FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote 15: J.=Jain.]



CHAPTER XXVII

THE NORTH WEST FRONTIER PROVINCE

1. Districts

The Province.—The N. W. F. Province consists of five British districts, Dera Ismail Khan, Bannu, Kohat, Peshawar, and Hazara with a total area of 13,193 square miles, of which rather less than one-third is cultivated. Of the cultivated area 70 p.c. depends solely on the rainfall. In addition the Chief Commissioner as Agent to the Governor General controls beyond the administrative boundary territory occupied by independent tribes, which covers approximately an area of 25,500 square miles. In 1911 the population of British districts was 2,196,933 and that of tribal territory is estimated to exceed 1,600,000. In the districts 93 persons in every hundred profess the creed of Islam and over 38 p.c. are Pathans.

[Sidenote: Area, 3780 sq. m. Cultd area, 851 sq. m. Pop. 256,120. Land Rev. Rs. 306,240 = L20,416.]

Dera Ismail Khan lies to the north of Dera Ghazi Khan and is very similar to it in its physical features. It is divided into the three tahsils of Tank, Dera Ismail Khan, and Kulachi. It has a long river frontage on the west, and is bounded on the east by the Suliman Range. The Kachchhi of Dera Ismail Khan corresponds to the Sindh of Dera Ghazi Khan, but is much narrower and is not served by inundation canals, except in the extreme north, where the Paharpur Canal has recently been dug. It depends on floods and wells. The Daman or "Skirt" of the hills is like the Pachadh of Dera Ghazi Khan a broad expanse of strong clayey loam or pat seamed by torrents and cultivated by means of dams and embanked fields. The climate is intensely hot in summer, and the average rainfall only amounts to ten inches. Between one-fourth and one-fifth of the area is cultivated. The Pachadh is a camel-breeding tract.



Pathans predominate in the Daman and Jats in the Kachchhi. The Bhittannis in the north of the district are an interesting little tribe. The hill section lies outside our administrative border, but like the Largha Sheranis in the south are under the political control of the Deputy Commissioner. A good metalled road, on which there is a tonga service, runs northwards from Dera Ismail Khan to Bannu.

[Sidenote: Area, 1641 sq. m. Cultd area, 818 sq. m. Pop. 250,086. Land Rev. Rs. 304,004 = L20,267.]



Bannu.—The small Bannu district occupies a basin surrounded by hills and drained by the Kurram and its affluent, the Tochi. It is cut off from the Indus by the Isakhel tahsil of Mianwali and by a horn of the Dera Ismail Khan district. Bannu is now connected with Kalabagh in Mianwali by a narrow gauge railway. An extension of this line from Laki to Tank in the Dera Ismail Khan district has been sanctioned. There are two tahsils, Bannu and Marwat. The cultivated area is about one-half of the total area. About 30 p.c. of the cultivation is protected by irrigation from small canals taking out of the streams. Most of the irrigation is in the Bannu tahsil. The greater part of Marwat is a dry sandy tract yielding in favourable seasons large crops of gram. But the harvests on unirrigated land are precarious, for the annual rainfall is only about 12 inches. The irrigated land in Bannu is heavily manured and is often double-cropped. Wheat accounts for nearly half of the whole crops of the district. The Marwats are a frank manly race of good physique. The Bannuchis are hard-working, but centuries of plodding toil on a wet soil has spoiled their bodily development, and had its share in imparting to their character qualities the reverse of admirable. The Deputy Commissioner has also political charge of some 17,884 tribesmen living across the border. There are good metalled roads to Dera Ismail Khan and Kohat, and also one on the Tochi route.

[Sidenote: Area, 2973 sq. m. Cultd area, 512 sq. m. Pop. 222,690. Land Rev. Rs. 275,462 = L18,364.]

Kohat is a large district, but most of it is unfit for tillage and only one-sixth is actually cultivated. The chief crops are wheat, 44, and bajra, 26 p.c. The district stretches east and west for 100 miles from Khushalgarh on the Indus to Thal at the mouth of the Kurram valley. The two places are now connected by a railway which passes through the district headquarters at Kohat close to the northern border. There are three tahsils, Kohat, Hangu, and Teri, the last a wild tract of bare hills and ravines occupying the south of the district and covering more than half its area. Two small streams, the Kohat Toi and the Teri Toi, drain into the Indus. The rainfall is fair, but very capricious. The cold weather lasts long and the chill winds that blow during part of it are very trying. The chief tribes are the Bangash Pathans of Hangu and the Khattak Pathans of Teri. The Khan of Teri is head of the Khattaks, a manly race which sends many soldiers to our army. He enjoys the revenue of the tahsil subject to a quit rent of Rs. 20,000.

Hangu contains in Upper and Lower Miranzai the most fertile land in the district, but the culturable area of the tahsil is small and only one-tenth of it is under the plough. Perennial streams run through the Miranzai valleys, and the neighbouring hills support large flocks of sheep and goats. Kohat contains a number of salt quarries, the most important being at Bahadur Khel near the Bannu border. The Thal subdivision consisting of the Hangu tahsil is in charge of an Assistant Commissioner who manages our political relations with transfrontier tribes living west of Fort Lockhart on the Samana Range. The Deputy Commissioner is in direct charge of the Pass Afridis and the Jowakis and Orakzais in the neighbourhood of Kohat. He and his Assistant between them look after our relations with 144,000 trans-border Pathans. The Samana Rifles, one of the useful irregular corps which keep the peace of the Borderland, have their headquarters at Hangu.



[Sidenote: Area, 2611 sq. m. Cultd area, 1398 sq. m. Pop. 865,000 Land Rev Rs. 11,37,504 = L75,834.]

Peshawar is a large basin encircled by hills. The gorge of the Indus separates it from Attock and Hazara. The basin is drained by the Kabul river, whose chief affluents in Peshawar are the Swat and the Bara. The district is divided into the five tahsils of Peshawar, Charsadda, Naushahra, Mardan, and Swabi. The last two form the Mardan subdivision. Nearly 40 p.c. of the cultivation is protected by irrigation mainly from canals large and small. The most important are the Lower Swat, the Kabul River, and the Bara River, Canals. The irrigated area will soon be much increased by the opening of the Upper Swat Canal. The cold weather climate is on the whole pleasant, though too severe in December and January. The three months from August to October are a very unhealthy time. The soil except in the stony lands near the hills is a fertile loam. The cold weather rainfall is good, and the Spring harvest is by far the more important of the two. Wheat is the chief crop. Half of the people are Pathans, the rest are known generically as Hindkis. The principal Hindki tribe is that of the Awans. Besides managing his own people the Deputy Commissioner has to supervise our relations with 240,000 independent tribesmen across the border. The Assistant Commissioner at Mardan, where the Corps of Guides is stationed, is in charge of our dealings with the men of Buner and the Yusafzai border. The N.W. Railway runs past the city of Peshawar to Jamrud, and there is a branch line from Naushahra to Dargai at the foot of the Malakand Pass.

[Sidenote: Area, 2858 sq. m. Cultd area, 673 sq. m. Pop. 603,028. Land Rev. Rs. 512,897 = L34,193.]



Hazara is a typical montane and submontane district with a copious rainfall and a good climate. It has every kind of cultivation from narrow terraced kalsi fields built laboriously up steep mountain slopes to very rich lands watered by canal cuts from the Dor or Haro. Hazara is divided into three tahsils, Haripur, Abbottabad, and Mansehra. Between a fourth and a fifth of this area is culturable and cultivated. In this crowded district the words are synonymous. The above figure does not include the 204 square miles of Feudal Tanawal. The rainfall is copious and the crops generally speaking secure. The principal are maize 42 and wheat 25 p.c. Hazara was part of the territory made over to Raja Gulab Singh in 1846, but he handed it back in exchange for some districts near Jammu. The maintenance of British authority in Hazara in face of great odds by the Deputy Commissioner, Captain James Abbott, during the Second Sikh War is a bright page in Panjab history, honourable alike to himself and his faithful local allies. The population is as mixed as the soils. Pathans are numerous, but they are split up into small tribes. The Swatis of Mansehra are the most important section. After Pathans Gujars and Awans are the chief tribes. The Gakkhars, though few in number, hold much land and a dominant position in the Khanpur tract on the Rawalpindi border. The Deputy Commissioner is also responsible for our relations with 98,000 trans-border tribesmen. The district is a wedge interposed between Kashmir on the east and Peshawar and the tribal territory north of Peshawar on the west. The Indus becomes the border about eight miles to the north of Amb, and the district consists mainly of the areas drained by its tributaries the Unhar, Siran, Dor, and Haro. On the eastern side the Jhelam is the boundary with Kashmir from Kohala to a point below Domel, where the Kunhar meets it. Thence the Kunhar is the boundary to near Garhi Habibullah. To the south of Garhi the watershed of the Kunhar and Jhelam is close to these rivers and the country is very rough and poor. West of Garhi it is represented by the chain which separates the Kunhar and Siran Valleys and ends on the frontier at Musa ka Musalla (13,378 feet). This chain includes one peak over 17,000 feet, Mali ka Parvat, which is the highest in the district. The Kunhar rises at the top of the Kagan Glen, where it has a course of about 100 miles to Balakot. Here the glen ends, for the fall between Balakot and Garhi Habibullah is comparatively small. There is a good mule road from Garhi Habibullah to the Babusar Pass at the top of the Kagan Glen, and beyond it to Chilas. There are rest-houses, some very small, at each stage from Balakot to Chilas. The Kagan is a beautiful mountain glen. At places the narrow road looks sheer down on the river hundreds of feet below, rushing through a narrow gorge with the logs from the deodar forests tossing on the surface, and the sensation, it must be confessed, is not wholly pleasant. But again it passes close to some quiet pretty stretch of this same Kunhar. There are side glens, one of which opposite Naran contains the beautiful Safarmulk Lake. Near the top of the main glen the Lulusar Lake at a height of 11,167 feet and with an average depth of 150 feet is passed on the left. In the lower part of the glen much maize is grown. As one ascends almost the last crop to be seen is a coarse barley sown in June and reaped in August. Where the trees and the crops end the rich grass pastures begin. Kagan covers between one-third and one-fourth of the whole district. The Siran flows through the beautiful Bhogarmang Glen, at the foot of which it receives from the west the drainage of the Konsh Glen. Forcing its way through the rough Tanawal hills, it leaves Feudal Tanawal and Badhnak on its right, and finally after its junction with the Dor flows round the north of the Gandgarh Range and joins the Indus below Torbela. The bare Gandgarh Hills run south from Torbela parallel with the Indus. The Dor rises in the hills to the south of Abbottabad and drains the Haripur plain. A range of rough hills divides the Dor valley from that of the Haro, which again is separated from Rawalpindi by the Khanpur Range. To the west of the Siran the Unhar flows through Agror and Feudal Tanawal, and joins the Indus a little above Amb. Irrigation cuts are taken from all these streams, and the irrigated cultivation is often of a very high character. The best cultivation of the district is in the Haripur plain and the much smaller Orash and Pakhli plains and in the Haro valley. There is much unirrigated cultivation in the first, and it is generally secure except in the dry tract in the south-west traversed by the new railway from Sarai Kala. The little Orash plain below Abbottabad is famous for its maize and the Pakhli plain for its rice.

