Corregidor of Balayan. The encomienda of Balayan has six hundred men, with one encomendero; one corregidor is appointed here, who receives a salary of one hundred and fifty pesos.

Alcalde-mayor of Vonvon. The district around the lake of Bombon has a population of about three thousand four hundred. Then come the villages of the Batangas district, with one thousand men and one encomendero. These two encomiendas are under the jurisdiction of another alcalde-mayor. All the land between Tuley and Batangas is inhabited by Moros, who, as we have said above, have abundance of cotton, and possess much gold handed down to them by their ancestors.

Proceeding about three leagues from the settlement of Batangas, which we mentioned above, along the coast toward Camarines, we come to the river of Lobo, on which are about a hundred Indians. Two leagues from Lobo is Maribago, where there are gold mines; here dwell about one hundred Indians. Farther on is the village of Biga, with a population of about one hundred and fifty Indians. Next is Galvan, with about another hundred and fifty Indians. All these villages have one encomendero. Farther along the coast is the river Dayun, with about six hundred Indians; and next, the river Tubi, on which, in the tingues [hills], are about five hundred Indians.

Next are the river Carilaya and other small settlements, with a total population of about five hundred Indians.

Still farther is the river Caguayan, with about two hundred Indians. All this territory has three encomenderos, and is all under the jurisdiction of the alcalde-mayor of Mindoro. Here begins the province of Camarines, although a few settlements of little importance may be found between the two regions.



Chapter Fourth

Which treats of the Camarines Provinces

Provinces of Camarines and Vicor. Farther along the coast near the Pasacao River begin the provinces of Vicor and Camarines, which, as we have said above, are situated on the east side as you enter the Philipinas islands. Disembarking at the Pasacao River, which is seventy leagues from the city of Manilla by sea, and journeying three leagues by land, one comes to the Vicor River flowing north; its source is in the opposite coasts of the island. [11]

Alcalde-mayor of Camarines. Here lies the town of Caceres, the seat of an alcalde-mayor who receives a salary of three hundred pesos. There are also two alcaldes-in-ordinary, and six regidors, whom the governor appoints for as long a period as he chooses. This town of Caceres is situated in the middle of the entire province, on the banks of the river Vicor. This river district is allotted to eight encomenderos, seven of whom have in charge about seven hundred Indians each, and the other about two thousand. Along the same river, his Majesty possesses the villages of Minalagua and Nagua, with two thousand Indians. Following this river, one comes to a lake called the lake of Libon, which is but scantily populated. The district round about is one encomienda, with one thousand five hundred Indians living in the village of Libon and its environs. This lake of Libon, lying in a mountainous region, has many creeks, by which one can easily go to Yguas, Albay, Camarines, Bicagua, and other places. The town of Caceres has in all twenty-four encomenderos. Fourteen of them, including the seven above mentioned, have seven hundred Indians each; one has two thousand; another, that of lake Libon, has one thousand five hundred; and the rest have about three hundred Indians each. The inhabitants of the Vicor River district pay their tribute in gold and rice, for they possess these articles in great abundance—for in this province are the excellent mines of Paracale, sixteen leagues from the town; they work also the mines of Catanduanes, thirty leagues from the town. The town has no dependencies, nor does it hold any jurisdiction over other communities. The whole district is under the jurisdiction of the alcalde-mayor of the province of Laguna. This province has a population of about one thousand five hundred, and is allotted to three encomenderos.

Albay and Baquian are inhabited by about eight hundred Indians, who are allotted to two encomenderos. Camarines, with about five hundred men, is under one encomendero.

Libon is under one encomendero, and has one thousand five hundred men.

The province of Paracale and its coast, as far as Mahuban, is inhabited by about two thousand men, and is allotted to three encomenderos. The king owns a share of this province.

The district around the bay of Yvalon has a population of about one thousand five hundred, being divided between two encomenderos.

Island of Catanduanes. The island of Catanduanes has a population of about four thousand, and is allotted to four encomenderos. The alcalde-mayor receives a salary of three hundred pesos, which is paid from the fines forfeited to the royal treasury, or from the royal treasury itself. He appoints no lieutenant, except one for the town when he is absent. The governor appointed a notary for this town, who, having little to do, attends also to the affairs of the alcalde-mayor, and accompanies him on his tours of inspection. Thus his various occupations yield him an annual income of nearly four hundred pesos.

There is also a treasurer in this town, appointed by the governor, at a salary of two hundred pesos. His duty is to collect the tribute due to his Majesty, and to go every year to Manila to give an account of his work.

The country is fertile and healthy. It abounds in rice and palm-trees, from which wine and a great quantity of brandy are made.

As already said, the natives of this province closely resemble the Pintados—although the former are more slothful; for they spend nearly all their time in drinking, while their wives cultivate the land. Like the Pintados, they are a sociable people, and observe the same customs.

They all worship the ugly wooden idol, and talk to the demon. They have also many wizards. Not having lived in this province, I am not acquainted with their manner of sacrifice, nor have I found one who could tell me of it.

Mines. As I have said, there are mines in Paracale, in the bay of Caporaguay, and in the island of Catanduanes. All these districts are in the neighborhood of the town of Caceres.

Distances. From Pasacao, one has to follow the coast of the island eastward twenty leagues to Bucaygan, and sixty leagues more to the northwest, before he reaches Vicor River. All this may be shortened to the three leagues [by land] between Pasacao and the Vicor River. The distance between Vicor River and the cape of Babuyanes—situated at the other end of the island, toward Japan, as above stated—is one hundred and twenty leagues. The coast between Vicor and Babuyanes is rugged, and extends northwest and southeast. Not all this land is inhabited, but only three districts of it, namely: the province of Valete, with about eight hundred Indians; ten leagues farther, that of Casiguran, with about five hundred Indians (a district resembling Ylocos, which lies on the opposite coast, although the two provinces have no communication, because of the ruggedness of the country); and, farther on, the province of Alanao River. This last is well peopled, and produces gold and cotton; its native Indians resemble those of Valete and Casiguran. Besides these three districts, no other settlement on this coast is encountered until the cape of Babuyanes is reached. From the cape the coast runs east and west until the river of Cagayan is reached. This is a very large river. It is twelve leagues from the cape to the mouth of this river.

River Cagayan. Cagayan is a river of great volume, although its bar forms shallows. At high tide the bar has two brazas of water, and at low tide one. On its banks are large settlements with a population of more than thirty thousand. The people gather a great quantity of rice, and keep many swine. They have also some gold, although there are no gold mines. Their trade is carried on with the men of Ylocos. This region is unwholesome, especially when the north wind prevails.

Islands of Mandato and Buyon. On the opposite coast, near the island of Lucon, are two inhabited islets, called Mandato and Buyon respectively, each one about five leagues in circumference, settled by Moros, on account of their lying so near the island of Lucon opposite the bay of Manila. [Marginal note: "The island of Lucon curves from the city of Manilla, where the change in direction begins, to the river of Cagayan."]

Island of Marinduque. Between the island of Banton and that of Lucon, four leagues from the former and five from the latter, lies the island of Marinduque. It is about twenty-six leagues in circumference, and eight leagues wide, and contains about one thousand men. Capul and this island are under the charge of one encomendero. The Indians are Pintados, although under the jurisdiction of neither Cubu, Arevalo, nor Camarines.



Chapter Fifth

Which treats of the province of Ylocos

Island of Luzon, continued. Going out of the bay of Manilla, and sailing north toward the province of Ylocos, first comes the province of the Cambales. This province has about one thousand men, who are like the Chichimecos of Nueva Espana. Their customs are much like those of the Moros; they differ from the latter in their dress. These people wear short trousers, and short-sleeved jackets shaped to fit [the neck: crossed out in MS.], which resemble the saltambarca. [12] On the middle of the breast, and on the shoulders, they wear a badge resembling a cross, fashioned in different colors. Some of them cut only half of their hair—namely, from the brow to the crown of the head. The villages of this province which are known are Marayomo, Pinahuyu, Mahaban, Buanguin, Tuguy, Polo, Bongalon, Dalayap, Cabatogan, and Bacol. It is the custom among this people to punish murderers by boring a hole through the crown of the head and taking out the brains.

