[10] The discalced Franciscans were founded by St. Francis of Assisi, under the name Friars Minor, and the rule was very binding and strict. Under the immediate successor of St. Francis, Elias of Cortona, sprang up a branch of the order, made up of former members who wished a less strict rule, and those who wished to preserve the strict rule were persecuted. The members of the relaxed branch became known as "Conventuals" or "Minors Conventual" in contradistinction to the Friars Minor (or Minorites), who are known also as "Observants" or "Observantines." Three great branches sprang later from the Friars Minor: Reformed Minors, founded in 1419, by St. Bernardino of Siena; the Recollects, founded in 1500, by John of Guadalupe; and the Alcantarines, founded in 1555, by St. Peter of Alcantara—but all under one head or chief superior, termed minister-general. The Alcantarines wore a white habit, the others brown, except in England and Spanish countries, where they wear gray. In 1897, Pope Leo XIII, by his Bull Felicitate quadam ordered the Observants, Reformed, Discalced, or Alcantarines, and the Recollects, to unite under the same general superior, to use the same constitutions, to wear the same habit, and to bear the same name, viz., "Friars Minor." The Conventuals and Capuchins were to remain distinct orders as heretofore. The term pano in the text refers to the Conventuals, the less strict branch of the Franciscans, who were wont to dress in what one might call "fine raiment"—habits of cloth, as distinguished from the coarse serge-like stuff of the others. Cf. Addis and Arnold's Catholic Dictionary.—Rev. T.C. Middleton.

[11] Referring to the church and convent of Santi Quattro Incoronati (one of the titular churches of Rome), which was founded by Honorius I (A.D. 622), on the site of a temple of Diana, in honor of four painters and five sculptors who all were martyred for refusing to paint and carve idols for Diocletian. See historical and descriptive account of it in A.J.C. Hare's Walks in Rome, pp. 230-232.

[12] Argensola (Conquista), p. 317, mentions the Anhayes merchants, and speaks of them as coming from Chincheo. See Vol. XII of this series, pp. 155, 277; the word is there spelled avay and auhay, because thus written in the Spanish transcription from the original.

[13] Pedro de San Pablo made his profession in the Franciscan province of San Jose, and in 1606 went to the Philippines, where he was appointed conventual preacher of Naga. In 1609 he went to Manila as preacher, and at the same time had charge of Santa Ana de Sepa. October 29, 1611, he was elected definitor, and in 1616 minister of Santa Ana de Sepa once more. He became provincial August 3, 1619, and held that office until March 15, 1622, when he embarked for Mexico, but died at sea. See Huerta's Estado.

[14] Spanish, descalces; literally, "barefootedness;" a term applied to monastic organizations whose members are not permitted to wear shoes.

[15] A reference to I Cor. i, 12, and possibly to iii, 22.

[16] Huerta says of Sotelo (p. 393): "As the preparations for his journey to Japan were not made so promptly as he desired, he retired to our convent of San Francisco del Monte, where he occupied himself in the practice of all kinds of virtues until the year 1622, when he succeeded in reaching Japan." Fuerza here apparently refers to ecclesiastical interference with Sotelo's plans, to which reference has been several times made in preceding volumes.

[17] Andres del Sacramento was a native of a small village in the valley of Sayago. He made profession in the province of San Pablo, and reached the Philippines in 1611. In October of that year he was assigned to the village of Ligmauan, whence he went to Tacboan. At the chapter held August 3, 1619, he was elected definitor. He afterward ministered at Manila, Minalabag, Polangui, and again at Minalabag. He became provincial November 18, 1628, and held that office until January 17, 1632. In that time he projected and partly executed the opening of a navigable canal from Nueva Caceres to the port of Pasacao. After 1632 he ministered in several villages, and was elected provincial for the second time September 16, 1639, holding the office until January 17, 1643. He died in the convent at Manila in 1644. See Huerta's Estado.