Feudal Tanawal is a very rough hilly country between the Siran on the east and the Black Mountain and the river Indus on the west. It is the appanage of the Khans of Amb and Phulra.

North of Feudal Tanawal is Agror. In 1891 the rights of the last Khan were declared forfeit for abetment of raids by trans-bordermen.

There are fine forests in Hazara, but unfortunately the deodar is confined to the Kagan Glen and the Upper Siran. Nathiagali, the summer headquarters of the Chief Commissioner, is in the Dungagali Range. The Serai Kala-Srinagar railway will run through Hazara. There is a good mule road from Murree to Abbottabad through the Galis.

2. Tribal Territory



Feudal Tanawal mentioned above occupies the southern corner of the tract of independent tribal territory lying between the Hazara border and the Indus. North of Tanawal on the left bank of the river a long narrow chain known as the Black Mountain rises in its highest peaks to a height of nearly 10,000 feet. The western slopes are occupied by Hasanzais, Akazais, and Chagarzais, who are Pathans belonging to the great Yusafzai clan, and these three sections also own lands on the right bank of the Indus. They have been very troublesome neighbours to the British Government. The eastern slopes of the Black Mountain are occupied by Saiyyids and Swatis, and the latter also hold the glens lying further north, the chief of which is Allai.



The mountainous tract on the Peshawar border lying to the west of Tanawal and the territory of the Black Mountain tribes formed part of the ancient Udyana, and its archaeological remains are of much interest. It is drained by the Barandu, a tributary of the Indus. Its people are mainly Yusafzai Pathans, the principal section being the Bunerwals. These last bear a good character for honesty and courage, but are slaves to the teachings of their mullas. The Yusafzais have been bad neighbours. The origin of the trouble is of old standing, dating back to the welcome given by the tribesmen in 1824 to a band of Hindustani fanatics, whose leader was Saiyyid Ahmad Shah of Bareilly. Their headquarters, first at Sitana and afterwards at Malka, became Caves of Adullam for political refugees and escaped criminals, and their favourite pastime was the kidnapping of Hindu shopkeepers. In 1863 a strong punitive expedition under Sir Neville Chamberlain suffered heavy losses before it succeeded in occupying the Ambela Pass. The door being forced the Yusafzais themselves destroyed Malka as a pledge of their submission. Our political relations with the Yusafzais are managed by the Assistant Commissioner at Mardan.

The rest of the tribal territory between the Peshawar district and the Hindu Kush is included in the Dir, Swat, and Chitral political agency. It is a region of mountains and valleys drained by the Swat, Panjkora, and Chitral or Yarkhun rivers, all three affluents of the Kabul river. Six tracts are included in the Agency.

(a) Swat.—A railway now runs from Naushahra in the Peshawar district to Dargai, which lies at the foot of the Malakand, a little beyond our administrative boundary. An old Buddhist road crosses the pass and descends on the far side into Swat. We have a military post at Chakdarra on the Swat river, and a military road passing through Dir connects Chakdarra with Kila Drosh in Chitral. Most of the Swatis, who are Yusafzais of the Akozai section, occupy a rich valley above 70 miles in length watered by the Swat river above its junction with the Panjkora. Rice is extensively grown, and a malarious environment has affected the physique and the character of the people. The Swati is priest-ridden and treacherous. Even his courage has been denied, probably unjustly. Swati fanaticism has been a source of much trouble on the Peshawar border. The last serious outbreak was in 1897, when a determined, but unsuccessful, attack was made on our posts at Chakdarra and the Malakand Pass. The Swatis are Yusafzai Pathans of the Akozai clan, and are divided into five sections, one of which is known as Ranizai.

(b) Sam Ranizai.—A small tract between the Peshawar border and the hills is occupied by the Sam Ranizais, who were formerly servants and tenants of the Ranizais, but are now independent.

(c) Utman Khel.—The country of the Utman Khels begins where the Peshawar boundary turns to the south. This tribe occupies the tract on both sides of the Swat river to the west of Swat and Sam Ranizai. On the south-west the Swat river divides the Utman Khels from the Mohmands. Their country is very barren, but a good many of them cultivate land in the Peshawar district. The Utman Khels are quite independent of the surrounding tribes and have been troublesome neighbours to ourselves.

(d) Bajaur.—Bajaur is a very mountainous tract lying to the north-west of the Utman Khel country and between it and the Durand line. It includes four valleys, through which flow the Rud river and its affluents with the exception of that known as Jandol. The valley of the last is now included in Dir. The Rud, also known as the Bajaur, is a tributary of the Panjkora. The people consist mainly of Mamunds and other sections of the Tarkanri clan, which is related to the Yusafzais. They own a very nominal allegiance to the Khan of Nawagai, who is recognised as the hereditary head of the Tarkanris. They manage their affairs in quasi-republican fashion through a council consisting of the particular party which for the time being has got the upper hand.

(e) Dir.—Dir is the mountainous country drained by the Panjkora and its tributaries, to the north of its junction with the Rud river in Bajaur. It is separated from Chitral by the Uchiri Range, which forms the watershed of the Panjkora and Kunar rivers. The military road to Kila Drosh crosses this chain by the Lowari Pass at a height of 10,200 feet. The people of Dir are mostly Yusafzais, relations of the Swatis, whom they much resemble in character. They pay one-tenth of their produce to their overlord, the Khan of Dir, when he is strong enough to take it. The higher parts of the country have a good climate and contain fine deodar forests. The Khan derives much of his income from the export of timber, which is floated down the Panjkora and Swat rivers.

(f) Chitral.—The Pathan country ends at the Lowari Pass. Beyond, right up to the main axis of the Hindu Kush, is Chitral. It comprises the basin of the Yarkhun or Chitral river from its distant source in the Shawar Shur glacier to Arnawai, where it receives from the west the waters of the Bashgul, and is thenceforth known as the Kunar. Its western boundary is the Durand line, which follows a lofty chain sometimes called the Kafiristan range. Another great spur of the Hindu Kush known as the Shandur range divides Chitral on the east from the basin of the Yasin river and the territories included in the Gilgit Agency (see Chapter XXVIII). Chitral is a fine country with a few fertile valleys, good forests below 11,000 feet, and splendid, if desolate, mountains in the higher ranges. The Chitralis are a quiet pleasure-loving people, fond of children and of dancing, hawking, and polo. They are no cowards and no fanatics, but have little regard for truth or good faith. The common language is Khowar (see page 112). The chief, known as the Mehtar, has his headquarters at Chitral, a large village on the river of the same name. It is dominated at a distance by the great snow peak of Tirach Mir (see page 22). The British garrison is stationed at Kila Drosh on the river bank about halfway between Chitral and the Lowari Pass[16].



Mohmands and Mallagoris.—South of the Utman Khel country and north of the Khaibar are the rugged and barren hills held by that part of the Mohmand tribe which lives inside the Durand line. The clan can muster about 20,000 fighting men and is as convenient a neighbour as a nest of hornets. The southern edge of the tract, where it abuts on the Khaibar, is held by the little Mallagori tribe, which is independent of the Mohmands. Their country is important strategically because a route passes through it by which the Khaibar can be outflanked. It is included in the charge of the Political Agent for the Khaibar.

Afridis.—The pass and the tract lying to the south of it including the Bazar valley and part of Tirah are the home of the six sections of the Pass Afridis, the most important being the Zakha Khel, whose winter home is in the Khaibar and the Bazar valley, a barren glen hemmed in by barren hills, the entrance to which is not far from Ali Masjid. Its elevation is 3000 to 4000 feet. The valleys in Tirah proper, where the Pass Afridis for the most part spend the summer, are two or three thousand feet higher. When the snow melts there is excellent pasturage. The climate is pleasant in summer, but bitterly cold in winter. The Bara river with its affluents drains the glens of Tirah. The Aka Khel Afridis, who have no share in the Pass allowances, own a good dear of land in the lower Bara valley and winter in the adjoining hills. The fighting strength of the above seven sections may be put at 21,000. When they have been able to unite they have shown themselves formidable enemies, for they are a strong and manly race, and they inhabit a very difficult country[17]. But the Afridi clan is torn by dissensions. Blood feuds divide house from house, and the sections are constantly at feud one with another. Apart from other causes of quarrel there is the standing division into two great factions, Gar and Samil, which prevails among Afridis and Orakzais. Afridis enlist freely in our regiments and in the Khaibar Rifles, and have proved themselves excellent soldiers. The eighth section of the Afridis, the Adam Khel, who hold the Kohat Pass and the adjoining hills, have very little connection with the rest of the clan. The Jowakis, against whom an expedition had to be sent in the cold weather of 1877-78, are a sub-section of the Adam Khel.