Province of Bulinao. Next comes Bulinao, also inhabited by Cambales; but the province belongs to his Majesty. It has a population of about four hundred peaceful Indians, besides many more who live among the mountains. The latter are a warlike people, whose only delight and satisfaction is in waging war and in cutting off one another's heads, which they hang up in their houses. The man who can display the most heads in his house is he who is most respected and feared by all. They cultivate the land although only in small tracts. They are like the Chichimecos of Nueva Espana, who cannot be subdued—except that the villages of Bulinao, as I have said, contain about four hundred Indians who are pacified. These people recognize a God in heaven; but in times of trouble and sickness they invoke their dead and their ancestors, like the people of Visaya.

Bay of Pangasinan. About five leagues farther is the province of Pangasinan. Its bay is about six leagues around. Three large rivers, which flow from the mining district of the mountains, fall into this bay. This province has a peaceful population of four thousand. The land is allotted to six encomenderos; but the best portion of it, which has one thousand men, belongs to his Majesty. The people resemble the Cambales above mentioned, in both dress and language; but they are more intelligent, for they are traders and traffic with the Chinese, Japanese, Borneans, and the natives of other islands. This province abounds in food supplies, such as rice, goats, and swine; and many buffaloes are hunted. The main occupation of this people is commerce; but they are also good farmers, and sell their articles of food and clothing to the miners; the gold that they obtain in return for these they barter with the Spaniards. The men are very jealous of their wives, whom they kill immediately if caught in adultery; nor do the relatives of the latter resent the deed. These people, like the Pintados, kill their children if they have many, in order that they may not live in poverty.

Alcalde-mayor of Pangassinan. For two years this district has had one alcalde-mayor, who receives a salary of one hundred pesos. From this province one can go by land to Manilla, over a very smooth and good road, having to travel only fourteen or fifteen leagues to arrive at the Capanpanga River.

Port of Japon. Four leagues farther is a port which is called the port of Japon. There is a settlement of [Spaniard: crossed out in MS.] Indians, of the same race as those of Pangasinan.

Alinguey and Baratao. Six leagues farther are the villages of Alinguey and Baratao, with a population of about two thousand. Once they were allotted to one encomendero, but now they belong to the royal crown. The people are of the same race as those who inhabit Pangasinan.

Purao. Four leagues farther are the villages of Purao, with a population of two thousand. These towns are under the encomendero of Bitis and Lubao. The people differ from the above in language, but resemble them in their behavior and customs. They till the land; and possess much gold, on account of being near the mines. These people do not kill their children, as do the people of Pangasinan.

Villages of Lumaquaque. Three leagues farther is the valley of Lumaquaque, where live about one thousand five hundred natives. Half of this district is under one encomendero, the other half belongs to his Majesty. The people resemble those of Purao.

Villages of Candon. Two leagues farther are the villages of Candon, with a population of about one thousand eight hundred. They are under two encomenderos. The people resemble those of Purao.

Province of Maluacan. Three leagues farther is the province of Maluacan, with a population of about one thousand eight hundred. It is under the encomendero of Bonbon.

Valley of Landan. Two leagues farther is the valley of Landan, with a population of about one thousand Indians, who belong to the hospital of the city of Manilla.

Village of Vigan. Opposite this valley is the village of Vigan, with about eight hundred inhabitants. It belongs to his Majesty. Not far from Vigan is settled the town of Fernandina, which Guido de la Vezaris founded in the year seventy-five. He appointed there six regidors, two alcaldes, and one chief justice for all the provinces of the Ylocos.

Alcalde-mayor of Ylocos. At the coming of Limahon, Fernandina was plundered, and there only remains now one alcalde-mayor, with twenty or thirty Spaniards, who usually dwell there as if in banishment. The alcalde-mayor receives a salary of three hundred pesos, and appoints notaries at his pleasure.

Valley of Bantay. One league from this town is the valley of Bantay, with a population of about one thousand six hundred, and one encomendero.

Valley of Sinay. Three leagues farther is the valley of Sinay, which is under the same encomendero of Bantay, and has a population of about one thousand six hundred.

The valley of Vavo. Two leagues from Sinay is the valley of Vavo. It is under one encomendero, and has a population of about one thousand Indians.

Province of Cacaguayan. Still farther is the province of Cacaguayan, with a population of about four thousand. Two thousand of them are under two encomenderos—each with one thousand; and two thousand belong to his Majesty.

Province of Ylagua. Two leagues farther is the province of Ylagua, which belongs to his Majesty. It has a population of about five thousand, but they are not all peaceful.

Valley of Dynglas. Three leagues inland from this province is a valley called Dinglas. It has a population of about two thousand Indians, and one encomendero.

Valley of Vicagua. Farther along the coast from Ylagua is the valley of Vicagua, with a population of two thousand, and two encomiendas. This valley is twenty leagues from the Cagayan River. There are to be found some rivers and settlements, but the inhabitants are not pacified or even known.

All the people of the Ylocos resemble the Pintados in their manner of living, but they eat raw meat. They are a quiet and peaceful people, dislike war, and are humble and well-disposed.

Thus, from the city of Manilla to the Cagayan River hither, the distance is about one hundred and ten leagues, as stated above. On account of the shortness of the time before me, I am unable to give a more detailed account of this island of Lucon, which is the most important in this land.

Island of Mindoro. Opposite the encomiendas of Bonbon and Batangas lies the island of Mindoro. The Moros form the greater part of its population. Three leagues from the island of Lucon is located the village of Mindoro. This is a good harbor for ships, and belongs to his Majesty. The village is inhabited by about two hundred and fifty Moros. The island is eighty leagues in circumference, and is scantily populated, for it has in all less than five hundred inhabitants. Some blacks live in the mountains, who gather a large quantity of wax. The island is ill supplied with provisions.

Island of Luban. Four leagues from the western point of this island, and opposite the bay of Manilla, lies the island of Luban. It is twenty leagues from Manilla, and has a circumference of about ten leagues. It has six villages, with a total population of about five hundred Indians.

Close to this island is a smaller one by the same name, with about one hundred inhabitants. The people are the same as those of Luzon.

Island of Elin. The island of Elin lies two leagues south from the island of Mindoro. It is seven leagues in circumference and is inhabited by about two hundred Visayan Indians.

Alcalde-mayor of Vindoro. These islands—namely Mindoro, Elin, and Luban—are under one encomendero, and all have one alcalde-mayor, who holds jurisdiction also over that region of Lucon which begins at Batangas and ends at the province of Camarines, to which region we shall now return.

Islands of the Babayanes. Opposite the Cagayan River, in the open sea toward China, are seven islands, called Babuyanes. Because many swine are imported therefrom into the province of Ylocos, and since the word for swine in the Ylocos language is babuyes, the islands have been called by that name. Of their inhabitants very little is known.

Island of Calamianes. Returning from Burney and sailing from Manilla twelve leagues beyond the island of Elin, we find the islands of the Calamianes. These islands being somewhat out of the way, very little is known about them—that is, about their inhabitants, for only a few villages along the coast have been seen, where the tribute is collected. The natives of these coast-towns are Pintados; those who live in the mountains are blacks. A very large quantity of wax is collected there, which is an article of barter for nearly all the other islands. They lack provisions and clothing. The most important of the Calamianes islands is Paraguan, which has a circuit of one hundred and fifty leagues. The other islands are small, and only the following are inhabited: Tanianao, Binorboran, Cabanga, Bangaan, Caramian (which is also called by another name, Linapacan), Dipayan, and Coron. In all these islands, only three hundred Indians pay tribute; therefore very little is known about them. These islands are all under the jurisdiction of the alcalde-mayor of Mindoro, [and pay tribute: crossed out in MS.] and belong to the royal crown.



