HOMER, the great epic poet of Greece, and the greatest of all time; author of the "Iliad" and the "Odyssey," and for the honour of being the place of whose birth seven Greek cities contended; is said, when old and blind, to have wandered from city to city rehearsing his verses, and to have lived 900 years before Christ, some time after the reign of Solomon; it is only modern criticism that has called in question his existence, and has ventured to argue that the poems ascribed to him are a mere congeries of compositions of the early fabulous age of Greece, but the unity of the plan and the simplicity of the style of the poems go to condemn this theory in the regard of most Homeric scholars.

HOMILDON HILL, in Northumberland, 1 m. NE. of Wooler; the scene of Hotspur's famous victory over the Scots under Earl Douglas, December 14, 1402.

HOMOEOPATHY, a method of treating diseases advocated by HAHNEMANN (q. v.) which professes to cure a disease by administering in small quantities medicines that would produce it in a healthy person.

HOMOIOUSIA, name given to the Semi-Arian doctrine that the Son is of like substance with the Father, in opposition to the orthodox doctrine called Homoousia that He is of the same substance.

HOMOLOGOUMENA, name given to the books of the New Testament accepted as canonical.

HONDURAS (435), a maritime republic of Central America, whose northern seaboard fronts the Gulf of Honduras in the Caribbean Sea, between Nicaragua on the S. and SE. and Guatemala on the W., less than four-fifths the size of England; the coast lands are low and swampy, but the interior consists chiefly of elevated tableland diversified by broad rich valleys; the Cordilleras traverse the country in a NW. direction, and form the watershed of many streams; fever prevails along the low, hot coast, but the highlands are cool and healthful; large numbers of cattle are raised, and fruits, india-rubber, indigo, &c., are exported, but agriculture is backward; its mineral wealth is very great; silver ore is abundant, and other minerals, such as gold, iron, copper, but the enterprise is wanting to the carrying out of mining on a proper scale; Honduras broke away from Spain in 1821, and became an independent State in 1839; the Government is vested in a President and six ministers, and the legislative power in a Congress of 37 members; the population is, with the exception of a few thousands, composed of blacks; Tegucigalpa (12) is the capital.

HONE, WILLIAM, miscellaneous writer and political satirist, born at Bath; threw up his position as a law clerk in London and started a print and book shop; became a busy contributor to newspapers, and involved himself in serious trouble by the freedom of his political parodies and satires; of his many squibs, satires, &c., mention maybe made of "The Political House that Jack Built," "The Queen's Matrimonial Ladder," "The Political Showman," all illustrated by G. CRUIKSHANK (q. v.) (1780-1842).

HONEYCOMB, WILL, a jaunty member of the "Spectator Club."

HONFLEUR (9), a seaport of France, situated on the estuary of the Seine, opposite Havre; has a good harbour; exports dairy produce, cattle, &c.; has sugar refineries, tanworks, &c.

HONG-KONG (222), an island lying off the mouth of the Canton River, South China; was ceded to Britain in 1842; is hilly and unproductive, but is well watered and tolerably healthy; it owes its great importance as a commercial centre to its favourable position, its magnificent harbour, and to its having been made a free port and the head-quarters of the European banks; opium is the chief import, silk and tea the principal exports; Victoria, a handsome city on the N. side, is the capital, seat of the British governor, &c.

HONITON (3), an ancient market-town of Devonshire, close to the Otter, 17 m. NE. of Exeter; is famed for its pillow-lace, an industry introduced by some Flemish refugees in the 16th century.

HONOLULU (20), capital of the HAWAIIAN ISLANDS (q. v.), situated on an arid strip of land on the S. side of Oahu; is nicely laid out after the manner of a European town; and has the only good harbour in the archipelago.

HONORIUS, the name of four popes: H. I., the most famous, Pope from 626 to 638; H. II., pope from 1124 to 1130; H. III., Pope from 1216 to 1227; and H. IV., Pope from 1286 to 1287.

