another stolon, which resembled the last in almost every [page 222] respect, was observed during the same two days, but only two inches of the terminal portion was allowed to project freely and horizontally. On the 25th it continued from 9.10 A.M. to 1.30 P.M. to bend straight downwards, apparently owing to its weight (Fig. 90); but after this hour until 10.35 P.M. it zigzagged. This fact deserves notice, for we here probably see the combined effects of the bending down from weight and of circumnutation. The stolon, however, did not circumnutate when it first began to bend down, as may be observed in the present diagram, and as was still more evident in the last case, when a longer portion of the stolon was left unsupported. On the following day (26th) the stolon moved twice up and twice down, but still continued to fall; in the evening and during the night it travelled from some unknown cause in an oblique direction.]

We see from these three cases that stolons or runners circumnutate in a very complex manner. The lines generally extend in a vertical plane, and this may probably be attributed to the effect of the weight of the unsupported end of the stolon; but there is always some, and occasionally a considerable, amount of lateral movement. The circumnutation is so great in amplitude that it may almost be compared with that of climbing plants. That the stolons are thus aided in passing over obstacles and in winding between the stems of the surrounding plants, the observations above given render almost certain. If they had not circumnutated, their tips would have been liable to have been doubled up, as often as they met with obstacles in their path; but as it is, they easily avoid them. This must be a considerable advantage to the plant in spreading from its parent-stock; but we are far from supposing that the power has been gained by the stolons for this purpose, for circumnutation seems to be of universal occurrence with all growing parts; but it is not improbable that the amplitude of the movement may have been specially increased for this purpose. [page 223]

CIRCUMNUTATION OF FLOWER-STEMS.

We did not think it necessary to make any special observations on the circumnutation of flower-stems, these being axial in their nature, like stems or stolons; but some were incidentally made whilst attending to other subjects, and these we will here briefly give. A few observations have also been made by other botanists. These taken together suffice to render it probable that all peduncles and sub-peduncles circumnutate whilst growing.

[Oxalis carnosa.—The peduncle which springs from the thick and woody stem of this plant bears three or four sub-peduncles.

Fig. 91. Oxalis carnosa: flower-stem, feebly illuminated from above, its circumnutation traced from 9 A.M. April 13th to 9 A.M. 15th. Summit of flower 8 inches beneath the horizontal glass. Movement probably magnified about 6 times.

A filament with little triangles of paper was fixed within the calyx of a flower which stood upright. Its movements were observed for 48 h.; during the first half of this time the flower was fully expanded, and during the second half withered. The figure here given (Fig. 91) represents 8 or 9 ellipses. Although the main peduncle circumnutated, and described one large and [page 224] two smaller ellipses in the course of 24 h., yet the chief seat of movement lies in the sub-peduncles, which ultimately bend vertically downwards, as will be described in a future chapter. The peduncles of Oxalis acetosella likewise bend downwards, and afterwards, when the pods are nearly mature, upwards; and this is effected by a circumnutating movement.

It may be seen in the above figure that the flower-stem of O. carnosa circumnutated during two days about the same spot. On the other hand, the flower-stem of O. sensitiva undergoes a strongly marked, daily, periodical change of position, when kept at a proper temperature. In the middle of the day it stands vertically up, or at a high angle; in the afternoon it sinks, and in the evening projects horizontally, or almost horizontally, rising again during the night. This movement continues from the period when the flowers are in bud to when, as we believe, the pods are mature: and it ought perhaps to have been included amongst the so-called sleep-movements of plants. A tracing was not made, but the angles were measured at successive periods during one whole day; and these showed that the movement was not continuous, but that the peduncle oscillated up and down. We may therefore conclude that it circumnutated. At the base of the peduncle there is a mass of small cells, forming a well-developed pulvinus, which is exteriorly coloured purple and hairy. In no other genus, as far as we know, is the peduncle furnished with a pulvinus. The peduncle of O. Ortegesii behaved differently from that of O. sensitiva, for it stood at a less angle above the horizon in the middle of the day, then in the morning or evening. By 10.20 P.M. it had risen greatly. During the middle of the day it oscillated much up and down.