Chapter Sixth

Of the inhabitants of the Pintados Islands and their mode of life

The natives of the Pintados Islands are not very dark. Both men and women are well formed and have regular features. Some of the women are white. Both men and women wear their hair long, and fastened in a knot on the crown of the head, which is very becoming. The men tattoo their entire bodies with very beautiful figures, using therefor small pieces of iron dipped in ink. This ink incorporates itself with the blood, and the marks are indelible. They are healthy people, for the climate of that land is good. Among them are found no crippled, maimed, deaf, or dumb persons. No one of them has ever been possessed by evil spirits, or has become insane. Therefore they reach an advanced age in perfect health. The Pintados are a courageous and warlike race; they have continually waged war on both land and sea. They bore their ears in two places and wear beautiful ornaments, not only in their ears, but also around their necks and arms. Their dress is neat and modest, made generally of cotton, medrinaque, or silk (which they get from China and other places). They are greatly addicted to the use of a kind of wine which they make from rice and from the palm-tree, and which is good. Very rarely do they become angry when drunk, for their drunkenness passes off in jests or in sleep.

The men are very fond of their wives, for it is the men who give the dowry at marriage. And even if their wives commit adultery, action is never taken against the woman, but against the adulterer. An abominable custom among the men is to bore a hole through the genital organ, placing within this opening a tin tube, to which they fasten a wheel like that of a spur, a full palm in circumference. These are made of tin, and some of them weigh more than half a pound. They use twenty kinds of these wheels; but modesty forbids us to speak of them. By means of these they have intercourse with their wives. [13] The inhabitants of the mountains do not follow this custom; all, however, circumcise themselves, saying that they do it for their health and for cleanliness. When they marry, they are not concerned whether their wives are virgins or not.

The women are beautiful, but unchaste. They do not hesitate to commit adultery, because they receive no punishment for it. They are well and modestly dressed, in that they cover all the private parts; they are very clean, and are very fond of perfumes. It is considered a disgrace among them to have many children; for they say that when the property is to be divided among all the children, they will all be poor, and that it is better to have one child, and leave him wealthy. The Pintados are very strict as to whom they marry; for no one marries below his station. Therefore chiefs will never marry any but women of rank. All the men are accustomed to have as many wives as they can buy and support. The women are extremely lewd, and they even encourage their own daughters to a life of unchastity; so that there is nothing so vile for the latter that they cannot do it before their mothers, since they incur no punishment. The men, however, are not so vile as the Moros. The Pintados love their wives so dearly, that, in case of a quarrel they take sides with their wives' relatives, even against their own fathers and brothers.



Chapter Seventh

Which treats of the belief held by the natives of the Pintados islands concerning the creation

There are two kinds of people in this land, who, although of the same race, differ somewhat in their customs and are almost always on mutually unfriendly terms. One class includes those who live along the coast, the other class those who live in the mountains; and if peace seems to reign among them, it is because they depend upon each other for the necessities of life. The inhabitants of the mountains cannot live without the fish, salt, and other articles of food, and the jars and dishes, of other districts; nor, on the other hand, can those of the coast live without the rice and cotton of the mountaineers. In like manner they have two different beliefs concerning the beginning of the world; and since these natives are not acquainted with the art of writing, they preserve their ancient lore through songs, which they sing in a very pleasing manner—commonly while plying their oars, as they are island-dwellers.

Also, during their revelries, the singers who have good voices recite the exploits of olden times; thus they always possess a knowledge of past events. The people of the coast, who are called the Yligueynes, believe that heaven and earth had no beginning, and that there were two gods, one called Captan and the other Maguayen. [14] They believe that the land breeze and the sea breeze were married; and that the land breeze brought forth a reed, which was planted by the god Captan. When the reed grew, it broke into two sections, which became a man and a woman. To the man they gave the name of Sicalac, and that is the reason why men from that time on have been called lalac; the woman they called Sicavay, and thenceforth women have been called babayes. One day the man asked the woman to marry him, for there were no other people in the world; but she refused, saying that they were brother and sister, born of the same reed, with only one knot between them; and that she would not marry him, since he was her brother. Finally they agreed to ask advice from the tunnies of the sea, and from the doves of the air; they also went to the earthquake, who said that it was necessary for them to marry, so that the world might be peopled. They married, and called their first son Sibo; then a daughter was born to them, and they gave her the name of Samar. This brother and sister also had a daughter, called Lupluban. She married Pandaguan, a son of the first pair, and had a son called Anoranor. Pandaguan was the first to invent a net for fishing at sea; and, the first time when he used it, he caught a shark and brought it on shore, thinking that it would not die. But the shark died when brought ashore; and Pandaguan, when he saw this, began to mourn and weep over it—complaining against the gods for having allowed the shark to die, when no one had died before that time. It is said that the god Captan, on hearing this, sent the flies to ascertain who the dead one was; but, as the flies did not dare to go, Captan sent the weevil, who brought back the news of the shark's death. The god Captan was displeased at these obsequies to a fish. He and Maguayen made a thunderbolt, with which they killed Pandaguan; he remained thirty days in the infernal regions, at the end of which time the gods took pity upon him, brought him back to life, and returned him to the world. While Pandaguan was dead, his wife Lubluban became the concubine of a man called Maracoyrun; and these people say that at that time concubinage began in the world. When Pandaguan returned, he did not find his wife at home, because she had been invited by her friend to feast upon a pig that he had stolen; and the natives say that this was the first theft committed in the world. Pandaguan sent his son for Lubluban, but she refused to go home, saying that the dead do not return to the world. At this answer Pandaguan became angry, and returned to the infernal regions. The people believe that, if his wife had obeyed his summons, and he had not gone back at that time, all the dead would return to life. [Blank space in MS.] Inheritances, and their inventor. Their ceremonies. The omentum [15].

Another belief, that of the mountaineers, who are called Tinguianes

The Tinguianes believe that in the beginning were only the sea and the sky; and that one day a kite, having no place where to alight, determined to set the sea against the sky. Accordingly, the sea declared war against the sky, and threw her waters upward. The sky, seeing this, made a treaty of peace with the sea. Afterward, to avenge himself upon her for having dared to assert herself, they say that he showered upon the sea all the islands of this archipelago, in order to subdue her; and that the sea ran to and fro without being able to rise again. They say that from this event arose the custom of mavaris—that is, taking vengeance for an insult received, a very common practice in this land; and they consider it a point of honor to take revenge. Then they relate also the story of the reed; but they say that the kite pecked the reed, and the aforesaid man and woman came out. They add that the first time when Cavahi gave birth to children, she brought forth a great number at once. One day the father went home, very angry, and threatened the children. The latter were frightened and fled; some into the most hidden rooms of the house; some hid in other places nearer the open air; some hid themselves within the dindines, or walls of the houses, which are constructed of reeds; some in the fireplace; and some fled to the sea through the same door by which the father had entered. It is said that those who fled to the most hidden rooms are the chiefs of these islands; those who remained nearer the outside are the timaguas; those who hid themselves within the walls are the slaves; those who hid themselves in the fireplace are the blacks; and those who fled out to the sea through the open door, are the Spaniards, and that they had no news of us until they beheld us return through the sea.



Chapter Eighth

Of their belief concerning the dead

It is said that the souls of those who are stabbed to death, eaten by crocodiles, or killed by arrows (which is considered a very honorable death), go to heaven by way of the arch which is formed when it rains, and become gods. The souls of the drowned remain in the sea forever. By way of honor to these, they erect a tall reed and hang upon it a garment—that of a man, if the dead be a man; but a woman's, for a woman. This garment is left there until it falls to pieces through age. When the children or other relatives of drowned persons are sick, the relatives are taken and placed in a barangay, in company with a baylana, who is a sort of priestess; and, at the place indicated by the priestess, they throw into the sea a chest filled with robes and other articles, which they have brought with them. At the same time their ancestors are invoked to protect and help the sick man during his illness.

Belief regarding the dead

If those who die from disease are young, the Pintados say that the mangalos, who are goblins, are eating their bowels, wherefore they die; for these people do not know that the corruption of humors causes diseases. They say of those who die in old age that the wind comes and snatches away their souls. And of those who die thus, the Arayas (which is a certain alliance of villages), they say, go to a very high mountain in the island of Panay, called Mayas. The souls of the Yligueynes, who comprise the people of Cubu, Bohol, and Bantay, go with the god called Sisiburanen, to a very high mountain in the island of Burney.