HONORIUS, FLAVIUS, emperor of the West, born at Constantinople, son of Theodosius the Great, a weak ruler, and only able to resist the invasion of the Goths so long as Stilicho, his minister, lived, for after the murder of the latter by treachery matters with him went from bad to worse, and he saw some of his finest provinces snatched from his grasp (384-423).

HONTHEIM, a German Catholic theologian, born at Treves; distinguished for his bold assertion and subsequent retractation of a doctrine called Febronianism, from the nom de plume Febronius which he assumed, tending to the disparagement of the Papal authority in the Church (1701-1790).

HONTHORST, GERARD VAN, a Flemish painter, born at Utrecht, painted night and torchlight scenes; "Christ before Pilate" his best-known work (1592-1666).

HONVED', name given in Hungary to the landwehr, or originally to any distinguished national patriot or party.

HOOD, SAMUEL, VISCOUNT, a distinguished admiral, born at Thorncombe; entered the navy in 1740, and rising rapidly in his profession evinced high qualities as a leader; in 1782 he brilliantly outmanoeuvred De Grasse in the West Indies, and under Rodney played a conspicuous part in the destruction of the French fleet at the battle of Dominica, for which he was rewarded with an Irish peerage; he defeated Fox in the celebrated Westminster election, became a Lord of the Admiralty, and as commander of the Mediterranean fleet during the revolutionary wars, captured the French fleet at Toulon and reduced Corsica; in 1796 he was created a viscount (1724-1816).

HOOD, THOMAS, poet and humourist, born in London; gave up business and engraving, to which he first applied himself, for letters, and commencing as a journalist, immortalised himself by the "Song of the Shirt" and his "Dream of Eugene Aram"; edited the "Comic Annual," and wrote "Whims and Oddities," in all of which he displayed both wit and pathos (1798-1845).

HOOGHLY or HUGLI, 1, the most important and most westerly of the several branches into which the Ganges divides on approaching the sea, breaks away from the main channel near Santipur, and flowing in a southerly direction past Calcutta, reaches the Bay of Bengal after a course of 145 m.; navigation is rendered hazardous by the accumulating and shifting silt; the "bore" rushes up with great rapidity, and attains a height of 7 ft. 2, A city (33) on the western bank of the river, 25 m. N. of Calcutta; is capital of a district, and has a college for English and Asiatic literature.

HOOK, THEODORE, comic dramatist, born in London; wrote a number of farces sparkling with wit and highly popular; appointed to be Accountant-General of the Mauritius, came to grief for peculation by a subordinate under his administration; solaced and supported himself after his acquittal by writing novels (1788-1841).

HOOKE, ROBERT, natural philosopher, born at Freshwater, Isle of Wight; was associated with Boyle in the construction of the air-pump, and in 1665 became professor of Geometry in Gresham College, London; was a man of remarkable inventiveness, and quick to deduce natural laws from meagre premises; thus he in some important points anticipated Newton's theory of gravitation, and foresaw the application of steam to machinery; he discovered amongst other things the balance-spring of watches, the anchor-escapement of clocks, the simplest theory of the arch, and made important improvements on the telescope, microscope, and quadrant (1635-1703).

HOOKER, RICHARD, English Church theologian and ecclesiastical writer, born in Exeter; famous as the author of "Ecclesiastical Polity," in defence of the Church against the Puritans, characterised by Stopford Brooke as "a stately work, and the first monument of splendid literary prose that we possess"; of this work Pope Clement VIII. said, "There are such seeds of eternity in it as will continue till the last fire shall devour all learning"; the author is distinguished by the surname of "The Judicious" for his calm wisdom; he was not judicious, it would seem, in the choice of a wife, who was a shrew and a scold (1554-1600).

HOOKER, SIR WILLIAM, botanist, born at Norwich; was professor of Botany in Glasgow from 1820 to 1841, after which he held the post of Director of Kew Gardens; his writings in botany are numerous (1785-1865).

HOOLEE, in India, the name of a saturnalian festival in honour of KRISHNA (q. v.).