[18] Agustin de Tordesillas was born in Tordesillas in 1528, and in his childhood served as acolyte in the parochial church, where he learned to play the organ. In 1558 he took the Franciscan habit as a lay brother, and made profession in the Observantine province of La Concepcion in 1559. He was finally ordained a priest, and became a confessor. He afterward joined the province of San Jose, and arrived with the first Franciscans at Manila in 1577, and was appointed first president of the convent there. On May 20, 1579, he went to China, returning thence at the beginning of 1580. That year he was appointed first master of novitiates, first chaplain of the royal hospital of Manila, and vicar-general of all the archipelago, which last office he held until the arrival of Bishop Salazar in 1581. In 1582 he went to China again, whence he went to Siam in 1583, via Macao. Returning to Macao he was appointed guardian of the convent there, but returned to Manila in 1586. There he labored in the hospital until he was elected definitor at the chapter of September 15, 1594, after that being guardian one or more times of the convents at Manila, San Francisco del Monte, and Cavite, besides having charge of Sampaloc. He lived to the age of one hundred and one years, dying in the Manila convent, having been the last one of the first mission to die. He wrote a relation of the expedition of the Franciscans to China. See ut supra, and Vol. VI, p. 131. note 31.

[19] In the MS. at this point the text apparently reads pol desta pos; but it is uncertain what these words refer to, especially as Tordesillas was not at the time provincial of the Franciscan province, but was probably minister at Sampaloc, near Manila (Huerta, p. 504).

[20] Huerta's lists contain no one of this name; but he gives a sketch of Alonso de Santa Ana, missionary in the Philippines from 1594 until his death in 1630. This priest, however, was absent in Mexico and Europe from 1617 until 1621, when he returned to Manila.

[21] Diego Fernandez de Cordoba, marques de Guadalcazar, was viceroy from 1612 to 1620. The Audiencia of Mexico then assumed rule, which lasted until the arrival (August, 1621) of the new viceroy, Diego Carrillo de Mendoza y Pimentel, marques de Gelves. He was a just, stern, and efficient ruler, who reformed many abuses and protected the poor and the Indians; but he thus incurred the enmity of corrupt men in high position, and even that of the archbishop, Juan Perez de la Serna. In consequence, Gelves was excommunicated by Serna (January, 1624), and soon afterward deposed by popular clamor and riots; the Audiencia then governed until the following October, when a new viceroy came, the marques de Cerralvo. By his efforts, Gelves was vindicated in every respect, and honorably returned to Spain.

[22] Bancroft (History of Mexico, iii, pp. 28, 38) characterizes the viceroy Guadalcazar as a weak and somewhat indolent ruler, in whose term corruption flourished; but of Gelves he says: "He broke up effectually the trade in contraband goods between Acapulco and Peru.... He removed the royal officials having charge of the supplies for the Philippines, putting clean-handed men in their places; and in consequence the amount of supplies sent to that colony was greater than ever before.... [Note:] In 1622 the value of these supplies was nine hundred thousand dollars, and in the following year two-thirds of that amount."

[23] Alluding to the death, by Fajardo's own hand, of his unfaithful wife and her lover; see the first two documents of the present volume.

[24] Celebes was long almost unknown to Europeans, and its deep indentations by gulfs led to the notion, long entertained, that it was a group of islands, rather than one. It has an estimated area of some 57,000 square miles, but its soil is generally poor, and its population thin and scanty. The two leading and more civilized people of Celebes are the Macassars and Bugis, who inhabit its southwestern peninsula. The Macassar nation (in their own language, Mangkasara) conquered the Bugis in the sixteenth century, and became converts to Mahometanism early in the seventeenth. They were conquered by the Dutch in 1669, and the latter nation has since then been nominal ruler of Celebes Island. By the name Macassar is commonly meant the Dutch fortified town of Rotterdam, on the western shore of the peninsula above mentioned; the Dutch made it a free port in 1847. See the full descriptive and historical account of Celebes by Valentyn, Oud en Nieuw Oost-Indien, part iii, book ii, pp. 128-235.

[25] Pernambuco, one of the most important of the Portuguese colonies in Brazil, was founded early in the sixteenth century. It was captured and plundered in 1593 by the English, under Sir James Lancaster, and again seized by the Dutch in 1630; but the Portuguese drove out the Dutch in 1654, after which time Brazil remained in possession of Portugal, until the peaceful revolution of that colony, and the formation of the present republic.

[26] In the original, the order of these two letters is the reverse of that given here. Although the letter presented here first is undated, sufficient internal evidence attests that its date is earlier than the other letter, and that it is the duplicate of a letter sent by the ships of an earlier year.