The god Sidapa. They say that there is in the sky another god, called Sidapa. This god possesses a very tall tree on mount Mayas. There he measures the lives of all the new-born, and places a mark on the tree; when the person's stature equals this mark, he dies immediately.

Belief concerning the destination of souls. It is believed that at death all souls go directly to the infernal regions; but that, by means of the maganitos, which are the sacrifices and offerings made to the god Pandaque in sight of the mount of Mayas, they are redeemed from Simuran and Siguinarugan, gods of the lower regions.

It is said that, when the Yligueynes die, the god Maguayen carries them to Inferno. When he has carried them thither in his barangay, Sumpoy, another god, sallies forth, takes them away, and leads them to Sisiburanen, the god before mentioned, who keeps them all. Good or bad alike, he takes them all on equal terms, when they go to Inferno. But the poor, who have no one to offer sacrifices for them, remain forever, in the inferno, and the god of those regions eats them, or keeps them forever in prison. From this it will be seen how little their being good or bad avails them, and how much reason they have to hate poverty.

Baylanas. The natives of these islands have neither time nor place set apart for the offering of prayers and sacrifices to their gods. It is only in case of sickness, and in times of seed-sowing or of war, that sacrifices are offered. These sacrifices are called baylanes, and the priestesses, or the men who perform this office, are also called baylanes. The priestesses dress very gaily, with garlands on their heads, and are resplendent with gold. They bring to the place of sacrifice some pitarrillas (a kind of earthen jar) full of rice-wine, besides a live hog and a quantity of prepared food. Then the priestess chants her songs and invokes the demon, who appears to her all glistening in gold. Then he enters her body and hurls her to the ground, foaming at the mouth as one possessed. In this state she declares whether the sick person is to recover or not. In regard to other matters, she foretells the future. All this takes place to the sound of bells and kettle-drums. Then she rises and taking a spear, she pierces the heart of the hog. They dress it and prepare a dish for the demons. Upon an altar erected there, they place the dressed hog, rice, bananas, wine, and all the other articles of food that they have brought. All this is done in behalf of sick persons, or to redeem those who are confined in the infernal regions. When they go to war or on a plundering expedition, they offer prayers to Varangao, who is the rainbow, and to their gods, Ynaguinid and Macanduc. For the redemption of souls detained in the inferno above mentioned, they invoke also their ancestors, and the dead, claiming to see them and receive answers to their questions.

Belief concerning the world. The god Macaptan. They believe that the world has no end. They say that Macaptan dwells highest in the sky. They consider him a bad god, because he sends disease and death among them, saying that because he has not eaten anything of this world, or drunk any pitarrillas, he does not love them, and so kills them.

The god Lalahon. It is said that the divinity Lalahon dwells in a volcano in Negros island, whence she hurls fire. The volcano is about five leagues from the town of Arevalo. They invoke Lalahon for their harvest; when she does not choose to grant them good harvests she sends the locusts to destroy and consume the crops. This Lalahon is a woman.

Burials. These natives bury their dead in certain wooden coffins, in their own houses. They bury with the dead gold, cloth, and other valuable objects—saying that if they depart rich they will be well received in the other world, but coldly if they go poor.

How they guard the dead. When anyone dies, the people light many fires near his house; and at night armed men go to act as sentinels about his coffin, for fear that the sorcerers (who are in this country also) may come and touch the coffin; for then the coffin would immediately burst open and a great stench issue from the corpse, which could not any longer remain in the coffin. For this reason they keep watch for several nights.

Slaves killed at the death of chiefs. When any chief descended from Dumaguet dies, a slave is made to die by the same death as that of the chief. They choose the most wretched slave whom they can find, so that he may serve the chief in the other world. They always select for this a slave who is a foreigner, and not a native; for they really are not at all cruel. They say that the reason for their killing slaves, as we have said, at the death of any chief is very ancient. According to their story, a chief called Marapan more than ten thousand years ago, while easing his body asked a slave of his for some grass with which to clean himself. The slave threw to him a large stalk of reed-grass, which seems to have hit the chief on the knee, causing a wound. As he was at the time a very old man, he died, as they say, from the blow; but before his death he gave orders that, when he should die, the slave and all his children should be put to death. From this arose the custom of killing slaves at the death of a chief.

Mourning indicated by fasting. When the father or mother or any near relative died, they promised to eat no rice until they should seize some captive in battle. The actual sign of mourning among them was the wearing of armlets made of bejucos [rattans] which covered the entire arm, with a similar band around the neck. They drank no pitarrilla, and their only food was bananas and camotes, until they had either taken a captive or killed some one, when they ceased their mourning; it might thus happen that they would eat no rice for a whole year, and therefore they would be, at the end of that period, very languid and weak. Sometimes a man determined, soon after a relative's death, to eat nothing, but to abandon himself to death. But his timaguas and slaves quickly assembled, and made a collection throughout the village; bananas were given him for food, and tuba (which is a wine made from the palm-tree) for drink, so that he should not die. These gains were the perquisites of the chiefs. This kind of mourning is called among them maglahe.

Mourning among the women. The mourning observed by the women they call morotal. It is similar to that of the men, except that the mourner—instead of going to capture or kill some one before she is allowed to cease mourning and to eat rice again—embarks in a barangay with many women; they have one Indian man to steer, one to bail, and one in the bow. These three Indians are always chosen as being very valiant men, who have achieved much success in war. Thus they go to a village of their friends, the three Indians singing all along the way, keeping time with their oars; they recount their exploits, the slaves whom they have captured, and the men whom they have killed in war. The vessel is laden with wine and pitarrillas. When they reach the village, they exchange invitations with the inhabitants, and hold a great revel. After this they lay aside their white robes, and strip the bejuco bands from their arms and necks; the mourning ends, and they begin to eat rice again, and to adorn themselves with gold.

Larao of the dead—that is, mourning. One of the observances which is carried out with most rigor is that called larao. This rule requires that when a chief dies all must mourn him, and must observe the following restrictions: No one shall quarrel with any other during the time of mourning, and especially at the time of the burial. Spears must be carried point downward, and daggers be carried in the belt with hilt reversed. No gala or colored dress shall be worn during that time. There must be no singing on board a barangay when returning to the village, but strict silence is maintained. They make an enclosure around the house of the dead man; and if anyone, great or small, passes by and transgresses this bound, he shall be punished. In order that all men may know of a chief's death and no one feign ignorance, one of the timaguas who is held in honor goes through the village and makes announcement of the mourning. He who transgresses the law must pay the penalty, without fail. If he who does this wrong be a slave—one of those who serve without the dwelling—and has not the means to pay, his owner pays for him; but the latter takes the slave to his own house, that he may serve him, and makes him an ayoey. They say that these rules were left to them by Lubluban and Panas. To some, especially to the religious, it has seemed as if they were too rigorous for these people; but they were general among chiefs, timaguas, and slaves.

Wars. The first man who waged war, according to their story, was Panas, the son of that Anoranor, who was grandson of the first human [parents: crossed out in MS.] beings. He declared war against Mangaran, on account of an inheritance; and from that time date the first wars, because the people were divided into two factions, and hostility was handed down from father to son. They say that Panas was the first man to use weapons in fighting.

Just wars. There are three cases in which these natives regard war as just. The first is when an Indian goes to another village and is there put to death without cause; the second, when their wives are stolen from them; and the third is when they go in friendly manner to trade at any village, and there, under the appearance of friendship, are wronged or maltreated.

Laws. They say that the laws by which they have thus far been governed were left to them by Lubluban, the woman whom we have already mentioned. Of these laws only the chiefs are defenders and executors There are no judges, although there are mediators who go from one party to another to bring about a reconciliation.