Orakzais, Chamkannis, and Zaimukhts.—The Orakzais, who in numbers are even stronger than the Pass and Aka Khel Afridis, occupy the south of Tirah, the Samana Range on the border of Kohat, and the valley of the Khanki river. The tribal territory extends westwards as far as the Khurmana, a tributary of the Kurram. The Orakzais do some trade and Sikh banias and artizans are to be found in some of their villages. The clan is honey-combed with feuds. North-west of the Orakzais beyond the Khurmana are the Chamkannis, and on the south is a small tribe of vigorous mountaineers called Zaimukhts. One of these Zaimukhts, Sarwar Khan, nicknamed Chikai, was a notorious frontier robber, and a person of considerable importance on the border till his death in 1903.

The Kurram Valley.—The Kurram Valley, which is drained by the Kurram river and its affluents, lies to the south of the lofty Safed Koh range, and reaches from Thal in Kohat to the Peiwar Kotal on the borders of Afghan Khost. It has an area of nearly 1300 square miles and in 1911 the population was estimated at 60,941 souls. Though under British administration, it does not form a part of any British district. The people are Pathans of various clans, the predominant element being the Turis, who are Shias by religion and probably of Turkish origin. It was at their request that the valley was annexed in 1892. The political agent has his headquarters at Parachinar in Upper Kurram, which is divided from Lower Kurram by a spur of the Khost hills, through which the river has cut a passage. Such part of the Indian penal law as is suitable has been introduced, and civil rights are governed by the customary law of the Turis. A complete record of rights in land and water has been framed, and the land revenue demand is 88,000 rupees (L5889). Upper Kurram is a wide and fertile valley set in a frame of pine-clad hills. It is not fully cultivated, but has great possibilities, especially in the matter of fruit growing. The snowfall is heavy in winter, but the summer climate is excellent. Lower Kurram is a poor and narrow glen unpleasantly hot and cold according to the season of the year. Parachinar is connected with the railhead at Thal by a good tonga road.

Waziristan.—The country of the Darwesh Khel and Mahsud Wazirs extends from the Kurram valley to the Gomal river. It is divided into the North Waziristan (2300 square miles) and the South Waziristan (2700 square miles) Agencies. North Waziristan consists of four valleys and some barren plateaux. The principal valley is that of Daur (700 square miles) drained by the Tochi. In 1894 the Dauris sought refuge from Darwesh Khel inroads by asking for British administration. In the eyes of the Darwesh Khel they are a race of clodhoppers. Their sole virtue consists in patient spade industry in the stiff rich soil of their valley, their vices are gross, and their fanaticism is extreme. The political agent's headquarters are at Miram Shah. South Waziristan is the home of the troublesome Mahsuds, who can muster 11,000 fighting men. But parts of the country, e.g. the Wana plain, are held by the Darwesh Khel. Much of South Waziristan consists of bare hills and valleys and stony plains scored with torrents, which are dry most of the year. The streams are salt. Part of the hinterland is however a more inviting tract with grassy uplands and hills clad with oak, pine, and deodar. Wana, where the political agent has his headquarters, was occupied on the invitation of the Darwesh Khel in 1894.

Sheranis.—The Sherani country stretches along the Dera Ismail Khan border from the Gomal to the Vihoa torrent. The Largha or lower part has been under direct administration since 1899, the Upper part belongs to the Biluchistan Agency.

Tribal Militias.—In the greater part of India beyond the border there is no British administration. Respect for our authority and the peace of the roads are upheld, and raiding on British territory is restrained, by irregular forces raised from among the tribesmen. There are Hunza and Nagar levies, Chitral and Dir levies, Khaibar Rifles, Samana Rifles, and Kurram, North Waziristan, and South Waziristan militias.



FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote 16: For recent history see page 196.]

[Footnote 17: See page 196.]



CHAPTER XXVIII

KASHMIR AND JAMMU

Kashmir.—Some account has already been given of the topography and scenery of the wide territory, covering an area about equal to that of the Panjab less the Ambala division, ruled by the Maharaja of Kashmir and Jammu. The population, races, languages, and religions have been referred to in Chapters IX and X.

Modern history.—Some mention has been made of the early history of Kashmir (pages 165, 166, 172, 173). Even the hard Sikh rule was a relief to a country which had felt the tyranny of the Durani governors who succeeded the Moghals. Under the latter small kingships had survived in the Jammu hills, but the Jammuwal Rajas met at Ranjit Singh's hands the same fate as the Kangra Rajas. Three cadets of the Jammu royal house, the brothers Dhian Singh, Suchet Singh, and Gulab Singh, were great men at his court. In 1820 he made the last Raja of Jammu. Gulab Singh was a man fit for large designs. In 20 years he had made himself master of Bhadrawah, Kishtwar, Ladakh, and Baltistan, and held the casket which enclosed the jewel of Kashmir. He acquired the jewel itself for 75 lakhs by treaty with the British at the close of the first Sikh war.

Excluding a large but little-known and almost uninhabited tract beyond the Muztagh and Karakoram mountains, the drainage of which is northwards into Central Asia, the country consists of the valleys of the Chenab, Jhelam, and Indus, that of the last amounting to three-fourths of the whole. There is a trifling area to the west of Jammu, which contains the head-waters of small streams which find their way into the Ravi.



Divisions.—The following broad divisions may be recognised:

1. Chenab Valley (a) Plain and Kandi or Low Hills. (b) Uplands of Kishtwar and Bhadrawah.

2. Jhelam Valley (a) Vale of Kashmir with adjoining glens and hills. (b) Gorge below Baramula and Kishnganga Valley.

3. Indus Valley (a) Ladakh including Zanskar and Rupshu. (b) Baltistan. (c) Astor and Gilgit.

Chenab Valley.—(a) Plain and Kandi. This tract extends from Mirpur on the Jhelam to Kathua near the Ravi and close to the head-works of the Upper Bari Doab Canal at Madhopur. It is coterminous with the Panjab districts of Jhelam, Gujrat, Sialkot, and Gurdaspur, and comprises four of the five districts of the Jammu Province, Mirpur, Riasi, Jammu, and Jasrota, and a part of the fifth, Udhampur. The plain is moist and unhealthy. The rough country behind with a stony and thirsty red soil covered in its natural state with garna (Carissa spinarum), sanatan (Dodonaea viscosa), and bhekar (Adhatoda vasica) does not suffer in this respect. The chief crops of the Kandi are wheat, barley, and rape in the spring, and maize and bajra in the autumn, harvest. Behind the Kandi is a higher and better tract, including Naoshera, with wide valleys, in which maize replaces bajra.

(b) Uplands. The greater part of the Upper Chenab Valley is occupied by Kishtwar and Jagir Bhadrawah. The rainfall is heavy and there is copious irrigation from kuhls (page 142), but elevation and rapid drainage make the climate healthy. In the upper parts snow and cold winds sometimes prevent the ripening of the crops. The poppy is grown in Kishtwar and Bhadrawah. Kishtwar is a part of the Udhampur district.

Jhelam Valley.—(a) Vale of Kashmir with adjoining glens and mountains. This first division of the Jhelam Valley extends from the source above Vernag to Baramula, and embraces not only the Vale of Kashmir, over 80 miles long and from 20 to 25 miles in breadth, but the glens which drain into it and the mountains that surround it. It therefore includes cultivation of all sorts from rich irrigated rice fields to narrow plots terraced up mountain slopes on which buckwheat and the beardless Tibetan barley are grown. The administrative divisions are the wazarat or district of South Kashmir and the southern part of North Kashmir. The central valley has an elevation of 6000 feet. It was undoubtedly once a lake bed. Shelving fan-shaped "karewas" spread out into it from the bases of the hills. The object of the Kashmiri is to raise as much rice as he possibly can on the alluvium of his valley and on the rich soil deposited on the banks of mountain streams. Manure and facilities for irrigation exist in abundance, and full use is made of them in the cultivation of the favourite crop. Kangni takes the place of rice in many fields if there is any deficiency of water. On reclaimed swamps near the Jhelam heavy crops of maize are raised. The tillage for wheat and barley is as careless as that for rice is careful. The cultivation of saffron (Crocus sativus) on karewas is famous, but the area is now limited, as the starving people ate up the bulbs in the great famine of 1877 and recovery is slow. Saffron is used as a pigment for the sectarian marks on the forehead of the orthodox Hindu and also as a condiment. The little floating vegetable gardens on the Dal lake are a very curious feature. The "demb" lands on the borders of the same lake are a rich field for the market gardener's art. He fences a bit of land with willows, and deposits on it weeds and mud from the lake bed. He is of the boatman or Hanz caste, whose reputation is by no means high, and can himself convey by water his vegetables and fruits to the Srinagar market. The production of fruit in Kashmir is very large, and the extension of the railway to Srinagar should lead to much improvement in the quality and in the extent of the trade. It may also improve the prospects of sericulture.



(b) Jhelam Gorge and Valley of Kishnganga. The Jhelam gorge below Baramula is narrow and the cultivation is usually terraced. The Kishnganga joins the Jhelam near Muzaffarabad. The Muzaffarabad district includes the Jhelam gorge and the lower part of the valley of the Kishnganga. The upper part is in the Uttarmachhipura tahsil of the district of North Kashmir.