[27] So in original; evidently an ironical comment.

[28] Our transcript reads "gente Religiosissima," "a most religious race," which is evidently intended for "gente Belicosissima."

[29] Colin, Labor evangelica, p. 159, in discussing the events of Fajardo's government of the islands says: "And inasmuch as there were many complaints of the annoyances imposed upon the Indians during Don Juan de Silva's term, because of the construction of so many and so great galleons, he was charged to moderate that, and to endeavor to give relief to the natives; in consequence of which, as soon as he had entered by the strait of San Bernardino, he ordered two galleons which he found on the stocks there to be reduced in size. During his entire government he was very favorable to the Indians, and relieved as many of their burdens as possible. Therefore they loved him as a father. He also favored particularly the progress of the Spanish community, endeavoring to get worthy soldiers to become citizens there—to whom, for that purpose, he granted encomiendas and offices. By that means the soldiers were reformed, and many daughters of Spaniards who were without protection were married."

[30] Retraido: one who has taken refuge in a sacred place.

[31] See this and other regulations concerning suits that affect auditors, in "Foundation of the Audiencia," Vol. V of this series.

[32] The reading of this and following legal quotations of this document are due to the kindly cooperation of Dr. Munroe Smith, of the School of Political Science of Columbia University; Mr. Joseph FitzGerald, of Mamaroneck, New York; and Rev. Jose Algue, S.J., of the Manila Observatory. The passages allow for the most part, of only conjecture, while some portions are unintelligible.

[33] Mr. FitzGerald conjectures that ultra multa cum tiber farsnaci is equivalent to "many [passages, texts, authorities?] besides in Tiberius Farsnaci."

Regni col[lectio]. Possibly the citation is from the Nueva Recopilacion of 1567. In some contemporary Latin commentaries the Nueva Recopilacion is described as Regiae Constitutiones; in others as Collectio legum Hispania. Book 9, title 4 of the Nueva Recopilacion deals with "los officiales de la Contaduria mayor." Regni collectio would naturally refer to the Castilian law. Possibly, however, the reference is to some collection of laws for the colonies. The Recopilacion de las leyes de Indias was not published till 1680; but, according to Antequera (Hist. de la Legislacion, p. 564), a previous collection of the colonial laws, down to 1596, was made "en cuatro tomos impresos;" also, early in the seventeenth century, "Se publico como provisional el libro titulado 'Sumarios de la Recopilacion' general de leyes."—Munroe Smith.

[34] No ymperio, ni mero, ni misto. Imperio mero [i.e., pure authority], the authority that resides in the sovereign, and by his appointment in certain magistrates, to impose penalties on the guilty, with the trying of the cause; imperio mixto [i.e., mixed authority], the authority that belongs to judges to decide civil cases, and to carry their sentences into effect. See Novisimo Diccionario de la Lengua Cast. (Paris, 1897).

[35] ff = Digest (ff was a Lombard form of D), and the reference is to Justinian's Digest, book 48, tit. 19 (de poenis) fragment 27, which begins "Divi fratres." The last paragraph of this fragment empowers the Roman governor (praeses) to arrest and imprison any of the leading citizens (principales) who have committed felonies. It is cited as a precedent in favor of the Spanish president.—Munroe Smith.

[36] At this point the following citation occurs in the margin: ultra plures cum Cobb lib. 3, variar, c. 13, n 6. Bartol alias ex conducto et item cumquidam ff locat e inl c et divus ff de uauj e ex trah i egruti p. totum maxime n deg. 15 luias De penia in l i c de principal lib. 12. Much of this is unintelligible and there have evidently been many errors in transcription due to the illegibility of the original MS. The following conjectures and information, however, clear up certain portions of the passage.

Mr. FitzGerald conjectures ultra plures to be "several [authors] besides." Cobb. is read Codieibus by Father Jose Algue, S.J.