HOOPER, JOHN, bred for the Church; was converted to Protestantism, and had to leave the country; returned on the accession of Edward VI. and was made Bishop of Gloucester; was committed to prison in the reign of Mary, condemned as a heretic, and burned at the stake in Gloucester (1495-1555).

HOOSAC MOUNTAIN, in the Green Mountain Range in Massachusetts, is noted for its railway tunnel, nearly 5 m. in length, and the longest in America.

HOPE, ANTONY, nom de plume of A. H. Hawkins, novelist, born in London, educated at Oxford; called to the bar; author of "Men of Mark," "Prisoner of Zenda," &c.; b. 1863.

HOPE, THOMAS, traveller and virtuoso, author of "Anastasius, or the Memoirs of a Modern Greek," which Byron was proud to have fathered on him, and of a posthumous essay on the "Origin and Prospects of Man," was famous as having suggested to Carlyle one of the most significant things he ever wrote, while he pronounced it perhaps the absurdest book written in our century by a thinking man. See Carlyle's Miscellaneous Essay "Characteristics."

HOPITAL, MICHEL DE L', Chancellor of France; stoutly resisted the persecution of the Protestants, and secured for them a measure of toleration, but his enemies were too strong for him; he was driven from power in 1568, and went into retirement; was spared during the massacre of St. Bartholomew, but it broke his heart, and he survived it only a few days (1505-1572).

HOPKINS, SAMUEL, an American divine, born at Waterbury, Connecticut; was pastor at Newport; was a Calvinist in theology, but of a special type, as he denied imputation and insisted on disinterested benevolence as the mark of a Christian; gave name to a party, Hopkinsians, as they were called, who held the same views (1721-1803).

HORATII. See CURIATII

HORATIUS FLACCUS or HORACE, Roman poet, born at Venusium, in Apulia; was educated at Rome and in Athens, and when there in his twenty-first year joined Marcus Brutus, became a military tribune, and fought at Philippi, after which he submitted to the conqueror and returned to Rome to find his estate forfeited; for a time afterwards he had to be content with a frugal life, but by-and-by he attracted the notice of Virgil, and he introduced him to Maecenas, who took him into his friendship and bestowed on him a small farm, to which he retired and on which he lived in comfort for the rest of his life; his works, all in verse, consist of odes, satires, and epistles, and reveal an easy-going man of the world, of great practical sagacity and wise remark; they abound in happy phrases and quotable passages (65-8 B.C.).

HORN, CAPE, the most southern point of America, is a lofty, precipitous, and barren promontory of Hermit Island, in the Fuegian Archipelago.

HORN GATE, the gate of dreams which come true, as distinct from the Ivory Gate, through which the visions seen are shadowy and unreal.

HORNBOOK, was a sheet of vellum or paper used in early times for teaching the rudiments of education, on which were inscribed the alphabet in black or Roman letters, some monosyllables, the Lord's Prayer, and the Roman numerals; this sheet was covered with a slice of transparent horn, and was still in use in George II.'s reign.

HORROCKS, JEREMIAH, a celebrated astronomer, born at Toxteth, near Liverpool; passed through Cambridge, took orders, and received the curacy of Hoole, Lancashire; was devoted to astronomy, and was the first to observe the transit of Venus, of which he gave an account in his treatise "Venus in Sole Visa" (1619-1641).

HORSE-POWER, the unit of work of a steam-engine, being the power to raise 33,000 lbs. one foot in one minute.

HORSHAM (9), a market-town of Sussex, 26 m. NW. of Brighton; has a fine specimen of an Early English church, and does a thriving trade in brewing, tanning, iron-founding, &c.

HORSLEY, SAMUEL, English prelate, born in London; celebrated as the champion of orthodoxy against the attacks of PRIESTLEY (q. v.), in which he showed great learning but much bitterness, which, however, brought him church preferment; was in succession bishop of St. Davids, Rochester, and St. Asaph (1733-1806).