Indus Valley.—(a) Ladakh including Zanskar and Rupshu. Some description of Ladakh and its scenery has already been given in Chapter II. It may be divided into Rupshu, Zanskar, and Ladakh proper with Leh as its centre. Rupshu in the south-east is a country of great brackish lakes in no part less than 13,500 feet above sea level. At such a height cultivation must be very difficult, but a little beardless Tibetan barley is raised. The scanty population consists mainly of nomad shepherds. In Ladakh the people are divided into shepherds or champas, who roam over the Alpine pastures, and Ladakhis, who till laboriously every available patch of culturable land in the river valleys. Though both are Buddhists they rarely intermarry. Zanskar to the N.W. of Rupshu is drained by the river of the same name, which flows northwards to join the Indus below Leh. It forms part of the Kargil tahsil. Zanskar is a bleak inaccessible region where the people and cattle remain indoors for six months of the year. Its breed of ponies is famous. In Ladakh proper cultivation ranges from 9000 to 15,000 feet. The sandy soil must be manured and irrigated, and is often refreshed by top-dressings of fresh earth from the hill sides. The crops are wheat and barley, rape, lucerne, peas and beans, in spring, and buckwheat, millets, and turnips, in autumn. There is a great lack of wood for building and for fuel, and the deficiency in the latter case has to be supplied by cow-dung cakes. Notwithstanding their hard life the people are cheerful and fairly well off, for polyandry has prevented overcrowding.



(b) Baltistan. In Baltistan, which lies to the N.W. of Ladakh, they are Muhammadans and there is much more pressure on the soil. They are a cheery race and very fond of polo. To support their families the men have to work as carriers on the roads to Leh and Gilgit. They tend the cattle in the pastures, keep the irrigation channels and the walls of the terraced fields in repair, and do the ploughing. The rest of the work of cultivation is left to the women. The climate is very severe and most of the rivers are frozen in winter. On the other hand near the Indus on the Skardo plain (7250 feet) and in the Rondu gorge further west, the heat is intense in July and August. The dreary treeless stony Deosai Plains on the road to Kashmir have an elevation of 13,000 feet. The cultivation and crops are much the same as in Ladakh. Excellent fruit is grown, and there is a considerable export of apricots. Gold washing is carried on with profit.

Ladakh and Baltistan together form the Ladakh wazarat, divided into the three tahsils of Ladakh, Kargil, and Skardo.

(c) Astor and Gilgit.—Where the Gilgit road from Kashmir descends from the Burzil pass (13,500 feet) the country of Astor is reached. It is drained by the Astor river, which joins the Indus to the south of Bunji. The bridge which crosses it at Ramghat is only 3800 feet above sea level. The village of Astor itself is at a height of 7853 feet. The cultivation is of the same description as that in Baltistan. The aspect of the country is bleak till the Indus is crossed, and Gilgit (4890 feet) is reached. Here there is a fertile well-watered oasis from which on every side great mountain peaks are visible. The lands are heavily manured. Rice, maize, millet, buckwheat, cotton, wheat, barley, rape, and lucerne are grown. There is a second and easier road to Gilgit from India over the Babusar pass at the top of the Kagan Glen in Hazara. But the posts are sent by the Kashmir road. The Astoris and Gilgitis are a simple easy-going folk, and, like the Baltis, very fond of polo. A British Political Agent is stationed at Gilgit. He is responsible to the Government of India for the administration of Hunza, Nagar, and Yasin, and of the little republics in the neighbourhood of Chilas. Hunza and Nagar lie to the north of Gilgit near the junction of the Muztagh and Hindu Kush ranges, and Yasin far to the west about the upper waters of the Gilgit river.



In Astor and Gilgit also Gulab Singh's Dogras replaced the Sikh troops. But across the Indus Gulab Singh was never strong, and after 1852 that river was his boundary. He died in 1857, having proved himself a hard and unscrupulous, but a capable and successful ruler. His son, Randhir Singh, was a better man, but a worse king. A good Hindu, tolerant, and a friend of learning, he had not the force of character to control the corrupt official class, and the people suffered much in consequence. He was a loyal ally in the Mutiny. In 1860 his forces recovered Gilgit, a conquest which for years after was a fruitful source of suffering to his Cis-Indus subjects. The present Maharaja, Sir Pratap Singh, G.C.S.I., succeeded in 1885. While he lived his brother, Raja Amar Singh, played a very important part in Kashmir affairs. From 1887 to 1905 the administration was managed by a small council, of which after 1891 the Maharaja was President and Raja Amar Singh Vice-President. It was abolished in 1905. There are now under the Maharaja a chief minister and ministers in charge of the home and revenue departments. Judicial business is controlled by the Judge of the High Court. Death sentences must be confirmed by the Maharaja. The highest executive officers are the governors of Jammu and Kashmir, and the Wazirs Wazarat of Ladakh and Gilgit. In Jammu and Kashmir each of the eight districts is in charge of a Wazir Wazarat. In connection with the land revenue settlement, forests, etc., the services of British officers have been lent to the State. The Government of India is represented at Srinagar by a Resident, and a political agent at Gilgit exercises a general supervision over the Wazir Wazarat.

During the reign of the present Maharaja great reforms have been effected. The construction of the Gilgit road has done away with the blood tax, which the conveyance of supplies to that remote post formerly involved. The land revenue settlement has largely substituted cash for kind payments and done away with many abuses. Official corruption and oppression have been scotched, but would speedily revive if vigilance were relaxed. The different peoples ruled by the Maharaja are easily governed if properly treated, and violent crime is rare.

* * * * *

Note. In the map appended to Dr Arthur Neve's Thirty Years in Kashmir the heights of Gasherbrum and Masherbrum (see page 21) are given respectively as 26,360 and 25,560 feet, and that of Hidden Peak, S.E. of Gasherbrum, as 26,470 feet. These with K2 are the highest mountains round the Baltoro Glacier. Further east is the Siachen, "the greatest glacier in Asia," which feeds the Nubra river (page 36). N.E. of the Siachen is the Teram Kangri mountain, the height of which does not probably exceed 25,000 feet. The actual height of the Nun Kun (page 12) is 23,447 feet. Dr Neve gives that of the Karakoram Pass as 18,110 feet, not 18,550 as stated on page 20.



CHAPTER XXIX

CITIES

Delhi (28.38 N., 77.13 E.).—Of imperial cities the most interesting are those which have felt the tragedies as well as enjoyed the glories of Empire. From this point of view Delhi, notwithstanding its small extent and modern foundation, may be grouped with Rome, Constantinople, and Paris. In the matter of size it is in the same class as Edinburgh. The present Delhi or Shahjahanabad is a creation of the middle of the seventeenth century, and the oldest of the Delhis in the neighbourhood goes back only to the fourth century of our era. The latter endured for six or seven centuries. It was the capital of the Tunwar and Chauhan Rajas, and takes its second name of Rai Pithora's Kila' or Fort from the last Hindu King of Delhi, the famous Prithvi Raja. The early Muhammadan kings occupied it and adorned it with splendid buildings. Firoz Shah Tughlak's city of Firozabad occupied part of the present Delhi and the country lying immediately to the south of it. The other so-called towns Siri, Tughlakabad, and Indarpat or Purana Kila' (Old Fort) were fortified royal residences round which other dwelling-houses and shops sprang up.

The visitor to Delhi will be repaid if he can devote a week to the City and the neighbourhood. It is impossible here to give any adequate account of the objects of historic and architectural interest. No visitor should be without Mr H. C. Fanshawe's Delhi Past and Present, a work of great interest. The value of the text is enhanced by good maps and excellent illustrations. In the Civil Station, which lies to the north of the City and east of the Ridge, is Ludlow Castle, from the roof of which General Wilson and his Staff watched the assault on 14th September, 1857, when Delhi was retaken. Ludlow Castle is now the Delhi Club. Between it and the northern rampart of the City, a defence against the Mahrattas built by British officers fifty years earlier, grim fighting took place on that historic day when the little British and Indian force, till then rather besieged than besiegers, was at last strong enough to attack. Here are the sites of the four batteries which breached that rampart, and here is the grave of John Nicholson and the statue recently erected in his honour (page 190). The Ridge to which the little army had clung obstinately from May to September in scorching heat and drenching rain, undismayed by repeated assaults and the ravages of cholera, starts about half-a-mile to the west of the Mori bastion, at the north-west corner of the city wall, and runs north by east to Wazirabad on an old bed of the Jamna. Ascending to the Flagstaff Tower one looks down to-day on the Circuit House and the site of the principal camps at the great darbar of 1911. Here was the old Cantonment and its parade ground, on which the main encampment of the British force stood in 1857. The position was strong, being defended by the ridge on the east and the Najafgarh Canal on the west. It is open to the south, where are the Savzi Mandi (Vegetable Market), now the site of factories, and the Roshanara Gardens. It was on this side that the mutineers made their most dangerous attacks. The road along the Ridge from the Flagstaff Tower passes the Chauburji Mosque and Hindu Rao's house, which was the principal target of the City batteries and was gallantly held by Major Reid with his Sirmur Gurkhas, the Guides, and the 60th Rifles. Beyond Hindu Rao's house is one of the stone pillars of Asoka, which Firoz Shah Tughlak transported to Delhi. Still further south is the Mutiny Memorial. As one reads the tale of the losses of the different regiments one realizes in some measure the horrors and the heroism of which the Ridge was witness.