Chapter Ninth

Which treats of slavery in the Filipinas Islands

Laws of slavery. No Indian in this country is made a slave or is put to death for any crime which he commits, even if it be theft, adultery, or murder—except that for each crime there is an established fine, which they have to pay in jewels or gold, and if the culprit is unable to pay the fine he will borrow the money, and pledge himself to the man from whom he borrows. As a result he becomes a slave, until he shall repay what was lent to him; after that, he is free again. Therefore, according to the crime committed, they are slaves; and there are three classes of slaves in these islands. The first, and the most thoroughly enslaved, is the bondman of him who is served in his own dwelling; such a slave they call ayuey. These slaves work three days for the master, and one for themselves.

Kinds of slavery. Another class of slaves are those called tumaranpoc. They live in their own houses, and are obliged to go to work for their master one day out of four, having the three days for themselves. If they fail to work for their master, in order to cultivate their own fields, they give the master each year ten chicubites of rice, each chicubite being equal to one fanega.

There are other slaves, whom these people hold in most respect, who are called tomatabans; these work in the house of the master only when there is some banquet or revel. On such occasions they bring small gifts, and share in the drinking. But when one of these slaves dies, the property left by the slave is shared with his children by the master. During their lifetime, these slaves are bound to work for their master five days in a month; or, if they do not work, they annually give the master five chicubites of rice.

Value of the slaves. The ayueys are worth among these people two gold taes of Labin sian, the equivalent of twelve pesos. The tumaranpoques are worth the same sum. The tumatabans are worth one tae, or six pesos.

The ayuey women, like their husbands, work in the houses of chiefs. The tumaranpoque women, if they have children, serve half of the month in spinning and weaving cotton, which their masters supply; and during the other half of the month they work for themselves. The tumataban women spin only one hank of cotton each month for their masters, who furnish to them the cotton in the boll. Only the ayueys receive food and clothing from their masters; to the others the masters give nothing. When these slaves die the masters take away all their property, except from the tomatabans, as we have said above. Those whom these natives have sold as slaves to the Spaniards are mostly the ayueys.

The rules which they observe for punishing any one so severely as to enslave him are as follows: for murder, adultery, and theft; and for insulting any woman of rank, or taking away her robe in public and leaving her naked, or causing her to flee or defend herself so that it falls off, which is considered a great offense.

Thieves. If a thief commit a great robbery, he and all his relatives (or at least his nearest kin) are fined. If they are unable to pay the fine, they are made slaves. This law applies to all classes, and even to the chiefs themselves; accordingly, if a chief commit any crime, even against one of his own slaves or timaguas, he is fined in the same manner. But they are not reduced to slavery for lack of means to pay the fine; as, if they were not chiefs, they would be slaves. In case of a small theft, the punishment falls upon the thief alone, and not on his relatives.

In time of famine. When there is a famine the poor, who have not the means of sustenance, in order not to perish, go to the rich—and almost always they seek their relatives and surrender themselves to them as slaves—in order to be fed.

Another kind of slavery. There is another kind of lordship [slavery: crossed out in MS.], which was first introduced by a man whom they call Sidumaguer—which, they say, occurred more than two thousand years ago. Because some men broke a barangay belonging to him—in Languiguey, his native village, situated in the island of Bantayan—he compelled the descendants of those who had broken his barangay to bequeath to him at their deaths two slaves out of every ten, and the same portion of all their other property. This kind of slavery gradually made its way among all the Indians living on the coast, but not among the Tinguianes.

Real timaguas. The freemen of these islands, who are called timaguas, are neither chiefs nor slaves. This is their mode of life. If a timagua desires to live in a certain village, he joins himself to one of the chiefs—for each village usually has many chiefs, each of whom has his own district, with slaves and timaguas, well known to him—to whom he offers himself as his timagua, binding himself to observe the following laws: When feasts are given to other chiefs he must attend; for it is the custom that the timagua drink first from the pitarrilla, before any chief does so. He must, with his weapons, accompany the chief when he goes on a journey. When the latter enters a boat the timagua must go to ply the oar, and to carry his weapons for the defense of the vessel; but if the vessel sustain any damages he receives no punishment for this, but is only reprimanded. For this service the chief is under obligation to defend the timagua, in his own person and those of his relatives, against anyone who seeks to injure him without cause; and thus it happens that, to defend the timaguas, fathers fight against their sons, and brothers against one another. If the timagua goes to any other village and there is wronged, the chief will endeavor, with all his forces, to avenge him to the same extent. Thus the timaguas live in security, and are free to pass from the service of one chief to that of another, whenever they so desire, and without any obstacle being placed in their way.

Of the manner in which they set out on raids. These natives have a method of casting lots with the teeth of a crocodile or of a wild boar. During the ceremony they invoke their gods and their ancestors, and inquire of them as to the result of their wars and their journeys. By knots or loops which they make with cords, they foretell what will happen to them; and they resort to these practices for everything which they have to undertake. The Indians along the coast are accustomed to set out every year on their plundering expeditions in the season of the bonancas, which come between the brisas and the vendabals. The Tinguianes set out after they have gathered their harvests; and since their custom is to be enemies to those who are such to their friends, they do not lack opportunity for fighting.

While on a plundering expedition, if they could take their enemy alive they did not kill him. If any one slew a captive after his surrender, he must pay for him with his own money; and if he were unable to do so he was held as a slave. The booty that they take, whatever it may be, belongs to the chiefs, except a small portion which is given to the timaguas who go with them as oarsmen. But if many chiefs went on a raid, the one who offered the magaanito, or the sacrifice mentioned above, received half of the booty, and the other half belonged to the other chiefs.

Captured chiefs. If any chief were taken captive, he was well treated; and if any friend ransomed the captive because he was far from home, the captive returned to him double the amount that his friend had paid for him, because of his good offices in withdrawing the chief from captivity; for the latter would, otherwise, always remain a prisoner. When a chief was taken captive, or committed adultery or murder, all his relatives contributed toward his ransom, each according to the degree of his kinship; and if the relatives had not means to do this the chief remained a slave.

Borrowing. If they lent rice to anyone, one year was allowed for repaying it, since it is something that is planted. If the loan were not repaid after the first harvest, double the amount was to be paid at the second; at the third harvest, fourfold was due on an unpaid loan; and so on, regularly increasing. This was the only usury among them, although some have stated otherwise; but those persons were not well informed. Now, some who are lazy, and unwilling to exert themselves to pay the tribute, ask a loan for this purpose, and repay a somewhat larger sum.

Inheritances. It is their custom to share inheritances in the following manner. If a man died and left four children, the property and the slaves were divided into four equal parts, and each one of the children took his own share. If the dead man left a bastard child, the latter would receive only what the brothers were pleased to give him; for he had no right to one of the shares, nor could he take more than what his brothers voluntarily gave him, or the legacy made by his father in his favor. If the father chose to favor any of his children in his will, he did so. If the dead man left no children, all his brothers inherited his property, having equal shares therein; and if he had no brothers, his cousins-german would inherit; if he had no cousins, all his kinsmen. His property, then, went to the children, if he had any; if not, his brothers were necessarily the heirs; if he had no brothers, his first cousins; and in default of these, all his relatives shared the estate equally.



Chapter Tenth

Which treats of marriage customs in these islands

Marriage of the chiefs. Great mistakes have been made regarding the marriages formed among the natives of this country since they have become Christians, because the marriage customs once observed among the natives have not been clearly understood. Therefore some religious join them in marriage, while others release them, and others reestablish the marriage, thus creating great confusion. For this reason, I have diligently endeavored to bring to light the way in which they observed the marriage ceremonies, which are as follows. When any man wishes to marry, he, since the man always asks the woman, calls in certain timaguas who are respected in the village. (This is what the chiefs do. For there appear to be three ranks of men in these islands—namely, chiefs, timaguas, who are freemen, and slaves—each class having different marriage customs.) The chiefs, then, I say, send as go-betweens some of their timaguas, to negotiate the marriage. One of these men takes the young man's lance from his father, and when he reaches the house of the girl's father he thrusts the spear into the staircase of the house; and while he holds the lance thus, they invoke their gods and ancestors, requesting them to be propitious to this marriage. If the marriage takes place, the lance belongs to the go-between, or it is redeemed.