HOSEA, a Hebrew prophet, a native of the northern kingdom of Israel, and a contemporary of Isaiah, the burden of whose prophecy is, Israel has by her idolatries and immoralities forsaken the Lord, and the Lord has forsaken Israel, in whom alone her salvation is to be found.

HOSHANGABAD (17), capital of a district of the same name in the Central Provinces, India, situated on the Nerbudda River, 40 m. SE. of Bhopal; is a military station, and has a considerable trade in cotton, grain, &c.

HOSHIARPUR (22), a town in the Punjab, at the base of the Siwalik Hills, 90 m. E. of Lahore; is capital of a district, and is the seat of an American mission.

HOSPITALLERS, the name given to several religious brotherhoods or orders of knights under vow to provide and care for the sick and wounded, originally in connection with pilgrimages and expeditions to Jerusalem.

HOSPODAR, a title once borne by the kings of Poland and the governors of Moldavia and Wallachia.

HOSTILIUS, TULLUS, the third king of Rome from 670 to 638 B.C.; showed more zeal for conquest than for the worship of the gods, who in the end smote him and his whole house with fire.

HOTTENTOTS, a name somewhat indiscriminately applied to the first known inhabitants of Cape Colony, who, however, comprised two main tribes, the Khoikhoi and the Bushmen, in many respects dissimilar, but speaking languages characterised alike by harsh and clicking sounds, a circumstance which induced the early Dutch settlers to call them Hottentots, which means practically "jabberers"; the great majority are semi-civilised now, and servile imitators of their conquerors.

HOUDON, JEAN-ANTOINE, an eminent French sculptor, born of humble parentage at Versailles; at 20 he won the prix de Rome, and for 10 years studied with enthusiasm the early masters at Rome, where he produced his great statue of St. Bruno; he was elected in turn a member of the Academy and of the Institute, Paris, and in 1805 became professor at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts; he was unrivalled in portraiture, and executed statues of Rousseau, Voltaire, Diderot, Mirabeau, Washington, Napoleon, and others (1741-1828).

HOUGHTON, RICHARD MONCKTON MILNES, LORD, poet and patron of letters, born of good family at Fryston Hall, Pontefract; graduated at Cambridge; entered Parliament as a Conservative, but subsequently went over to the other side, and in 1863 was raised to the peerage by Palmerston; was a man of varied interests, a traveller, leader of society, philanthropist, and above all the friend and patron of authors; his works include various volumes of poetry, "Life of Keats," "Monographs, Personal and Social," &c. (1809-1885).

HOUNSLOW (13), a town of Middlesex, 10 m. SW. of London; railways have done away with its importance as a posting town; in the vicinity are gunpowder mills, barracks, and the famous Hounslow Heath.

HOURI, a beautiful maiden who, according to the Mohammedan faith, awaits the advent of a pious Moslem in Paradise.

HOUSTON, SAMUEL, President of the Texan Republic, born in Virginia; was adopted by a Cherokee Indian, and rose from the rank of a common soldier to be governor of Tennessee in 1827; as commander-in-chief in Texas he crushed the Mexicans, won the independence of Texas, and became the first President of the new republic in 1836; subsequently represented Texas in the United States Senate; was elected governor and deposed in 1861 for opposing secession (1793-1863).

HOUYHN'HNMS, an imaginary race of horses in "Gulliver's Travels" endowed with reason.

HOVEDEN, ROGER OF, chronicler, born at Howden, Yorkshire; held an appointment in Henry II.'s household; was engaged in various missions to the monastic houses, and in 1189 became an itinerant justice; his well-known Chronicle begins where Bede's ends, 732, and continues down to 1201.

HOWARD, CATHERINE, fifth wife of Henry VIII., granddaughter of the Duke of Norfolk; was married to Henry in 1540 after his divorce from Anne of Cleves; two years later she was found guilty of immoral conduct prior to her marriage, and was executed (1520-1542).