The City.—When visiting the City from the Civil Lines it is well to follow the road, which passing the Kudsia Gardens leads straight to the Kashmir Gate, one of two places in India (the Lucknow Residency is the other) which must stir with grateful pride the heart of the most phlegmatic of Englishmen. The road from the Gate to the Fort and the Jama Masjid is rich in memories of the Mutiny. It has on its left S. James' Church, with memorial tablets within and outside the shot-riddled globe which once surmounted its dome. Further on are the obelisk to the telegraph officers who stuck to their posts on the fatal 11th of May, and on a gateway of the Old Magazine a record of the heroism of the nine devoted men, who blew it up, losing five of their number in the explosion. Passing under the railway bridge one comes out on the open space in front of Shahjahan's palace fort, which was finished about 1648 A.D. To the beautiful buildings erected by his father Aurangzeb added the little Moti Masjid or Pearl Mosque. But he never lived at Delhi after 1682. The palace is therefore associated with the tragedies and squalor of the decline and fall of the Moghal Empire rather than with its glories. In 1739 it was robbed of the Kohinur and the Peacock throne by Nadir Shah, in 1788 it saw the descendants of Akbar tortured and the aged Emperor blinded by the hateful Ghulam Kadir, and on 16th May, 1857 the mutineers massacred fifty Christians captive within its walls. When viewing the public and private halls of audience, known as the Diwan i 'Am and the Diwan i Khass, it is however natural to think rather of scenes of splendour such as Bernier described when Aurangzeb sat in royal apparel on the Peacock throne with a king's ransom in the aigrette of his turban and the rope of pearls which hung from his neck. On such an occasion, the pillars of the Diwan i 'Am were hung with gold brocades and the floors covered with rich silken carpets. Half the court outside was occupied by a magnificent tent and the arcade galleries surrounding it were decked with brocades and covered with costly carpets. The marble Diwan i Khass with its lovely pillars decorated with gold and precious stones is surely the most splendid withdrawing room that a monarch ever possessed. There is nothing in the Moorish palace at Granada which can for a moment be compared with these two halls. For a description of them and of the other buildings in the Fort the reader must refer to Mr Fanshawe's book. In the Viceroyalty of Lord Curzon and since much has been done to restore their surroundings to some semblance of their former state. But the heavy British barracks occupied by the little garrison are very incongruous with the remains of Moghal grandeur. Leaving the Fort by the Southern or Delhi Gate and turning to the right one is faced by the Jama Masjid, another monument of the taste of Shahjahan. The gateway and the lofty ascent into this House of God are very fine. The mosque in the regular beauty and grandeur of its lines, appealing to the sublimity rather than to the mystery of religion, is a fitting symbol of the faith for whose service it was raised. South of the Jama Masjid in a part of the city once included in Firozabad stands the Kalan or Kala Masjid with low cupolas and heavy square black pillars, a striking example of the sombre architecture of the Tughlak period. A narrow street called the Dariba leads from the Jama Masjid to the wide Chandni (Silver) Chauk. The Dariba was formerly closed by the Khuni Darwaza or Gate of Blood, so called because here occurred that terrible massacre of the citizens of Delhi which Nadir Shah witnessed from the neighbouring Golden Mosque. Besides its width there is nothing remarkable about the Chandni Chauk. But the visitor in quest of silver work, jewellery, or embroidery will find there many shopkeepers ready to cater for his wants. It was while passing down the Chandni Chauk in an elephant procession on 23rd December, 1912, that Lord Hardinge was wounded by a bomb thrown from one of the houses. From the Chauk one may pass through the Queen's Gardens and Road to the opening in the wall where the Kabul Gate once stood and so leave the City. A tablet in the vicinity marks the spot where John Nicholson fell.



When visiting the old Delhis it is a good plan to drive again through the City and to leave it by the Delhi Gate. Humayun's tomb, an early and simple, but striking, specimen of Moghal architecture, is reached at a distance of four miles along the Mathra road. Outside the City the road first leaves on the left side the ruined citadel of Firoz Shah containing the second Asoka pillar. North and south of this citadel the town of Firozabad once lay. It ended where the Purana Kila' or Old Fort, the work of Sher Shah and Humayun, now stands, a conspicuous object from the road about three miles from Delhi. The red sandstone gateway very narrow in proportion to its height is a noble structure, and within the walls is Sher Shah's mosque. The fort and mosque are the last important works of the second or Tughlak period. Hindus call the site of the Old Fort, Indarpat. If any part of Delhi has a claim to antiquity it is this, for it is alleged to be one of the five "pats" or towns over which the war celebrated in the Mahabharata was waged. A recent cleaning of part of the interior of the fort brought to light bricks belonging to the Gupta period. From Humayun's tomb a cross road leads to the Gurgaon road and the Kutb. But the visitor who has seen enough of buildings for the day may proceed further down the Mathra road and reach the headworks of the Agra Canal at Okhla by a side road. The view looking back to Delhi up the Jamna is fine.

The Kutb Minar.—Starting for the Kutb from Humayun's tomb (page 207) the Dargah of the great Chisti saint and political intriguer, Nizam ud din Aulia, is passed on the left. He died in 1324 A.D. Just at the point where the cross road meets the Gurgaon road is the tomb of Safdar Jang, the second of the Nawab Wazirs of Oudh. He died after the middle of the eighteenth century, and the building is wonderfully good considering that it is one of the latest important monuments of the Moghal period. Six miles to the south of Safdar Jang's tomb the entrance to the Kutb Minar enclosure is reached. The great Kuwwat ul Islam mosque of Kutbuddin Aibak (page 204) was constructed out of the materials of a Jain temple which stood on the site. Evidence of this is to be found in the imperfectly defaced sculptures on the pillars. An iron pillar nearly 24 feet in height dating back probably to the sixth century stands in the court. The splendid column known as the Kutb Minar (page 205), begun by Kutbuddin and completed by his successor Shams ud din Altamsh, was the minaret of the mosque from which the mu'azzin called the faithful to prayer. The disappointment that may be felt when it is seen from a distance is impossible on a nearer view. Its height is now 238 feet, but it was formerly surmounted "by a majestic cupola of red granite." Close by is the Alai Darwaza, a magnificent gateway built by Ala ud din Tughlak in 1310, about 90 years after the Minar was finished. Five miles east of the Kutb are the cyclopean ruins of Tughlakabad (page 206).

Delhi past and present.—The Delhi of Aurangzeb was as much a camp as a city. When the Emperor moved to Agra or Kashmir the town was emptied of a large part of its inhabitants. It contained one or two fine bazars, and nobles and rich merchants and shopkeepers had good houses, set sometimes in pleasant gardens. But the crowds of servants and followers occupied mud huts, whose thatched roofs led to frequent and widespread fires. In that insanitary age these may have been blessings in disguise. "In Delhi," wrote Bernier, "there is no middle state. A man must either be of the highest rank or live miserably.... For two or three who wear decent apparel there may always be reckoned seven or eight poor, ragged, and miserable beings." The ordinary street architecture of modern Delhi is mean enough, and posterity will not open an eyelid to look at the public buildings which its present rulers have erected in the city. But at least the common folk of Delhi are better housed, fed, and clad than ever before. It is now a clean well-managed town with a good water supply, and it has become an important railway centre and a thriving place of trade. Since 1881 the population has steadily increased from 173,393 to 232,837 in 1911. In 1911-12 the imports into Delhi City from places outside the Panjab amounted to 9,172,302 maunds. There are some fifteen cotton ginning, spinning, and weaving mills, besides flour mills, iron foundries, two biscuit manufactories, and a brewery. The city is well supplied with hospitals including two for women only. Higher education has been fostered by S. Stephen's College in charge of the Cambridge Missionary brotherhood. The Hindu college has not been very successful. Delhi has had famous "hakims," practising the Yunani or Arabic system of medicine, which is taught in a flourishing school known as the Madrasa i Tibbiya.

Imperial Darbars.—In this generation the plain to the north of the Ridge has been the scene of three splendid darbars. When on 1st January, 1877, Queen Victoria assumed the title of Empress of India (Kaisar i Hind) it seemed fitting that the proclamation of the fact to the princes and peoples of India should be made by Lord Lytton at the old seat of imperial power. On 1st January, 1903, Lord Curzon held a darbar on the same spot to proclaim the coronation of King Edward the VIIth. Both these splendid ceremonies were surpassed by the darbar of 12th December, 1911, when King George and Queen Mary were present in person, and the Emperor received the homage of the ruling chiefs, the great officials, and the leading men of the different provinces. The King and Queen entered Delhi on 7th December, and in the week that followed the craving of the Indian peoples for "darshan" or a sight of their sovereign was abundantly gratified. None who saw the spectacles of that historic week will ever forget them.



New Imperial Capital.—The turn of Fortune's Wheel has again made Delhi an imperial city. The transfer of the seat of government from Calcutta announced by the King Emperor at the darbar, is now being carried out. The site will probably extend from Safdar Jang's tomb to a point lying to the west of Firoz Shah's citadel.

Lahore (31.34 N., 74.21 E.). The capital of the Panjab lies on the east bank of the Ravi, which once flowed close to the Fort, but has moved a mile or two to the west. In high floods the waters still spread over the lowlands between the Ravi and the Fort. Lahore lies nearly halfway between Delhi and Peshawar, being nearer to the latter than to the former.

Early History.—Practically we know nothing of its history till Mahmud conquered the Panjab and put a garrison in a fort at Lahore. Henceforth its history was intimately connected with Muhammadan rule in India. Whether north-western India was ruled from Ghazni or from Delhi, the chief provincial governor had his headquarters at Lahore. In the best days of Moghal rule Agra and Lahore were the two capitals of the Empire. Lahore lay on the route to Kabul and Kashmir, and it was essential both to the power and to the pleasures of the Emperors that it should be strongly held and united to Delhi and Agra by a Royal or Badshahi Road. The City and the Suburbs in the reign of Shahjahan probably covered three or four times the area occupied by the town in the days of Sikh rule. All round the city are evidences of its former greatness in ruined walls and domes.