After the marriage is agreed upon—that is to say, after fixing the amount of the dowry which the husband pays to the wife (which among the chiefs of these islands is generally the sum of one hundred taes, in gold, slaves, and jewels, and is equivalent to one hundred pesos)—they go to bring the bride from the house of her parents. One of the Indians takes her on his shoulders; and on arriving at the foot of the stairway to the bridegroom's house, she affects coyness, and says that she will not enter. When many entreaties have proved useless, the father-in-law comes out and promises to give her a slave if she will go up. She mounts the staircase, for the slave; but when she reaches the top of the stairway and looks into her father-in-law's house and sees the people assembled within, she again pretends to be bashful, and the father-in-law must give her another slave. After she has entered, the same thing takes place; and he must give her a jewel to make her sit down, another to make her begin to eat, and another before she will drink. While the betrothed pair are drinking together an old man rises, and in a loud voice calls all to silence, as he wishes to speak. He says: "So-and-so marries so-and-so, but on the condition that if the man should through dissolute conduct fail to support his wife, she will leave him, and shall not be obliged to return anything of the dowry that he has given her; and she shall have freedom and permission to marry another man. And therefore, should the woman betray her husband, he can take away the dowry that he gave her, leave her, and marry another woman. Be all of you witnesses for me to this compact." When the old man has ended his speech, they take a dish filled with clean, uncooked rice, and an old woman comes and joins the hands of the pair, and lays them upon the rice. Then, holding their hands thus joined, she throws the rice over all those who are present at the banquet. Then the old woman gives a loud shout, and all answer her with a similar shout; and the marriage contract or ceremony is completed. Up to this time, her parents do not allow the young couple to eat or sleep together; but by performing this ceremony they deliver her up as his wife. But if, after the marriage contract has been negotiated by a third party, the man who seeks marriage should repent of the bargain and seek to marry another woman, he loses the earnest-money that he has given, even if he has had no intercourse with the former; because when they commence negotiations for the marriage they begin to give the dowry. If a man say in conversation, or at a drunken feast, "I wish to marry so-and-so, daughter of so-and-so," and afterward break his promise and refuse to marry her, he is fined for it; and they take away a great part of his property.

In regard to the dowry, neither the husband nor the wife can enjoy it until they have children; for until then it belongs to the father-in-law. If the bridegroom is not of age to marry, or the bride is too young, both still work in the house of the father-in-law until they are of age to live together.

Marriage among the timaguas. The timaguas do not follow these usages, because they have no property of their own. They do not observe the ceremony of joining hands over the dish of rice, through respect for the chiefs; for that ceremony is for chiefs only. Their marriage is accomplished when the pair unite in drinking pitarrilla from the same cup. Then they give a shout, and all the guests depart; and they are considered as married, for they are not allowed to drink together until late at night. The same ceremony is observed by rich and respectable slaves.

Marriage among the slaves. But the poor slaves, who serve in the houses, marry each other without drinking and without any go-between. They observe no ceremony, but simply say to each other, "Let us marry." If a chief have a slave, one of his ayoiys, who serves in the house, and wishes to marry him to a female slave of the same class belonging to another chief, he sends an Indian woman as agent to the master of the female slave, saying that her master wishes to marry one of his male slaves to the other's female slave. After the marriage has been arranged, he gives his slave an earthen jar, or three or four dishes, and there is no other ceremony. Half of the children born to this couple will belong to the master of the female slave, and the other half will belong to the master of the male slave. When the time comes when their children are able to work for their masters, the parents are made tumaranpoques, as we have said; because when a male slave of one chief marries the female slave of another chief, they immediately receive a house for their own use, and go out to work for their masters. If a freeman marries a female slave, or vice versa, half of the children are slaves. Thus, if there are two children, one is free and the other a slave, as the parents may choose.

In one thing these natives seem to go beyond all reason and justice. It is usage among them that, if an Indian of one village owes twenty pesos (to suppose a case) to an Indian in another village, and when asked for the money refuses to repay it, when any Indian of that village where the said twenty pesos is due is caught, they seize him—even if he is in no way related to or acquainted with the debtor—and compel him to pay the twenty pesos. It is their custom that he who first owed the twenty pesos must return to him who paid that sum forty pesos instead, on account of the violence used against him. They say that they act thus in order not to use the mailed hand for collecting from the other in that village, since that would result in war.

Friendship. Reconciliation between those who have quarreled, whether these are individuals or the people of different villages, is brought about by drawing blood from the arms of both parties, and each tasting the blood of the other, placed in a shell, sometimes mixed with a little wine; and such friendship is not to be broken.

Witches and sorcerers; physicians. In this land are sorcerers and witches—although there are also good physicians, who cure diseases with medicinal herbs; especially they have a remedy for every kind of poison, for there are most wonderful antidotal herbs. The natives of this island are very superstitious; consequently, no native will embark for any voyage in a vessel on which there may be a goat or a monkey, for they say that they will surely be wrecked. They have a thousand other omens of this sort. For a few years past they have had among them one form of witchcraft which was invented by the natives of Ybalon after the Spaniards had come here. This is the invocation of certain demons, whom they call Naguined, Arapayan, and Macbarubac. To these they offer sacrifices, consisting of cocoanut-oil and a crocodile's tooth; and while they make these offerings, they invoke the demons. This oil they sell to one another; and even when they sell it they offer sacrifices and invoke the demon, beseeching him that the power which he possesses may be transferred to the buyer of the oil. They claim that the simple declaration that one will die within a certain time is sufficient to make him die immediately at that time, unless they save him with another oil, which counteracts the former. This witchery has done a great deal of harm among the Pintados, because the demon plays tricks on them. The religious have tried to remedy this evil, by taking away from them the oil and chastising them.

Sneezing. If any one who is going to war or is about to begin any important undertaking, sneeze on leaving the house, he considers it a bad omen, and turns back.

Feasts. These natives have no feasts that they observe, throughout the year-save that when the married men go to war, during their absence the women do not work.

At the rice-harvest. Besides these times they set apart seven days when they begin to till their fields, in which time they neither grind any rice for their food, nor do they allow any stranger, during all that time, to enter their villages; for they say that that is the time when they pray to their gods to grant them an abundant harvest.

Years and months. They divide the year into twelve months, although only seven [sc. eight] of these have names; they are lunar months, because they are reckoned by moons. The first month is that in which the Pleiades appear, which they call Ulalen. The second is called Dagancahuy, the time when the trees are felled in order to sow the land. Another month they call Daganenan bulan; it comes when the wood of those trees is collected from the fields. Another is called Elquilin, and is the time when they burn over the fields. Another month they call Ynabuyan, which comes when the bonancas blow. Another they call Cavay; it is when they weed their fields. Another they call [Cabuy: crossed out in MS.] Yrarapun; it is the time when they begin to harvest the rice. Another they call Manalulsul, in which the harvesting is completed. As for the remaining months, they pay little attention to them, because in those months there is no work in the fields.

Winds. It is their opinion that the winds come from the sea, which they base on the fact that the sea swells before the winds begin to blow.

Turtles. In this land are very many turtles, of great size; they are larger than a shield. Here is a marvellous thing when the male and the female have intercourse, they remain thus joined together for twenty or twenty-five days. They become so stupefied during this act that the Indians dive into the sea, and tie the feet of the turtles without their perceiving it, and draw these creatures ashore. I have even done this myself.

Serpents. There are in this land enormous serpents, as large as palm-trees; they are, however, sluggish.

Crocodiles. There are enormous numbers of crocodiles, which are water-lizards. They live in all the rivers and in the sea, and do much harm.

Civet-cats. In many of these islands are civet-cats.