HOWARD, JOHN, a noted philanthropist, born at Hackney, Middlesex; was left in easy circumstances at his father's death; a bitter experience as a French prisoner of war and observations made whilst acting as sheriff of Bedfordshire roused him to attempt some reform of the abuses and misery of prison life; he made a tour of the county jails of England, and the mass of information which he laid before the House of Commons in 1774 brought about the first prison reforms; he continued his visitations from year to year to every part of the United Kingdom and to every quarter of the Continent; during 1785-87 he made a tour of inspection through the principal lazarettos of Europe, visited plague-smitten cities, and voluntarily underwent the rigours of the quarantine system; he died at the Crimea whilst on a journey to the East; he published at various times accounts of his Journeys; his deep piety, cool sense, and single-hearted devotedness to his one great object won him universal respect throughout Europe (1727-1790).

HOWE, JOHN, a Puritan divine, born at Loughborough; was educated at Oxford and Cambridge, took orders, and became the outspoken and universally respected chaplain to Cromwell; after the Restoration he was ejected from the Church by the Act of Uniformity; subsequently he was in turn domestic chaplain to Lord Massarene in Ireland, and pastor of a Dissenting congregation in London; for some years he settled in Utrecht, but in 1687 returned to England after the Declaration for Liberty of Conscience, and became a leader of the Dissenters; he published a number of works which display a powerful, philosophic, and earnest mind; his "The Good Man the Living Temple of God" remains a masterpiece of Puritan theology; he was a man of exceptional strength of character, and it was said that he could awe Cromwell into silence and Tillotson into tears (1630-1706).

HOWE, RICHARD, EARL, admiral, born in London, son of an Irish viscount; first saw service under Anson against the Spaniards; distinguished himself during the Seven Years' War; in 1783 became First Lord of the Admiralty, and was created an earl; during the French War in 1793 he commanded the Channel Fleet, and gained "the glorious first of June" victory off Ushant (1726-1799).

HOWELL, JAMES, an English writer, whose "Familiar Letters" have won a permanent place in English literature, born in Abernant, Carmarthenshire; travelled for many years on the Continent in a business capacity; entered Parliament in 1627; was for some years a Royalist spy, and suffered imprisonment at the Fleet; at the Restoration he was created Historiographer-Royal; his works are numerous, but his fame rests upon his entertaining "Instructions for Foreigne Travell" and his graceful and witty "Familiar Letters" (1593-1666).

HOWELLS, WILLIAM DEAN, a popular American novelist, the son of a Swedenborgian journalist, born at Martin's Ferry, Ohio; adopted journalism as a profession, produced a popular Life of Lincoln, and from 1861 to 1865 was Consul at Venice; resuming journalism he became a contributor to the best American papers and magazines, and was for a number of years editor of the Atlantic Monthly; an excellent journalist, poet, and critic, it is yet as a novelist—witty, graceful, and acute—that he is best known; "A Chance Acquaintance," "A Foregone Conclusion," "A Modern Instance," "An Indian Summer" are among his more popular works; b. 1837.

HOWITT, WILLIAM, a miscellaneous writer, who, with his equally talented wife, MARY HOWITT (1799-1888) (nee Botham), did much to popularise the rural life of England, born, a Quaker's son, at Heanor, Derbyshire; served his time as a carpenter, but soon drifted into literature, married in 1821, and made many tours in England and other lands for literary purposes; was a voluminous writer, pouring out histories, accounts of travel, tales, and poems; amongst these are "Rural Life in England," "Visits to Remarkable Places," "Homes and Haunts of the Poets," &c. (1792-1879). His wife, besides collaborating with him in such works as "Stories of English Life," "Ruined Abbeys of Great Britain," wrote poems, tales, &c., and was the first to translate the fairy-tales of Hans Andersen.

HOWRAH or HAURA (130), a flourishing manufacturing town on the Hooghly, opposite Calcutta, with which it is connected by a floating bridge.

HOY, a steep, rocky islet in the Orkney group, about 1 m. SW. of Mainland or Pomona, remarkable for its huge cliffs.

HOYLAKE (3), a rising watering-place in Cheshire, at the seaward end of Wirral Peninsula, 8 m. W. of Birkenhead; noted for its golf-links.