Trifolium subterraneum.—A filament was fixed vertically to the uppermost part of the peduncle of a young and upright flower-head (the stem of the plant having been secured to a stick); and its movements were traced during 36 h. Within this time it described (see Fig. 92) a figure which represents four ellipses; but during the latter part of the time the peduncle began to bend downwards, and after 10.30 P.M. on the 24th it curved so rapidly down, that by 6.45 A.M. on the 25th it stood only 19o above the horizon. It went on circumnutating in nearly the same position for two days. Even after the flower-heads have buried themselves in the ground they continue, as will hereafter be shown, to circumnutate. It will also be seen in the next chapter that the sub-peduncles of the separate flowers of [page 225] Trifolium repens circumnutate in a complicated course during several days. I may add that the gynophore of Arachis hypogoea,

Fig. 92. Trifolium subterraneum: main flower-peduncle, illuminated from above, circumnutation traced on horizontal glass, from 8.40 A.M. July 23rd to 10.30 P.M. 24th.

which looks exactly like a peduncle, circumnutates whilst growing vertically downwards, in order to bury the young pod in the ground.

The movements of the flowers of Cyclamen Persicum were not observed; but the peduncle, whilst the pod is forming, increases much in length, and bows itself down by a circumnutating movement. A young peduncle of Maurandia semperflorens, 1 inch in length, was carefully observed during a whole day, and it made 4 narrow, vertical, irregular and short ellipses, each at an average rate of about 2 h. 25 m. An adjoining peduncle described during the same time similar, though fewer, ellipses.* According to Sachs** the flower-stems, whilst growing,

* 'The Movements and Habits of Climbing Plants,' 2nd edit., 1875, p. 68.

** 'Text-Book of Botany,' 1875, [[page 226]] p. 766. Linnaeus and Treviranus (according to Pfeffer, 'Die Periodischen Bewegungen,' etc., p. 162) state that the flower-stalks of many plants occupy different positions by night and day, and we shall see in the chapter on the Sleep of Plants that this implies circumnutation. [page 226]

of many plants, for instance, those of Brassica napus, revolve or circumnutate; those of Allium porrum bend from side to side, and, if this movement had been traced on a horizontal glass, no doubt ellipses would have been formed. Fritz Mller has described* the spontaneous revolving movements of the flower-stems of an Alisma, which he compares with those of a climbing plant.

We made no observations on the movements of the different parts of flowers. Morren, however, has observed** in the stamens of Sparmannia and Cereus a "fremissement spontan," which, it may be suspected, is a circumnutating movement. The circumnutation of the gynostemium of Stylidium, as described by Gad,*** is highly remarkable, and apparently aids in the fertilisation of the flowers. The gynostemium, whilst spontaneously moving, comes into contact with the viscid labellum, to which it adheres, until freed by the increasing tension of the parts or by being touched.]

We have now seen that the flower-stems of plants belonging to such widely different families as the Cruciferae, Oxalidae, Leguminosae, Primulaceae, Scrophularineae, Alismaceae, and Liliaceae, circumnutate; and that there are indications of this movement in many other families. With these facts before us, bearing also in mind that the tendrils of not a few plants consist of modified peduncles, we may admit without much doubt that all growing flower-stems circumnutate.

CIRCUMNUTATION OF LEAVES: DICOTYLEDONS.

Several distinguished botanists, Hofmeister, Sachs, Pfeffer, De Vries, Batalin, Millardet, etc., have ob-

* 'Jenaische Zeitsch.,' B. v. p. 133.

** 'N. Mem. de l'Acad. R. de Bruxelles,' tom. xiv. 1841, p. 3.

*** 'Sitzungbericht des bot. Vereins der P. Brandenburg,' xxi. p. 84. [page 227] served, and some of them with the greatest care, the periodical movements of leaves; but their attention has been chiefly, though not exclusively, directed to those which move largely and are commonly said to sleep at night. From considerations hereafter to be given, plants of this nature are here excluded, and will be treated of separately. As we wished to ascertain whether all young and growing leaves circumnutated, we thought that it would be sufficient if we observed between 30 and 40 genera, widely distributed throughout the vegetable series, selecting some unusual forms and others on woody plants. All the plants were healthy and grew in pots. They were illuminated from above, but the light perhaps was not always sufficiently bright, as many of them were observed under a skylight of ground-glass. Except in a few specified cases, a fine glass filament with two minute triangles of paper was fixed to the leaves, and their movements were traced on a vertical glass (when not stated to the contrary) in the manner already described. I may repeat that the broken lines represent the nocturnal course. The stem was always secured to a stick, close to the base of the leaf under observation. The arrangement of the species, with the number of the Family appended, is the same as in the case of stems.