The Civil Station.—The Anarkali gardens and the buildings near them mark the site of the first Civil Station. John Lawrence's house, now owned by the Raja of Punch, is beyond the Chauburji on the Multan Road. The Civil Lines have stretched far to the south-east in the direction of the Cantonment, which till lately took its name from the tomb of Mian Mir, Jahangir's spiritual master. The soil is poor and arid. Formerly the roads were lined with dusty tamarisks. But of late better trees have been planted, and the Mall is now quite a fine thoroughfare. The Lawrence Hall Gardens and the grounds of Government House show what can be done to produce beauty out of a bad soil when there is no lack of water. There is little to praise in the architecture or statuary of modern Lahore. The marble canopy over Queen Victoria's statue is however a good piece of work. Of the two cathedrals the Roman Catholic is the better building. The Montgomery Hall with the smaller Lawrence Hall attached, a fine structure in a good position in the public gardens, is the centre of European social life in Lahore. Government House is close by, on the opposite side of the Mall. Its core, now a unique and beautiful dining-room with domed roof and modern oriental decoration, is the tomb of Muhammad Kasim Khan, a cousin of Akbar. Jamadar Khushal Singh, a well-known man in Ranjit Singh's reign, built a house round the tomb. After annexation, Henry Lawrence occupied it for a time, and Sir Robert Montgomery adopted it as Government House. It is now much transformed. Beyond Government House on the road to the Cantonment are the Club and the Panjab Chiefs' College, the only successful attempt in Lahore to adapt oriental design to modern conditions.



The Indian City.—In its streets and bazars Lahore is a truly eastern city, and far more interesting than Delhi, so far as private buildings are concerned. In public edifices it possesses some fine examples of Moghal architecture. Every visitor should drive through the town to the Fort past Wazir Khan's mosque. Under British rule the height of the city wall has been reduced by one-half and the moat filled in and converted into a garden. Wazir Khan's mosque founded in 1634 by a Panjabi minister of Shahjahan, is a noble building profusely adorned with glazed tiles and painted panels. The Golden Mosque was constructed 120 years later about the same time as Safdar Jang's tomb at Delhi. The palace fort, built originally by Akbar, contains also the work of his three successors. The Shish Mahal or Hall of Mirrors, which witnessed the cession of the Panjab to the Queen of England, was begun by Shahjahan and finished by Aurangzeb. The armoury contains a curious collection of weapons. The Badshahi Mosque opposite with its beautiful marble domes and four lofty minarets of red sandstone was founded in 1673 in the reign of Aurangzeb. The cupolas were so shaken by an earthquake in 1840 that they had to be removed. Maharaja Ranjit Singh used the mosque as a magazine. In the space between it and the Fort he laid out the pretty orange garden known as the Huzuri Bagh and set in it the marble baradari which still adorns it. Close by are his own tomb and that of Arjan Das, the fifth Guru.

Buildings outside Lahore.—The best example of Moghal architecture is not at Lahore itself, but at Shahdara across the Ravi. Here in a fine garden is the Mausoleum of Jahangir with its noble front and four splendid towers. It enshrines an exquisite sarcophagus, which was probably once in accordance with the Emperor's wish open to the sunlight and the showers. Near by are the remains of the tombs of his beautiful and imperious consort, Nur Jahan, and of her brother Asaf Khan, father of the lady of the Taj. Another building associated with Jahangir is Anarkali's tomb beside the Civil Secretariat. The white marble sarcophagus is a beautiful piece of work placed now in most inappropriate surroundings. The tomb was reared by the Emperor to commemorate the unhappy object of his youthful love. Half-a-mile off on the Multan road is the Chauburji, once the gateway of the Garden of Zebunnissa a learned daughter of Aurangzeb. The garden has disappeared, but the gateway, decorated with blue and green tiles, though partially ruined, is still a beautiful object. On the other side of Lahore on the road to Amritsar are the Shalimar Gardens laid out by Shahjahan for the ladies of his court. When the paved channels are full and the fountains are playing, and the lights of earthen lamps are reflected in the water, Shalimar is still a pleasant resort.



The Museum in Anarkali contains much of interest to Indians and Europeans. The "house of wonders" is very popular with the former. It includes a very valuable collection of Buddhist sculptures. Opposite the museum is the famous Zamzama gun (page 187).

Growth of Lahore. As the headquarters of an important Government and of a great railway system Lahore has prospered. Owing to the influx of workers the population has risen rapidly from 157,287 in 1881 to 228,687 in 1911. The railway alone affords support to 30,000 people, of whom 8000 are employed in the workshops.

Amritsar (31.38 N., 74.53 E.) is a modern town founded in the last quarter of the sixteenth century by the fourth Guru, Ram Das, on a site granted to him by Akbar. Here he dug the Amrita Saras or Pool of Immortality, leaving a small platform in the middle as the site of that Har Mandar, which rebuilt is to-day, under the name of the Darbar Sahib, the centre of Sikh devotion. The fifth Guru, Arjan Das, completed the Har Mandar. Early in the eighteenth century Amritsar became without any rival the Mecca of the Sikhs, who had now assumed an attitude of warlike resistance to their Muhammadan rulers. Once and again they were driven out, but after the victory at Sirhind in 1763 they established themselves securely in Amritsar, and rebuilt the temple which Ahmad Shah had burned. Ranjit Singh covered the Darbar Sahib with a copper gilt roof, whence Englishmen commonly call it the Golden Temple. He laid out the Ram Bagh, still a beautiful garden, and constructed the strong fort of Govindgarh outside the walls.

Trade and Manufactures.—Amritsar lies in a hollow close to a branch of the Upper Bari Doab Canal. Waterlogging is a great evil and accounts for the terrible epidemics of fever, which have occurred from time to time. The population has fluctuated violently, and at the last census was 152,756, or little larger than in 1881. Long before annexation the shawl industry was famous. The caprice of fashion a good many years ago decreed its ruin, but carpet weaving, for which Amritsar is still famous, fortunately did something to fill the gap. Amritsar has also been an entrepot of trade with other Asiatic countries. It has imported raw silk from Bokhara, and later from China, and woven it into cloth. It has dealt in China tea, but that is a decreasing trade, in opium from Afghanistan, and in charas from Central Asia. There is a considerable export of foreign piece goods to Kashmir and the N. W. F. Province.

Multan (30.1 N., 71.3 E.), though now the smallest of the four great towns of the Panjab, is probably the most ancient. It is very doubtful whether it is the fortress of the Malloi, in storming which Alexander was wounded. But when Hiuen Tsang visited it in 741 A.D. it was a well-known place with a famous temple of the Sun God. Muhammad Kasim conquered it in 712 A.D. (page 166). It was not till the savage Karmatian heretics seized Multan towards the end of the tenth century that the temple, which stood in the fort, was destroyed. It was afterwards rebuilt, but was finally demolished by order of Aurangzeb, who set up in its place a mosque. Under the Moghals Multan was an important town, through which the trade with Persia passed. Its later history has already been noticed (pages 183 and 186).

The Fort contains the celebrated Prahladpuri temple, much damaged during the siege in 1848, but since rebuilt. Its proximity to the tomb of Bahawal Hakk, a very holy place in the eyes of the Muhammadans of the S.W. Panjab and Sindh, has at times been a cause of anxiety to the authorities. Bahawal Hakk and Baba Farid, the two great saints of the S.W. Panjab, were contemporaries and friends. They flourished in the thirteenth century, and it probably would be true to ascribe largely to their influence the conversion of the south-west Panjab to Islam, which was so complete and of which we know so little. The tomb of Bahawal Hakk was much injured during the siege, but afterwards repaired. Outside is a small monument marking the resting place of the brave old Nawab Muzaffar Khan. Another conspicuous object is the tomb of Rukn ud din 'Alam, grandson of Bahawal Hakk. An obelisk in the fort commemorates the deaths of the two British officers who were murdered on the outbreak of the revolt. A simpler epitaph would have befitted men who died in the execution of their duty.

Trade and Manufactures.—Though heat and dust make the climate of Multan trying, it is a very healthy place. The population rose steadily from 68,674 in 1881 to 99,243 in 1911. The chief local industries are silk and cotton weaving and the making of shoes. Multan has also some reputation for carpets, glazed pottery and enamel, and of late for tin boxes. A special feature of its commerce is the exchange of piece goods, shoes, and sugar for the raw silk, fruits, spices, and drugs brought in by Afghan traders. The Civil Lines lie to the south of the city and connect it with the Cantonment, which is an important military station.

Peshawar (34.1 N., 71.35 E.) is 276 miles from Lahore and 190 from Kabul. There is little doubt that the old name was Purushapura, the town of Purusha, though Abu Rihan (Albiruni), a famous Arab geographer, who lived in the early part of the eleventh century, calls it Parshawar, which Akbar corrupted into Peshawar, or the frontier fort. As the capital of King Kanishka it was in the second century of the Christian era a great centre of Buddhism (page 164). Its possession of Buddha's alms bowl and of yet more precious relics of the Master deposited by Kanishka in a great stupa (page 203) made it the first place to be visited by the Chinese pilgrims who came to India between 400 and 630 A.D. Hiuen Tsang tells us the town covered 40 li or 6-3/4 miles. Its position on the road to Kabul made it a place of importance under the Moghal Empire. On its decline Peshawar became part of the dominions of the Durani rulers of Kabul, and finally fell into the hands of Ranjit Singh. His Italian general Avitabile ruled it with an iron rod. In 1901 it became the capital of the new N. W. F. Province.

The Town lies near the Bara stream in a canal-irrigated tract. On the north-west it is commanded by the Bala Hissar, a fort outside the walls. The suburbs with famous fruit gardens are on the south side, and the military and civil stations to the west. The people to be seen in the bazars of Peshawar are more interesting than any of its buildings. The Gor Khatri, part of which is now the tahsil, from which a bird's-eye view of the town can be obtained, was successively the site of a Buddhist monastery, a Hindu temple, a rest-house built by Jahangir's Queen, Nur Jahan, and the residence of Avitabile. The most noteworthy Muhammadan building is Muhabbat Khan's mosque. Avitabile used to hang people from its minarets. The Hindu merchants live in the quarter known as Andar Shahr, the scene of destructive fires in 1898 and 1913. Peshawar is now a well-drained town with a good water supply. It is an entrepot of trade with Kabul and Bokhara. From the former come raw silk and fruit, and from the latter gold and silver thread and lace en route to Kashmir. The Kabuli and Bokharan traders carry back silk cloth, cotton piece goods, sugar, tea, salt, and Kashmir shawls.