HOYLE, EDMOND, the inventor of whist, lived in London; wrote on games and taught whist; his "Short Treatise on Whist" appeared in 1742 (1672-1769).

HROLF, ROLLO, DUKE OF NORMANDY (q. v.)

HUANCAVELI'CA (104), a dep. of Peru, lies within the region of the Cordilleras, has rich silver and quicksilver mines; the capital (4), bearing the same name, is a mining town 150 m. SE. of Lima.

HUB OF THE UNIVERSE, a name humorously given by Wendell Holmes to Boston, or rather the State House of the city.

HUBER, FRANCIS, naturalist, born at Geneva; made a special study of the habits of bees, and recorded the results in his "Observations sur les Abeilles" (1750-1831).

HUBERT, ST., bishop of Liege and Maestricht, the patron-saint of huntsmen; was converted when hunting on Good Friday by a milk-white stag appearing in the forest of Ardennes with a crucifix between its horns; generally represented in art as a hunter kneeling to a crucifix borne by a stag (656-728).

HUBERT DE BURGH, Earl of Kent, chief justiciary of England under King John and Henry III.; had charge of Prince Arthur, but refused to put him to death; was present at Runnymede at the signing of Magna Charta; d. 1234.

HUC, a French missionary, born at Toulouse; visited China and Thibet, and wrote an account of his experiences on his return (1813-1860).

HUDDERSFIELD (96), a busy manufacturing town in the West Riding of Yorkshire, is favourably situated in a coal district on the Colne, 26 m. NE. of Manchester; is substantially built, and is the northern centre of the "fancy trade" and woollen goods; cotton, silk, and machine factories and iron-founding are also carried on on a large scale.

HUDIBRAS, a satire by Samuel Butler on the Puritans, published in 1663, born of the reaction that set in after the Restoration.

HUDSON, in New York State, one of the most picturesque of North American rivers, rises amid the Adirondack Mountains, and from Glen's Fall flows S. to New York Bay, having a course of 350 m.; is navigable for steamboats as far as Albany, 145 m. from its mouth. It has valuable fisheries.

HUDSON, GEORGE, the Railway King, originally a linen-draper in York, the great speculator in the construction and extension of railways, in connection with which he made a huge fortune; acquired civic honours, and was nearly having a statue raised to his honour, but certain frauds being exposed he fell into disgrace and embarrassment, and died in London; he was elected thrice over Lord Mayor of York, and represented Sunderland in Parliament from 1845 to 1859 (1800-1871).

HUDSON, HENRY, English navigator; made three unsuccessful efforts to discover a north-east passage, then turned his course north-westward, and discovered in 1610 the river, strait, and bay which bear his name; his sailors in his last expedition in 1611 mutinying, set him and eight others adrift in an open boat, and though an expedition was sent in quest of him, he was nowhere to be found.

HUDSON BAY, an inland sea in North America, 400 m. long and 100 m. wide, communicating with the Atlantic; discovered by Hudson in 1610.

HUDSON BAY COMPANY, a joint-stock company founded in 1760 to obtain furs and skins from North America, under charter granted by Charles II., the possessions of which were in 1869 incorporated in the Dominion of Canada.

HUE (30), capital of the French protectorate Annam, on the Hue, 10 m. above its mouth, is strongly fortified with walls and a citadel.

HUELVA (19), a thriving seaport in Spain, 68 m. SW. of Seville, between the mouths of the Odiel and Tinto; fisheries and the exportation of copper, manganese, quicksilver, and wine are the chief industries.

HUERTA, GARCIA DE LA, a Spanish poet, was royal librarian in Madrid; wrote tragedy of "Raguel," thought of very highly (1729-1797).

HUESCA (13), an interesting old Spanish town, 58 m. NE. of Saragossa; has picturesque old churches, a university, and a palace; manufactures linen and leather.

HUET, PIERRE DANIEL, a learned French prelate, born at Caen; a pupil of Descartes; associated with Bossuet as scholar, and editor of Origen (1630-1721).