Tabon birds. In this land there is a kind of bird, smaller than a Castilian fowl; its eggs is larger than that of a goose, and is almost all yolk. This bird lays its eggs in the sand, a braza deep, at the edge of the water. There the young ones are hatched, and come up through the sand, opening a way through it with their little feet; and as soon as they gain the surface they fly away. [16]

Palms. In all these islands are great numbers of cocoa-palms. In some of the nuts are found stones as large as filberts, which the natives prize, although thus far it is not known what efficacy they have. They draw a great quantity of wine from the palm-trees; one Indian can in one forenoon obtain two arrobas of sap from the palm trees that he cultivates. It is sweet and good, and is used in making great quantities of brandy, excellent vinegar, and delicious honey. The cocoanuts furnish a nutritious food when rice is scarce. From the nut-shells they make dishes, and [from the fibrous husk?] match-cords for their arquebuses; and with the leaves they make baskets. Consequently this tree is very useful.

In these islands are very many swine, and goats of excellent quality. There are also a great many wild buffaloes, which, if caught when young, can be easily tamed. There are ducks, and some geese which have been brought from China. There are also a great many fowls of excellent quality, which are similar to those of Castilla. There are some fowls which have no tails, for which reason the natives superstitiously refuse to eat them; but these are better than the other sorts.

As for fruits like those in Castilla, they were formerly not to be found in this land, because of its proximity to China, where there are so many fruits peculiar to that country. There are here some tolerably good fruits, such as excellent bananas [17]; nancas, a very fragrant fruit, and larger than the largest Spanish melon; macupas, which resemble apples; and santors, which taste like the quince. There are also many good oranges and lemons.

In the province of Ylocos is found a large tree whose blossoms resemble the white lily, and taste like fish. The Indians gather the blossoms in the morning, cook them, and eat them in place of fish. And, wonderful to relate, on the next morning the tree is again full of blossoms; and this occurs day after day.

In the mountain region, where there is scarcity of water, are found certain bejucos, six or eight brazas high, and larger around than the thumb. When this stem is cut, there gushes forth a great quantity of water, of excellent taste; and this liquid supplies the lack of water. Each bejuco will yield two or three cuartillos of water. [18]



Chapter Eleventh

Which treats of the rites and ceremonies observed by the Moros in the vicinity of Manilla, and of their social conditions

The god Batala. According to the religion formerly observed by these Moros, they worshiped a deity called among them Batala, which properly means "God." They said that they adored this Batala because he was the Lord of all, and had created human beings and villages. They said that this Batala had many agents under him, whom he sent to this world to produce, in behalf of men, what is yielded here. These beings were called anitos, and each anito had a special office. Some of them were for the fields, and some for those who journey by sea; some for those who went to war, and some for diseases. Each anito was therefore named for his office; there was, for instance, the anito of the fields, and the anito of the rain. To these anitos the people offered sacrifices, when they desired anything—to each one according to his office. The mode of sacrifice was like that of the Pintados. They summoned a catalonan, which is the same as the vaylan among the Pintados, that is, a priest. He offered the sacrifice, requesting from the anito whatever the people desired him to ask, and heaping up great quantities of rice, meat, and fish. His invocations lasted until the demon entered his body, when the catalonan fell into a swoon, foaming at the mouth. The Indians sang, drank, and feasted until the catalonan came to himself, and told them the answer that the anito had given to him. If the sacrifice was in behalf of a sick person, they offered many golden chains and ornaments, saying that they were paying a ransom for the sick person's health. This invocation of the anito continued as long as the sickness lasted.

When the natives were asked why the sacrifices were offered to the anito, and not to the Batala, they answered that the Batala was a great lord, and no one could speak to him. He lived in the sky; but the anito, who was of such a nature that he came down here to talk with men, was to the Batala as a minister, and interceded for them. In some places and especially in the mountain districts, when the father, mother, or other relative dies, the people unite in making a small wooden idol, and preserve it. Accordingly there is a house which contains one hundred or two hundred of these idols. These images also are called anitos; for they say that when people die, they go to serve the Batala. Therefore they make sacrifices to these anitos, offering them food, wine, and gold ornaments; and request them to be intercessors for them before the Batala, whom they regard as God.

Government of the Moros. Among the Moros there is precisely the same lack of government as among the Pintados. They had chiefs in their respective districts, whom the people obeyed; they punished criminals, and laid down the laws that must be observed. In the villages, where they had ten or twelve chiefs, one only—the richest of them—was he whom all obeyed. They greatly esteem an ancient lineage, which is therefore a great advantage to him who desires to be a lord. When laws were to be enacted for governing the commonwealth, the greatest chief, whom all the rest obeyed, assembled in his own house all the other chiefs of the village; and when they had come, he made a speech, declaring that, to correct the many criminal acts which were being committed, it was necessary that they impose penalties and enact ordinances, so that these evils might be remedied and that all might live in peace. This policy was not in vogue among the Pintados, because no one of them was willing to recognize another as his superior. Then the other chiefs replied that this seemed good to them; and that, since he was the greatest chief of all, he might do whatever appeared to him just, and they would approve it. Accordingly, that chief made such regulations as he deemed necessary; for these Moros possess the art of writing, which no other natives of the islands have. The other chiefs approved what he ordained. Immediately came a public crier, whom they call umalahocan, who is properly a mayor-domo, or steward; he took a bell and went through the village, announcing in each district the regulations which had been made. The people replied that they would obey. Thus the umalahocan went from village to village, through the whole district of this chief; and from that time on he who incurred the penalties of law was taken to the chief, who sentenced him accordingly. If the penalty be death, and the condemned man say that he prefers to be a slave, he is pardoned, and becomes a slave. All the other chiefs are also judges, each in his own district; but when any important case arises the head chief calls all the others together, in order to decide it, and the affair is settled by the vote of all. The chiefs are accustomed to impose the taxes; but there is no fixed amount for these, save what the proper judge decrees shall be paid.

Marriages. These Moros followed in their marriages the same customs as those of the Pintados, in giving the dowry. Thus, if the man should, contrary to the woman's desire, break his pledge and annul the marriage, he would lose the dowry, and she would retain it, free from him. Likewise, if the wife left the husband she was obliged to return him the dowry. If she committed adultery and the husband therefore left her, she returned him double the amount of the dowry. If the wife left the husband in order to marry another, the second husband was obliged to repay to the first husband the dowry which the latter had given to the woman, and to pay a fine, more or less—such an amount as the judge should order him to give. If the husband were a chief, and caught his wife in the act of committing adultery, he had the right to punish her with death, and the adulterer also, and could slay them with impunity. If he killed one and the other escaped, there would be open war between the two families until the other adulterer died. If both escaped, they must pay for their lives with a certain weight of gold. If they were chiefs, the penalty was one hundred taes, fifty for the woman and fifty for the adulterer. This done, they were pardoned, and remained friends. If they were timaguas, they incurred a lighter penalty.

Wars. In wars and slavery among the Moros, they observed the same customs as did the Pintados.

Thieves. There was among the natives a law concerning thieves. It was a petty theft if the amount were less than four taes (that is, twenty pesos); but if more than that sum, it was a serious offense. He who committed the former must return the gold, and then be sentenced, at the will of the judge, to pay a fine in money. If it were the greater theft, involving an amount of four taes or upward, he incurred the penalty of slavery. But if the goods stolen amounted to a cati [catty] of gold, the penalty was death, or the enslavement of the culprit and his children and all those of his household.

It was also a law that for the first theft the penalty was a fine in money, and for the second, slavery; for further offenses, it was death. Or if pardoned, as described above, he was made a slave, with his wife and children. This punishment did not apply to the son who proved that he was outside the house—whether he dwelt in a house of his own or lived with relatives on an independent footing; and therefore he was free. Only those who lived in the house of the delinquent were liable to punishment, because they all were suspected of knowledge of the theft.

There was also a law that anyone who spoke disrespectfully of a chief, or uttered abusive language to him, was liable to death. If he could redeem his life, a fine of fifteen taes of gold was imposed. If he did not have the means to pay and relatives did not contribute to ransom him, and the delinquent begged for mercy, saying that then he would become a slave, his life was spared, and he became the slave of the injured party. For this reason the penalty of a fine was available for him who possessed wealth. If the quarrel were between persons of equal rank, the chiefs settled the matter according to justice and their laws, and the like penalty was imposed. If the delinquent refused to pay according to this sentence, war was declared between the villages or the factions. Hostilities then followed; and from that time those who were captured were enslaved.