Fig. 93. Sarracenia purpurea: circumnutation of young pitcher, traced from 8 A.M. July 3rd to 10.15 A.M. 4th. Temp. 17o - 18o C. Apex of pitcher 20 inches from glass, so movement greatly magnified.

(1.) Sarracenia purpurea (Sarraceneae, Fam. 11).—A young leaf, or pitcher, 8 inches in height, with the bladder swollen but with the hood not as yet open, had a filament fixed transversely [page 228] across its apex; it was observed for 48 h., and during the whole of this time it circumnutated in a nearly similar manner, but to a very small extent. The tracing given (Fig. 93) relates only to the movement during the first 26 h.

(2) Glaucium luteum (Papaveraceae, Fam. 12).—A young plant, bearing only 8 leaves, had a filament attached to the youngest leaf but one, which was 3 inches in length, including the petiole. The circumnutating movement was traced during 47 h. On both days the leaf descended from before 7 A.M. until about 11 A.M., and then ascended slightly during the rest of the day and the early part of the night. During the latter part of the night it fell greatly. It did not ascend so much during the second as during the first day, and it descended considerably lower on the second night than on the first. This difference was probably due to the illumination from above having been insufficient during the two days of observation. Its course during the two days is shown in Fig. 94.

Fig. 94. Glaucium luteum: circumnutation of young leaf, traced from 9.30 A.M. June 14th to 8.30 A.M. 16th. Tracing not much magnified, as apex of leaf stood only 5 inches from the glass.

(3.) Crambe maritima (Cruciferae, Fam. 14).—A leaf 9 inches in length on a plant not growing vigorously was first observed. Its apex was in constant movement, but this could hardly be traced, from being so small in extent. The apex, however, certainly changed its course at least 6 times in the course of 14 h. A more vigorous young plant, bearing only 4 leaves, was then selected, and a filament was affixed to the midrib of the third leaf from the base, which, with the petiole, was 5 inches in length. The leaf stood up almost vertically, but the tip [page 229] was deflected, so that the filament projected almost horizontally, and its movements were traced during 48 h. on a vertical glass as shown in the accompanying figure (Fig. 95). We here plainly see that the leaf was continually circumnutating; but the proper periodicity of its movements was disturbed by its being only dimly illuminated from above through a double skylight. We infer that this was the case, because two leaves on plants growing out of doors, had their angles above the horizon measured in the middle of the day and at 9 to about 10 P.M. on successive nights, and they were found at this latter hour to have risen by an average angle of 9o above their mid-day position: on the following morning they fell to their former position. Now it may be observed in the diagram that the leaf rose during the second night, so that it stood at 6.40 A.M. higher than at 10.20 P.M. on the preceding night; and this may be attributed to the leaf adjusting itself to the dim light, coming exclusively from above.

Fig. 95. Crambe maritima: circumnutation of leaf, disturbed by being insufficiently illuminated from above, traced from 7.50 A.M. June 23rd to 8 A.M. 25th. Apex of leaf 15 1/4 inches from the vertical glass, so that the tracing was much magnified, but is here reduced to one-fourth of original scale.

(4.) Brassica oleracea (Cruciferae).—Hofmeister and Batalin* state that the leaves of the cabbage rise at night, and fall by day. We covered a young plant, bearing 8 leaves, under a large bell-glass, placing it in the same position with respect to the

* 'Flora,' 1873, p. 437. [page 230]

light in which it had long remained, and a filament was fixed at the distance of .4 of an inch from the apex of a young leaf nearly 4 inches in length. Its movements were then traced during three days, but the tracing is not worth giving. The leaf fell during the whole morning, and rose in the evening and during the early part of the night. The ascending and descending lines did not coincide, so that an irregular ellipse was formed each 24 h. The basal part of the midrib did not move, as was ascertained by measuring at successive periods the angle which it formed with the horizon, so that the movement was confined to the terminal portion of the leaf, which moved through an angle of 11o in the course of 24 h., and the distance travelled by the apex, up and down, was between .8 and .9 of an inch.