Ex conducto et item cumquidam ff locat. The reference is to Justinian's Digest, book 19, tit. 2 (locati conducti), fr. 15, which begins "ex conducto" and especially to the passage in the middle of fr. 15 (Sec. 3 of modern editions) which begins "cum quidam." It reads: "When a certain person alleged a conflagration on the (leased) land and desired a remission (of the rent), the following rescript is sent to him: 'If you have tilled the soil, relief may not undeservedly be given you on account of the accident of a sudden conflagration.'" The transcription of the following reference to the Digest: Divus ff: is too hopelessly muddled to identify. Before these is a reference to Bartolus, and at the end a reference possibly to Cujas (Cujacius). Bartolus was the leading civilian of the fourteenth century; Cujacius of the sixteenth.—Munroe Smith.

In l is for in loco, and l i c for loco ibi citato.—Jose Algue, S.J.

[37] Chocolate was at that time supplied to the Philippines from Nueva Espana; but the cultivation of the cacao-tree (Theobroma cacao), of which chocolate is a product, was introduced into the islands about 1665 by the governor Diego Salcedo, at the instance of the Jesuit Juan de Avila, according to Delgado (Hist. de Filipinas, p. 535). Blanco says (Flora, p. 420), citing Gaspar de San Agustin, that this honor belongs to a pilot named Pedro Brabo de Lagunas, who brought cacao plants to Manila in 1670.

[38] There is evidently a slip of some sort here, due either to mistranscription or to a slip between Messa's hand and brain. The sense seems to require some such phrase as "depositions were given with great fear."

[39] There is a probable play on words here, the original reading asolar, literally, "destroy;" but the writer may have used it in the sense of "to deprive the earth of the sun," in view of the succeeding remark, sol being the word for "sun."

[40] This letter is published, in an abridged form, by Rev. Pablo Pastells, in his edition of Colin's Labor evangelica, ii, pp. 688, 689; but he there dates the letter July 25, while the Sevilla MS. (here followed) makes it August, in 1621.

[41] The italic side heads and center heads throughout this letter appear in the margin of the original, and were made either by the archbishop himself or by a government clerk.

[42] i.e., guardianship: the district allowed to each convent in which to beg.

[43] This last sentence is evidently the correction in the margin noted by the archbishop in the last clause of the present letter.

[44] The numbers given in the text (all written out in words, not figures) amount to 205,000.

[45] The numbers given in the text, for the various bishoprics, amount to 509,450.

[46] Conducted by the confraternity of that name; see letter of Audiencia regarding the objects and work of this association, in Vol. XIV, pp. 208-313. See also Dasmarinas's account of the royal hospital, in Vol. X, pp. 28-40.

[47] At that period the (new) Parian, as shown by a plan of 1641, was opposite the city of Manila on the other side of the Pasig River. Evidently, then, the Chinese and Indians were obliged to pay tolls for crossing the river to the city.

[48] See Vol. XIII, p. 185, note 33. Beca is most suitably translated "sleeves."

[49] A decree of like tenor was sent to the Audiencia on the same date. It is quite probable that similar decrees were sent to all the orders.

[50] Regarding this, Fajardo wrote thus to the king, on August 17, 1623 (a letter found in the Sevilla archives): "The expedition to take possession of the gold mines of the Ygolotes, which border on peaceful lands of this island, has been accomplished, although it has entailed some expense, not a little labor, and some bloodshed; for those barbarians are so indomitable, and occupy fortifications, in which are Spaniards and Indians belonging to the peaceful vassals of your Majesty. The indications of the mines, the disposition of the ridges, and the quality of the earth where they were, promise more richness than do the trials which have been made thus far by washing and separating the gold. Until all the tests which are used for this purpose have been made, it can not be certainly said what their value, will be—although it appears to me that that cannot be small, considering the large amount of gold which these natives take from the mines and barter with the friendly Indians. Even if the profit is not large enough to make it expedient to administer it on your Majesty's account, in pacifying and reducing to obedience these Ygolotes Indians there will be no little advantage, besides the taxes, from reducing them to the vassalage of your Majesty, and to instruction in our holy Catholic faith, which they have never received."

[51] "The nutmeg [Myristica fragrans] grows naturally in Cebu and in Laguna province, and will grow in all parts of the islands cultivated" (Report of U.S. Philippine Commission, 1900, iii, p. 271).