One may be released after paying the sum decreed; until then he is a slave. It was a law that if, when two timaguas were together, either of them insulted the other, he must pay a sum of money according to the nature of the insult, which was decided by the judge. If the insult were a gross one, the fine was large accordingly; and if the culprit had not the means to pay more than five taes, he became the slave of the injured person. If the delinquent begged from the chief or some other friend the favor of lending him the money, he became the slave of him who loaned the money. This slavery extended only to the culprit, and not to his children or relatives, except to children who were born during his slavery.

It is usual among the natives of this island to aid one another with money-loans. He who borrowed from a chief or a timagua retained the money until a fixed time had elapsed, during which he might use the money that was lent to him; and besides, he divided with the lender the profit that he made, in acknowledgment of the favor that he had received.

It was a law that if he who borrowed the money became insolvent, and had not means to pay his debt, he was considered a slave therefor, together with the children born during his slavery; those already born were free.

It was a law among these people, when two men formed a business partnership in which each placed the same amount of money, that if one of them went to traffic with the money belonging to both, and while on a trading journey were captured by enemies, the other man who remained in the village must go to ransom his partner, with half of the ransom-price agreed upon; and the captive was then released from liability—not only for what was due to the partnership, but for the amount which was afterward given for his ransom, and was not obliged to pay anything. If the man who lost the money lost it in gambling, or by spending it with women, he was obliged to repay to the partnership the amount which he had drawn therefrom, and he and his children were obliged to pay it. If the amount were so great that they could not pay it within the time agreed upon, he and half his children would become the slaves of the partner. If there were two children, one was a slave and the other was free; if four, two were slaves, and two free; and so on with any larger number. If the children were able to pay their father's debt afterward, they were set free.

It was a law that he who killed another must die; but if he begged for mercy he would become the slave of the dead man's father, children, or nearest relatives. If four or five men were concerned in the murder, they all paid to the master of the slave the price which the slave might be worth; and then the judge sentenced them to such punishment as he thought just. If the men had not means to pay the fine, they became slaves. If the dead man were a timagua, the penalty of death was incurred by those who were proved to be his murderers; but if the condemned men begged for mercy they became slaves. Accordingly, after they were sentenced the culprit might choose between death and slavery. If the man slain were a chief, the entire village where he was slain must, when that was proved, become slaves, those who were most guilty being first put to death. If the murderers were private persons only, three or four of the most guilty were put to death, without any resource in mercy; and the rest, with their children, became slaves.

When any person entered the house of a chief by night, against the will of the owner, he incurred the death penalty. It was their custom that when such an offender was caught he was first tortured, to ascertain whether any other chief had sent him. If he confessed that he had been thus sent, he was punished by enslavement; and he who had sent him incurred the death penalty, but might be released therefrom by paying a certain amount of gold for the crime.

He who committed adultery was, if he were one of the chiefs, punished with death; the same penalty was inflicted upon any man who was caught with the concubine of a chief. Similarly, the husband might kill the adulterer, if caught in the act. If perchance he escaped by flight, he was condemned to pay a fine in money; and until this was done there was enmity between the two families concerned. The same law was in force among the timaguas.

This relation was written by order of the governor of these islands.

Miguel de Loarca of the town of Arevalo.

was also one of the first, among those who came to these islands, who showed any curiosity regarding these matters; and therefore I consider this a reliable and true account.



[Endorsed at end: "A memoir regarding the peculiarities of these islands, written in obedience to a decree of his Majesty. To the royal Council of the Indies."]

[Endorsed on outside wrapper: "Relation of the Filipinas Islands, their discovery, the Spanish settlements, the usages and customs of the natives, their religion, etc.; written, in virtue of a royal decree, by Miguel de Loarca, a citizen of the town of Arevalo, one of the earliest conquerors and settlers." A similar endorsement is written on the inside cover of the MS.]



LETTER FROM DOMINGO DE SALAZAR TO FELIPE II

Royal Catholic Majesty:

After having written the letters and memoranda which are going to your Majesty, there came some neighboring Indians to this city, who begged me to make known to your Majesty the contents of their testimonial. A few days afterward I told certain of them that they should decide what they wished, and that I would write to your Majesty concerning them—as your Majesty is a most Christian king who considers well their interests, and has commanded that they be well-treated, and will order punishment for those who maltreat them.

On the same day, some of the most prominent Indians came, and with them more than forty others from the neighboring villages. They asked from me the things that I have stated elsewhere; and I certify to your Majesty that, if all that they said could be written in this account, it would be but little shorter than the other one which I am sending to your Majesty. Without doubt it would break your Majesty's heart if you could see them as they are, and how pitiable are their appearance and the things that they relate.

Another day there came chiefs from other villages to say the same and much more. Today ten or twelve chiefs have come to see me from a province called Mauban, which belongs to your Majesty. They are all heathen, and told me that they had learned that I wrote to your Majesty in their behalf. They asked me to remember them also. I did not wish to admit more than what was said by those who came first, as it would make a disturbance in the land, should they all come here to complain. Your Majesty will be pleased to command that their case be considered, and provision made for them. I can do nothing, save to deplore it, and to beseech your Majesty for the remedy. Manila, June twenty, 1582.

Fray Domingo, Bishop of the Felipinas



In the city of Manila, on the fifteenth day of the month of June, of the year one thousand five hundred and eighty-two, before the very illustrious Don Fray Domingo de Salasar, first bishop of these islands and a member of his Majesty's council, and in the presence of me, the secretary undersigned, there appeared certain Indians who spoke through Francisco Morantes and Andres de Cervantes, interpreters of the Moro tongue. They declared themselves to be Don Luis Amanicaldo, Don Martin Panga, Don Gabriel Luanbacar, and Don Juan Bautangad, Christians; and Salalila and Calao Amarlenguaguay, heathen; and Dona Francisca Saygan: all chiefs of the villages of Tondo and Capaymisilo; and many other chiefs. Through the interpreters, they said that they had learned that by this ship which is about to depart for Nueva Espana, his most reverend Lordship was to write to his Majesty. As they were suffering so many injuries, grievances, and vexations, as is well-known to all, they humbly begged that he be so kind as to inform his Majesty thereof in detail, in order that his Majesty, after having learned of their afflictions, may be pleased to remedy them. They were then asked what things they desired to be especially placed before his Majesty's consideration, and to declare the same. They replied that the injuries which they suffer, and which ought to be redressed, are those inflicted by the alcaldes-mayor. Much trouble is caused them by these officials, as within three leagues there are four alcaldes-mayor and their officers, who inflict serious penalties for light offenses. They take at their own price the rice of the Indians, and afterward sell it at a very high rate, doing the same with all other articles of provisions and agricultural products. Furthermore, they oblige the Indians to act as their oarsmen, whenever they wish. If they return from an expedition which has lasted a month, they are told straightway to prepare for another, being paid nothing whatsoever; nevertheless in every village assessments are levied upon the natives, for the payment of those who go on such service. If at any time they are paid, it is very little, and that very seldom. Because of the many acts of oppression which they have suffered, many Indians have now abandoned Tondo, Capaymisilo, and other villages near this city of Manila. They have gone to live in other provinces, which has occasioned much damage and loss to the chiefs. Out of the three hundred Indians who were there, one hundred have gone away, and the said chiefs are obliged to pay the tribute for those who flee and die, and for their slaves and little boys. If they do not pay these, they are placed in the stocks and flogged. Others are tied to posts and kept there until they pay. Moreover, they dig no gold, for the officials oblige them to pay the fifth. If they do not make a statement of their gold it is seized as forfeited, even when it is old gold; and the gold is not returned to them until after payment of a heavy fine. They do not wish to let the alcaldes-mayor buy rice, because they all hoard it. If the natives come to complain of their grievances to the alcaldes-mayor alone, they are imprisoned and thrown into the stocks, and are charged with prison-fees. Their afflictions and troubles are so many that they cannot be endured; and they wish to leave this island, or at least to go to some encomienda of a private individual. In the said villages of the king they cannot endure the alcaldes-mayor.