In order to ascertain the effect of darkness, a filament was fixed to a leaf 5 inches in length, borne by a plant which after forming a head had produced a stem. The leaf was inclined 44o above the horizon, and its movements were traced on a vertical glass every hour by the aid of a taper. During the first day the leaf rose from 8 A.M. to 10.40 P.M. in a slightly zigzag course, the actual distance travelled by the apex being .67 of an inch. During the night the leaf fell, whereas it ought to have risen; and by 7 A.M. on the following morning it had fallen .23 of an inch, and it continued falling until 9.40 A.M. It then rose until 10.50 P.M., but the rise was interrupted by one considerable oscillation, that is, by a fall and re-ascent. During the second night it again fell, but only to a very short distance, and on the following morning re-ascended to a very short distance. Thus the normal course of the leaf was greatly disturbed, or rather completely inverted, by the absence of light; and the movements were likewise greatly diminished in amplitude.

We may add that, according to Mr. A. Stephen Wilson,* the young leaves of the Swedish turnip, which is a hybrid between B. oleracea and rapa, draw together in the evening so much "that the horizontal breadth diminishes about 30 per cent. of the daylight breadth." Therefore the leaves must rise considerably at night.

(5.) Dianthus caryophyllus (Caryophylleae, Fam. 26).—The

* 'Trans. Bot. Soc. Edinburgh,' vol. xiii. p. 32. With respect to the origin of the Swedish turnip, see Darwin, 'Animals and Plants under Domestication,' 2nd edit. vol. i. p. 344. [page 231]

terminal shoot of a young plant, growing very vigorously, was selected for observation. The young leaves at first stand up vertically and close together, but they soon bend outwards and downwards, so as to become horizontal, and often at the same time a little to one side. A filament was fixed to the tip of a young leaf whilst still highly inclined, and the first dot was made on the vertical glass at 8.30 A.M. June 13th, but it curved downwards so quickly that by 6.40 A.M. on the following morning it stood only a little above the horizon. In Fig. 96

Fig. 96. Dianthus caryophyllus: circumnutation of young leaf, traced from 10.15 P.M. June 13th to 10.35 P.M. 16th. Apex of leaf stood, at the close of our observations, 8 3/4 inches from the vertical glass, so tracing not greatly magnified. The leaf was 5 1/4 inches long. Temp. 15 1/2o - 17 1/2o C.

the long, slightly zigzag line representing this rapid downward course, which was somewhat inclined to the left, is not given; but the figure shows the highly tortuous and zigzag course, together with some loops, pursued during the next 2 days. As the leaf continued to move all the time to the left, it is evident that the zigzag line represents many circumnutations.

(6.) Camellia Japonica (Camelliaceae, Fam. 32).—A youngish leaf, which together with its petiole was 2 3/4 inches in length and which arose from a side branch on a tall bush, had a filament attached to its apex. This leaf sloped downwards at an angle of 40o beneath the horizon. As it was thick and rigid, and its [page 232] petiole very short, much movement could not be expected. Nevertheless, the apex changed its course completely seven times in the course of 11 h., but moved to only a very small distance. On the next day the movement of the apex was traced during 26 h. 20 m. (as shown in Fig. 97), and was nearly of the same nature, but rather less complex. The movement seems to be periodical, for on both days the leaf circumnutated in the forenoon, fell in the afternoon (on the first day until between 3 and 4 P.M., and on the second day until 6 P.M.), and then rose, falling again during the night or early morning.

Fig. 97. Camellia Japonica: circumnutation of leaf, traced from 6.40 A.M. June 14th to 6.50 A.M. 15th. Apex of leaf 12 inches from the vertical glass, so figure considerably magnified. Temp. 16o - 16 1/2o C.

In the chapter on the Sleep of Plants we shall see that the leaves in several Malvaceous genera sink

Fig. 98. Pelargonium zonale: circumnutation and downward movement of young leaf, traced from 9.30 A.M. June 14th to 6.30 P.M. 16th. Apex of leaf 9 1.4 inches from the vertical glass, so figure moderately magnified. Temp. 15o - 16 1/2o C.

at night; and as they often do not then occupy a vertical position, especially if they have not been well illuminated during [page 233] the day, it is doubtful whether some of these cases ought not to have been included in the present chapter.

(7.) Pelargonium zonale (Geraniaceae, Fam. 47).—A young leaf, 1 1/4 inch in breadth, with its petiole 1 inch long, borne on a young plant, was observed in the usual manner during 61 h.; and its course is shown in the preceding figure (Fig. 98). During the first day and night the leaf moved downwards, but circumnutated between 10 A.M. and 4.30 P.M. On the second day it sank and rose again, but between 10 A.M. and 6 P.M. it circumnutated on an extremely small scale. On the third day the circumnutation was more plainly marked.