Delgado states (Historia, p. 537) that in 1737 he found the nutmeg growing wild in Leyte, a native of the Visayas Islands. He adds: "It could be cultivated in these islands, if the natives would apply themselves to this work—or at least if the alcaldes-mayor would compel them to do so, as they do now in La Laguna of Manila, from which results to the people of the islands no little benefit."

[52] Probably the same as Ramon Beguer, who arrived in the islands in 1615, and ministered in various missions in Pangasinan. Finally he retired to the Dominican convent in Manila, where he died in 1661 (Resena biog. Sant. Rosario, i, p. 348).

[53] George F. Becker in his "Report on Geology of the Philippine Islands"—in Twenty-first Annual Report of U.S. Geological Survey (Washington, 1901), part iii, pp. 487-625—cites (p. 622; cf. also p. 517) the geologist R. von Drasche thus: "Layers of tuff [or tufa—a volcanic rock formed of agglutinated volcanic earth or scoria] are also exposed (Fragmente zu einer Geologie der Insel Luzon, pp. 29-31) at many points between Aringay and Benguet, but these tuffs toward the interior, even at Galiano, are 'no longer earthy, but quite hard, crystalline, and sandstone like.'" This probably explains Martin's description of the hard ground.

Aringay is located on the northwestern coast of Luzon, at the mouth of Aringay River, in the province, of Union.

[54] Bacacayes; see description of these weapons in Vol. XVI, p. 55, note 26.

[55] The distance from the end of the thumb to the end of the forefinger (both extended)—about equivalent to the English span.

[56] For the dress of the Igorrotes, see Sawyer's Inhabitants of the Philippines, pp. 254, 255, and the names of their various articles of dress, p. 264.

Concerning the Igorrotes, Bulletin No. I, of the Census of the Philippine Islands: 1903, "Population of the Philippines" (Department of Commerce and Labor, Bureau of the Census: 1904) contains the following (p. 6): "Of the other wild tribes in the Philippine Islands, one of the most important is the Igorot, which inhabits the central Cordillera from the extreme north of Luzon south to the plains of Pangasinan and Nueva Ecija. Under this general name there are various subgroup designations, such as the Gaddans, Dadayags, or Mayoyao. Another branch of the Igorot tribe is the Kalinga, along the Cagayan river, near Ilagan, in the province of Isabela. To the westward, in the sub-province of Bontoc, is another branch of the Igorot people, who are said to be the most famous of the head-hunters. Another branch is the Tinguian, inhabiting the provinces of Nueva Ecija, Ilocos Sur, Lepanto-Bontoc, and Abra."

[57] See Sawyer, ut supra, p. 263. The spear described is probably the say-aug. The sharp-pointed stakes are of bamboo, and are called sayac or dayac.

[58] That is, the bones of the animals that they had killed for their feasts, and which they hung up in their houses as ornaments and display.

[59] See Becker's account of the gold-producing districts in Luzon, their geological conditions, and the native methods of mining (Twenty-first Annual Report of U.S. Geological Survey, part iii, pp. 576-580). He states that the Igorrotes have always refused, even to the present day, to allow any outsiders, of any race, to visit the quartz mines in their country.

[60] "Roasted and powdered copper pyrites added to ores of silver when reduced to the state of a magma [i.e., a thin paste], in order to reduce the horn silver; formerly so called at the Spanish mines of Mexico and South America" (Webster's Dictionary).

"The magistral is a mixture of pyritous copper and sulphuretted salt, roasted for some hours in a reverberating oven, and slowly cooled" (Humboldt's New Spain, Black's trans., iii, p. 260).

[61] Spanish, greta, an old word used for almartaga; oxide of lead in the form of small scales, and lustrous; commonly called "litharge of silver," or "of gold," as it resembles those metals.

[62] Also written temesquitato; a Mexican word, applied to the dross from the surface of lead into which pulverized silver ore is introduced.

[63] See Humboldt's account of the mining methods and processes in vogue in Nueva Espana, in his New Spain (Black's trans.), iii, pp. 231-280.

Various laws and ordinances concerning the discovery and operation of mines in the Spanish colonies may be found in Recopilacion de leyes. mainly in lib. iv, tit. xix, xx, and lib. viii, tit. xi.

[64] The first figure refers to the number of onzas loss of quicksilver, and the second to the number of the assay. Thus ten onzas of quicksilver were lost in the second assay.

THE END