HUG, LEONHARD, a Catholic theologian and biblical scholar, author of an "Introduction to the New Testament" (1765-1846).

HUGH CAPET, the first of the Capetian dynasty of France, son of Hugh Capet, Count of Paris; proclaimed king in 987; his reign was a troubled one by the revolt of the very party that had raised him to the throne, and who refused to own his supremacy; Adelbert, a count of Perigueux, had usurped the titles of Count of Poitiers and of Tours, and the king, sending a messenger to ask "Who made you count?" got for answer the counter-challenge "Who made you king?" (946-996).

HUGHENDEN, a parish in Buckinghamshire, in the Chiltern district, 2 m. N. of High Wycombe; is interesting as the seat of Hughenden Manor, for many years the residence of Benjamin Disraeli, Earl of Beaconsfield.

HUGHES, THOMAS, author of "Tom Brown's School-days," born at Uffington, Berks; was at Rugby in Dr. Arnold's time, graduated at Oxford, and was called to the bar in 1848; his famous story of Rugby school life, "Tom Brown's School-days," was published in 1856, and was followed by "Tom Brown at Oxford" and other stories and biographies; he entered Parliament in 1865, and in 1882 became a County Court Judge; throughout his life he was keenly interested in social questions and the betterment of the working-classes (1832-1896).

HUGO, VICTOR-MARIE, a famous French poet and novelist, born at Besancon; as a boy he accompanied his father, a general in Joseph Bonaparte's army, through the campaigns in Italy and Spain; at 14 he produced a tragedy, and six years later appeared his "Odes et Ballades"; in 1827 was published his famous tragedy "Cromwell," which placed him at the head of the Romanticists, and in "Hernani" (1830) the departure from the old classic novels was more emphatically asserted; his superabundant genius continued to pour forth a quick succession of dramas, novels, essays, and poems, in which he revealed himself one of the most potent masters of the French language; he was admitted to the French Academy, and in 1845 was created a peer; he engaged in politics first as a Royalist and next as a Democrat, fled to Brussels after the coup d'etat; subsequently he established himself in Jersey and then in Guernsey, where he wrote his great novels "Les Miserables," "Les Travailleurs de la Mer," etc.; he returned to France in 1870, engaged in politics again, became a senator, and continued to produce works with undiminished energy; his writings were in the first instance a protest against the self-restraint and coldness of the old classic models, but were as truly a faithful expression of his own intense and assertive egoism, and are characteristic of his school in their exaggerated sentiment and pervading self-consciousness (1802-1885).

HUGUENOTS, a name formerly given to the Protestants of France, presumed to be a corruption of the German word eingenossen, i. e. sworn confederates, the history of whom and their struggles and persecutions fills a large chapter in the history of France, a cause which was espoused at the first by many of the nobles and the best families in the country, but all along in disfavour at Court.

HULL, or KINGSTON-UPON-HULL (260), a flourishing river-port in the E. Riding of Yorkshire, at the junction of the Hull with the Humber, 42 m. SE. of York; is an old town, and has many interesting churches, statues, and public buildings; is the third port of the kingdom; has immense docks, is the principal outlet for the woollen and cotton goods of the Midlands, and does a great trade with the Baltic and Germany; has flourishing shipbuilding yards, rope and canvas factories, sugar refineries, oil-mills, etc., and is an important centre of the east coast fisheries.

HULLAH, JOHN, professor of music, born in Worcester; did much to popularise music in England (1812-1884).

HULSEAN LECTURES, fruits of a lectureship tenable for one year, founded by Rev. John Hulse, of St. John's College, in 1789; delivered annually to the number of four, bearing on revealed religion.

HUMANIST, one who at the Revival of Letters upheld the claims of classical learning in opposition to the supporters of the scholastic philosophy.

HUMANITARIANS, a name given to those who maintain the simple humanity of Christ to the denial of his divinity; also to those who view human nature as sufficient for itself apart from all supernatural guidance and aid.