Simla (31.6 N., 77.1 E.) lies on a spur of the Central Himalaya at a mean height exceeding 7000 feet. A fine hill, Jakko, rising 1000 feet higher, and clothed with deodar, oak, and rhododendron, occupies the east of the station and many of the houses are on its slopes. The other heights are Prospect Hill and Observatory Hill in the western part of the ridge. Viceregal Lodge is a conspicuous object on the latter, and below, between it and the Annandale race-course, is a fine glen, where the visitor in April from the dry and dusty plains can gather yellow primroses (Primula floribunda) from the dripping rocks. The beautiful Elysium Hill is on a small spur running northwards from the main ridge. Simla is 58 miles by cart road from Kalka, at the foot of the hills, and somewhat further by the narrow gauge railway.



History.—Part of the site was retained at the close of the Gurkha war in 1816, and the first English house, a wooden cottage with a thatched roof, was built three years later. The first Governor General to spend the summer in Simla was Lord Amherst in 1827. After the annexation of the Panjab in 1849 Lord Dalhousie went there every year, and from 1864 Simla may be said to have become the summer capital of India. It became the summer headquarters of the Panjab Government twelve years later. The thirty houses of 1830 have now increased to about 2000. Six miles distant on the beautiful Mahasu Ridge the Viceroy has a "Retreat," and on the same ridge and below it at Mashobra there are a number of European houses. There are excellent hotels in Simla, and the cold weather tourist can pay it a very pleasant visit, provided he avoids the months of January and February.

Srinagar (34.5 N., 74.5 E.), the summer capital of the Maharaja of Kashmir, is beautifully situated on both banks of the river Jhelam at a level of 5250 feet above the sea. To the north are the Hariparvat or Hill of Vishnu with a rampart built by Akbar and the beautiful Dal lake. Every visitor must be rowed up its still waters to the Nasim Bagh, a grove of plane (chenar) trees, laid out originally in the reign of the same Emperor. Between the lake and the town is the Munshi Bagh, in and near which are the houses of Europeans including the Residency. The splendid plane trees beside the river bank, to which house boats are moored, and the beautiful gardens attached to some of the houses, make this a very charming quarter. The Takht i Suliman to the west of Srinagar is crowned by a little temple, whose lower walls are of great age. The town itself is intersected by evil-smelling canals and consists in the main of a jumble of wooden houses with thatched roofs. Sanitary abominations have been cleansed from time to time by great fires and punished by severe outbreaks of cholera. The larger part of the existing city is on the left side. The visitor may be content to view the parts of the town to be seen as he is rowed down the broad waterway from the Munshi Bagh passing under picturesque wooden bridges, and beside temples with shining metal roofs and the beautiful mosque of Shah Hamadan. On the left bank below the first bridge is the Shergarhi with the Maharaja's houses and the Government Offices. Opposite is a fine ghat or bathing place with stone steps. Between the third and fourth bridges on the right bank is Shah Hamadan's mosque, a carved cedar house with Buddhist features, totally unlike the ordinary Indian mosque. The stone mosque close by on the opposite side, built by Mir Jahan, was seemingly rejected by Muhammadans as founded by a woman, and is now a State granary. The Jama Masjid is on the north side, but not on the river bank. The tomb of the great king, Zain ul Abidin, is below the fourth bridge, which bears his name. In the same quarter are the storehouses of the dealers in carpets and art wares and the Mission School. The last should be visited by anyone who wishes to see what a manly education can make of material in some respects unpromising.



CHAPTER XXX

OTHER PLACES OF NOTE

I. PANJAB.

(a) Ambala Division.

Ambala, 30.2 N.—76.4 E. Population 80,131, of which 54,223 in Cantonments. A creation of British rule. It became the headquarters of the Political Agent for the Cis-Sutlej States in 1823, and the Cantonment was established in 1843. The Native City and the Civil Lines lie some miles to the N.W. of the Cantonment. Headquarters of district and division.

Bhiwani (Hissar), 28.5 N.—76.8 E. Headquarters of tahsil in Hissar. Population 31,100. On Rewari—Ferozepore branch of Rajputana—Malwa Railway. Has a brisk trade with Rajputana.

Hansi (Hissar), 29.7 N.—75.6 E. Headquarters of tahsil. Population 14,576. A very ancient town. In centre of canal tract of Hissar, and a local centre of the cotton trade.

Hissar, 29.1 N.—75.4 E. Headquarters of district. Population 17,162. Founded by the Emperor Firoz Shah Tughlak, who supplied it with water by a canal taken from the Jamna. This was the origin of the present Western Jamna Canal. Is now a place of small importance.

Jagadhri (Ambala), 30.1 N.—77.2 E. Headquarters of tahsil. Population 12,045. Connected with the N.W. Railway by a light railway. The iron and brass ware of Jagadhri are well known.

Kaithal (Karnal), 29.5 N.—76.2 E. Headquarters of subdivision and tahsil. Population 12,912. A town of great antiquity. Kaithal is a corruption of Kapisthala—the monkey town, a name still appropriate. Timur halted here on his march to Delhi. Was the headquarters of the Bhais of Kaithal, who held high rank among the Cis-Sutlej Sikh chiefs. Kaithal lapsed in 1843.

Karnal, 29.4 N.—76.6 E. Headquarters of district. Population 21,961. On Delhi—Kalka Railway. Till the Western Jamna Canal was realigned it was most unhealthy, and the Cantonment was given up in 1841 on this account. The health of the town is still unsatisfactory. Trade unimportant.

Kasauli (Ambala), 30.5 N.—76.6 E. Small hill station overlooking Kalka. Height 6000 feet. The Pasteur Institute for the treatment of rabies is at Kasauli, and the Lawrence Military School at Sanawar, three miles off.

Panipat (Karnal), 29.2 N.—76.6 E. Headquarters of tahsil. Population 26,342. On Delhi—Kalka Railway. An important place in Hindu and Muhammadan times (pages 172 and 179). Local manufactures, brass vessels, cutlery, and glass.

Pihowa (Karnal), 29.6 N.—76.3 E. A very sacred place on the holy stream Sarusti.

Rewari (Gurgaon), 28.1 N.—76.4 E. Headquarters of tahsil. Population 24,780. Junction of main line and Rewari—Bhatinda branch of Rajputana—Malwa Railway. Trade in grain and sugar with Rajputana.

Rupar (Ambala), 30.6 N.—76.3 E. Headquarters of subdivision and tahsil. Population 6935. Exchange market for products of Hills and Plains. Headworks of Sirhind Canal are at Rupar.

Sirsa (Hissar), 29.3 N.—75.2 E. Headquarters of subdivision and tahsil. Population 14,629. Sirsa or Sarsuti was an important place in Muhammadan times. Deserted in the great famine of 1783 it was refounded in 1838. On the Rewari—Bhatinda Branch of the Rajputana—Malwa Railway. Has a brisk trade with Rajputana.

Thanesar (Karnal), 29.6 N.—76.5 E. See pages 165 and 168. Noted place of pilgrimage. Headquarters of a tahsil. Population 4719. The old Hindu temples were utterly destroyed apparently when Thanesar was sacked by Mahmud in 1014. There is a fine tomb of a Muhammadan Saint, Shekh Chilli.

(b) Jalandhar Division.

Aliwal, 30.6 N.—75.4 E. Scene of Sir Harry Smith's victory over the Sikhs on 28th January, 1846.

Dharmsala (Kangra), 32.1 N.—76.1 E. Headquarters of district. On a spur of the Dhauladhar Range. A Gurkha regiment is stationed here. The highest part of Dharmsala is over 7000 feet, and the scenery is very fine, but the place is spoiled as a hill station by the excessive rainfall, which averages over 120 inches. In the earthquake of 1905, 1625 persons, including 25 Europeans, perished.

Fazilka (Ferozepore), 30.3 N.—74.3 E. Headquarters of sub-division and tahsil. Population 10,985. Terminus of Fazilka extension of Rajputana—Malwa Railway, and connected with Ludhiana by a line which joins the Southern Panjab Railway at Macleodganj. A grain mart.

Ferozepore, 30.6 N.—74.4 E. Headquarters of district. Population 50,836 including 26,158 in Cantonment. (See page 245.)

Ferozeshah (Ferozepore), 30.5 N.—74.5 E. The real name is Pherushahr. Sir Hugh Gough defeated the Sikhs here after two days' hard fighting on Dec. 21-22, 1845.

Jalandhar, 31.2 N.—75.3 E. Headquarters of district. Population 69,318, including 13,964 in Cantonment. The Cantonment lies four miles to the S.E. of the native town and three miles from the Civil Lines. (See page 241.)

Jawala Mukhi (Kangra), 31.5 N.—76.2 E. Celebrated place of Hindu pilgrimage with a famous temple of the goddess Jawalamukhi, built over some jets of combustible gas.

Kangra, 30.5 N.—76.2 E. Headquarters of tahsil. Ancient name Nagarkot. The celebrated temple and the fort of the Katoch kings of Kangra were destroyed in the earthquake of 1905. (See pages 168, 171, 183.)

Ludhiana, 30.6 N.—75.5 E. Headquarters of district. Population 44,170. The manufacture of pashmina shawls was introduced in 1833 by Kashmiris. Ludhiana is well known for its cotton fabrics and turbans (p. 152).

Mudki (Ferozepore), 30.5 N.—74.5 E. The opening battle of the 1st Sikh War was fought here on 18th December, 1845.

(c) Lahore Division.