(8.) Cissus discolor (Ampelideae, Fam. 67).—A leaf, not nearly full-grown, the third from the apex of a shoot on a cut-down plant, was observed during 31 h. 30 m. (see Fig. 99). The day was cold (15o - 16o C.), and if the plant had been observed in the hot-house, the circumnutation, though plain enough as it was, would probably have been far more conspicuous.

Fig. 99. Cissus discolor: circumnutation of leaf, traced from 10.35 A.M. May 28th to 6 P.M. 29th. Apex of leaf 8 3/4 inches from the vertical glass.

(9.) Vicia faba (Leguminosae, Fam. 75).—A young leaf, 3.1 inches in length, measured from base of petiole to end of leaflets, had a filament affixed to the midrib of one of the two terminal leaflets, and its movements were traced during 51 h. The filament fell all morning (July 2nd) till 3 P.M., and then rose greatly till 10.35 P.M.; but the rise this day was so great, compared with that which subsequently occurred, that it was probably due in part to the plant being illuminated from above. The latter part of the course on July 2nd is alone given in the following figure (Fig. 100). On the next day (July 3rd) the leaf again fell in the morning, then circumnutated in a conspicuous manner, and rose till late at night; but the movement was not traced after 7.15 P.M., as by that time the filament pointed towards the upper edge of the glass. During the latter part of the night or early morning it again fell in the same manner as before. [page 234]

As the evening rise and the early morning fall were unusually large, the angle of the petiole above the horizon was measured at the two periods, and the leaf was found to have risen 19o

Fig. 100. Vicia faba: circumnutation of leaf, traced from 7.15 P.M. July 2nd to 10.15 A.M. 4th. Apex of the two terminal leaflets 7 1/4 inches from the vertical glass. Figure here reduced to two-thirds of original scale. Temp. 17o - 18o C.

between 12.20 P.M. and 10.45 P.M., and to have fallen 23o 30 seconds between the latter hour and 10.20 A.M. on the following morning.

The main petiole was now secured to a stick close to the base [page 235] of the two terminal leaflets, which were 1.4 inch in length; and the movements of one of them were traced during 48 h. (see Fig. 101). The course pursued is closely analogous to that of the whole leaf. The zigzag line between 8.30 A.M. and 3.30 P.M. on the second day represents 5 very small ellipses, with their Fig 101. Vicia faba: circumnutation of one of the two terminal leaflets, the main petiole having been secured, traced from 10.40 A.M. July 4th to 10.30 A.M. 6th. Apex of leaflet 6 5/8 inches from the vertical glass. Tracing here reduced to one-half of original scale. Temp. 16o - 18o C.

longer axes differently directed. From these observations it follows that both the whole leaf and the terminal leaflets undergo a well-marked daily periodical movement, rising in the evening and falling during the latter part of the night or early morning; whilst in the middle of the day they generally circumnutate round the same small space. [page 236]

(10.) Acacia retinoides (Leguminosae).—The movement of a young phyllode, 2 3/8 inches in length, and inclined at a considerable angle above the horizon, was traced during 45 h. 30 m.; but in the figure here given (Fig. 102), its circumnutation is shown during only 21 h. 30 m. During part of this time (viz., 14 h. 30 m.) the phyllode described a figure representing 5 or 6 small ellipses. The actual amount of movement in a vertical direction was .3 inch. The phyllode rose considerably between 1.30 P.M. and 4 P.M., but there was no evidence on either day of a regular periodic movement.

Fig. 102. Acacia retinoides: circumnutation of a young phyllode, traced from 10.45 A.M. July 18th to 8.15 A.M. 19th. Apex of phyllode 9 inches from the vertical glass; temp. 16 1/2o - 17 1/2o C.

(11.) Lupinus speciosus (Leguminosae).—Plants were raised from seed purchased under this name. This is one of the species in this large genus, the leaves of which do not sleep at night. The petioles rise direct from the ground, and are from 5 to 7 inches in length. A filament was fixed to the midrib of one of the longer leaflets, and the movement of the whole leaf was traced, as shown in Fig. 103. In the course of 6 h. 30 m. the filament went four times up and three times down. A new tracing was then begun (not here given), and during 12 h. the leaf moved eight times up and seven times down; so that it described 7 ellipses in this time, and this is an extraordinary rate of movement. The summit of the petiole was then secured to a stick, and the separate leaflets were found to be continually circumnutating.