Batala (Gurdaspur), 30.5 N.—75.1 E. Headquarters of tahsil. Population 26,430. Chief town in Gurdaspur district on the Amritsar—Pathankot Railway. Cotton, silk, leathern goods, and soap are manufactured, and there is a large trade in grain and sugar. The Baring Anglo-Vernacular High School for Christian boys is a well-known institution.

Dalhousie (Gurdaspur), 33.3 N.—75.6 E. A well-known hill station at height of 7687 feet, 51 miles N.W. of Pathankot, from which it is reached by tonga. The Commissioner of Lahore and the Deputy Commissioner of Gurdaspur spend part of the hot weather at Dalhousie. It is a very pretty and healthy place, with the fine Kalatop Forest in Chamba close by, and is deservedly popular as a summer resort.

Gujranwala, 32.9 N.—74.1 E. Headquarters of district. Population 29,472. An active trade centre. Ranjit Singh was born, and the tomb of his father, Mahan Singh is, at Gujranwala.

Kasur (Lahore), 31.8 N—74.3 E. Headquarters of tahsil in Lahore. Population 24,783. Between Raiwind and Ferozepore on N.W. Railway, and has direct railway communication with Amritsar. A very ancient place and now an active local trade centre.

Nankana-Sahib (Gujranwala), 31.6 N.—73.8 E. In south of Gujranwala district on Chichoki—Shorkot Railway. Venerated by Sikhs as the early home of Baba Nanak.

Sialkot, 32.3 N.—74.3 E. Headquarters of district. Population 64,869, of which 16,274 in Cantonment. A very old place connected with the legendary history of Raja Salivahan and his two sons Puran and Raja Rasalu. (See also page 165.) The Cantonment is about a mile and a half from the town. Sialkot is an active trade centre. Its hand-made paper was once well known, but the demand has declined. Tents, tin boxes, cricket and tennis bats, and hockey sticks, are manufactured.

Tarn Taran (Amritsar), 31.3 N.—74.6 E. Headquarters of tahsil. Population 4260. On Amritsar—Kasur Railway. The tank is said to have been dug by Guru Arjan and it and the temple beside it are held in great reverence by the Sikhs. The water is supposed to cure leprosy. The leper asylum at Tarn Taran in charge of the Rev. E. Guilford of the Church Missionary Society is an admirable institution. Clay figures of this popular missionary can be bought in the bazar.

(d) Rawalpindi Division.

Attock (Atak), 32.5 N.—72.1 E. The fort was built by Akbar to protect the passage of the Indus. In the river gorge below is a whirlpool between two jutting slate rocks, called Kamalia and Jamalia after two heretics who were flung into the river in Akbar's reign. The bridge which carries the railway across the Indus still makes Attock a position of military importance. Population 630.

Bhera (Shahpur), 32.3 N.—72.6 E. Headquarters of tahsil. Population 15,202. A very ancient town which was sacked by Mahmud and two centuries later by Chingiz Khan. Has an active trade. The wood-carvers of Bhera are skilful workmen. Woollen felts are manufactured.

Chilianwala (Chelianwala) (Gujrat), 32.7 N.—73.6 E. Famous battlefield (page 187).

Gujrat, 32.3 N.—74.5 E. Headquarters of district. Population 19,090. An old place, famous in recent history for the great battle on 22 February, 1849 (page 187). Has a brisk local trade.

Hasn Abdal (Attock) 33.5 N.—72.4 E. On N.W. Railway. Shrine of Baba Wali Kandahari on hill above village. Below is the Sikh shrine of the Panja Sahib, the rock in which bears the imprint of Baba Nanak's five fingers (panja).

Jhelam, 32.6 N.—73.5 E. Headquarters of district and an important cantonment. Population 19,678, of which 7380 in cantonment. Has only become a place of any importance under British rule. Is an important depot for Kashmir timber trade.

Kalabagh (Mianwali), 32.6 N.—71.3 E. Population 6654. Picturesquely situated below hills which are remarkable for the fantastic shapes assumed by salt exposed on the surface. The Kalabagh salt is in favour from its great purity. The Malik of Kalabagh is the leading man in the Awan tribe.

Katas (Jhelam), 32.4 N.—72.6 E. A sacred pool in the Salt Range and a place of Hindu pilgrimage. The tears of Siva weeping for the loss of his wife Sati formed the Kataksha pool in the Salt Range and Pushkar at Ajmer.

Khewra (Jhelam), 32.4 N.—73.3 E. In Salt Range five and a half miles N.E. of Pinddadankhan. The famous Mayo Salt Mine is here.

Malot (Jhelam), 32.4 N.—72.5 E. Nine miles W. of Katas (see above). Fort and temple on a spur of the Salt Range. Temple in early Kashmir style (Archaeological Survey Reports, Vol. v. pp. 85-90).

Mankiala (Manikyala) (Rawalpindi), 33.3 N.—74.2 E. A little village close to which are the remains of a great Buddhist stupa and of a number of monasteries (page 202).

Murree (Marri) (Rawalpindi), 33.5 N.—73.2 E. Hill Station near Kashmir road on a spur of the Himalaya—height 7517 feet—39 miles from Rawalpindi, from which visitors are conveyed by tonga. The views from Murree are magnificent and the neighbourhood of the Hazara Galis is an attraction. But the climate is not really bracing. The summer headquarters of the Northern Army are at Murree, and before 1876 the Panjab Government spent the hot weather there. The Commissioner and Deputy Commissioner of Rawalpindi take their work there for several months.

Murti (Jhelam), 32.4 N.—72.6 E. In Gandhala valley on bank of Katas stream. Remains of a Buddhist stupa and of a Jain temple. (Archaeological Survey Reports, Vol. II. pp. 88 and 90.)

Rawalpindi, 33.4 N.—73.7 E. Headquarters of district and division, and the most important cantonment in Northern India. Population 86,483, of which 39,841 in Cantonment. It owes its importance entirely to British rule. Large carrying trade with Kashmir. Contains the N.W. Railway Locomotive and Carriage works and several private factories, also a branch of the Murree brewery. There is an important arsenal. The Park, left fortunately mainly in its natural state, is an attractive feature of the cantonment.

Rohtas (Jhelam), 32.6 N.—73.5 E. Ten miles N.W. of Jhelam on the far side of the gorge where the Kaha torrent breaks through a spur of the Tilla Range. Fine remains of a very large fort built by the Emperor Sher Shah Suri.

Sakesar (Shahpur), 31.3 N.—71.6 E. Highest point of Salt Range, 5010 feet above sea level. The Deputy Commissioners of Shahpur, Mianwali, and Attock spend part of the hot weather at Sakesar.

Shahdheri (Rawalpindi), 33.2 N.—72.5 E. On the Hazara border and near the Margalla Pass. Site of the famous city of Taxila (Takshasila). See pages 161, 165, and 204. Excavation is now being carried out with interesting results.

Taxila. See Shahdheri.

(e) Multan Division.

Chiniot (Jhang), 31.4 N.—73.0 E. Headquarters of tahsil. Population 14,085. A very old town near the left bank of the Chenab. Famous for brasswork and wood-carving. The Muhammadan Khoja traders have large business connections with Calcutta, Bombay, and Karachi. Fine mosque of the time of Shahjahan.

Kamalia (Lyallpur), 30.4 N.—72.4 E. Population 8237. An old town. Cotton printing with hand blocks is a local industry. The town should now prosper as it is a station on the Chichoki—Shorkot Road Railway and irrigation from the Lower Chenab Canal has reached its neighbourhood.

Lyallpur, 31.3 N.—73.9 E. Fine new Colony town. Headquarters of district. Population 19,578. Large wheat trade with Karachi, and has a number of cotton ginning and pressing factories.

Montgomery, 30.4 N.—73.8 E. Headquarters of district. Population 8129. May become a place of some importance with the opening of the Lower Bari Doab Canal. Hitherto one of the hottest and dreariest stations in the Panjab, but healthy.

Pakpattan, 30.2 N.—73.2 E. Headquarters of tahsil. Population 7912. On Sutlej Valley Railway. Anciently known as Ajodhan and was a place of importance. Contains shrine of the great Saint Farid ul Hakk wa ud Din Shakarganj (1173-1265). Visited by Timur in 1398. There is a great annual festival attracting crowds of pilgrims, who come even from Afghanistan. There is great competition to win eternal bliss by getting first through the gate at the entrance to the shrine.

II. PANJAB NATIVE STATES.

Bahawalpur, 29.2 N.—71.5 E. Capital of State on N.W. Railway 65 miles south of Multan. Population 18,414. There is a large palace built by Nawab Muhammad Sadik Muhammad Khan IV in 1882.

Barnala (Patiala), 32.2 N.—75.4 E. Headquarters of Anahadgarh Nizamat on Rajpura-Bhatinda branch of N.W. Railway. Population 5341. For the famous battle see page 179.

Bhatinda (Patiala), 30.1 N.—75.0 E. Also called Govindgarh. Old names are Vikramagarh and Bhatrinda. Historically a place of great interest (page 167). Fell into decay in later Muhammadan times. Is now a great railway junction and a nourishing grain mart. The large fort is a conspicuous object for many miles round. Population 15,037.

Brahmaur, 32.3 N.—76.4 E. The old capital of Chamba, now a small village. Has three old temples. One of Lakshana Devi has an inscription of Meru Varma, who ruled Chamba in the seventh century.

Chamba, 32.3 N.—76.1 E. Capital of State picturesquely situated on a plateau above right bank of Ravi. Population 5523. The white palace is a conspicuous object. There is an excellent hospital and an interesting museum. The group of temples near the palace is noteworthy (page 201). That of Lakshmi Narayan perhaps dates from the tenth century. The Ravi is spanned at Chamba by a fine bridge.

Chini (Bashahr), 31.3 N.—78.2 E. Headquarters of Kanawar near the right bank of Sutlej. Elevation 9085 feet. Was a favourite residence of Lord Dalhousie. There is a Moravian Mission Station at Chini.