HUMBERT I., king of Italy, son of Victor Emmanuel, whom he succeeded in 1878; took while crown prince an active part in the movement for Italian unity, and distinguished himself by his bravery; b. 1844.

HUMBOLDT, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH ALEX., BARON VON, great traveller and naturalist, born in Berlin; devoted all his life to the study of nature in all its departments, travelling all over the Continent, and in 1800, with AIME BONPLAND (q. v.) for companion, visiting S. America, traversing the Orinoco, and surveying and mapping out in the course of five years Venezuela, Columbia, Ecuador, Peru, and Mexico, the results of which he published in his "Travels"; his chief work is the "Kosmos," or an account of the visible universe, in 4 vols., originally delivered as lectures in Paris in the winter of 1827-28; he was a friend of Goethe, who held him in the highest esteem (1769-1859).

HUMBOLDT, KARL WILHELM VON, an eminent statesman and philologist, born at Potsdam, elder brother of the preceding; represented Prussia at Rome and Vienna, but devoted himself chiefly to literary and scientific pursuits; wrote on politics and aesthetics as well as philology, and corresponded with nearly all the literary grandees of Germany (1767-1835).

HUME, DAVID, philosopher and historian, born in Edinburgh, the younger son of a Berwickshire laird; after trial of law and mercantile life gave himself up to study and speculation; spent much of his life in France, and fraternised with the sceptical philosophers and encyclopedists there; his chief works, "Treatise on Human Nature" (1739), "Essays" (1741-42), "Principles of Morals" (1751), and "History of England" (1754-61); his philosophy was sceptical to the last degree, but from the excess of it provoked a reaction in Germany, headed by Kant, which has yielded positive results; he found in life no connecting principle, no purpose, and had come to regard it as a restless aimless, heaving up and down, swaying to and fro on a waste ocean of blind sensations, without rational plot or counterplot, God or devil, and had arrived at an absolutely non-possumus stage, which, however, as hinted, was followed by a speedy and steady rebound, in speculation at all events; Hume's history has been characterised by Stopford Brooke as clear in narrative and pure in style, but cold and out of sympathy with his subject, as well as inaccurate; personally, he was a guileless and kindly man (1711-1776).

HUME, JOSEPH, a politician, born in Montrose; studied medicine, and served as a surgeon under the East India Company in India, made his fortune, and came home; adopted the political principles of Bentham and entered Parliament, of which he continued a prominent member till his death; he was an ardent reformer, and lived to see many of the measures he advocated crowned with success (1777-1855).

HUMOUR, distinct from wit, and defined as "a warm, tender, fellow-feeling with all that exists," as "the sport of sensibility and, as it were, the playful, teasing fondness of a mother for a child" ... as "a sort of inverse sublimity exalting into our affections what is below us,... warm and all-embracing as the sun."

HUNDRED DAYS, the name given to the period between Napoleon's return from Elba and his abdication, from Mar. 10 to June 28, 1815, after Waterloo.

HUNDYADES JOHN CORVINUS, a Hungarian captain of the 14th century, a formidable foe of the Turks.

HUNGARY (18,556), the eastern part of Austro-Hungary, including Hungary proper, Transylvania, Croatia, and Slavonia, and, except in military and diplomatic matters and customs dues, with a considerable amount of self-government independent of Austria, differing from it, as it does, in race, language, and many other respects, to such a degree as gives rise to much dissension, and every now and then threatens disruption.

HUNS, THE, a horde of barbarians of Mongolian origin who invaded Europe from the shores of the Caspian Sea in two wars, the first in the 4th century, which at length subsided, and the second in the 5th century, ultimately under Atilla, which, in the main body of them at all events, was driven back and even dispersed; they have been described as a race with broad shoulders, flat noses, small black eyes buried in the head, and without beards.

HUNT, HOLMAN, painter, born in London; became a pupil of Rossetti, and "his greatest disciple," and joined the Pre-Raphaelite movement; he began with "worldly subjects," but soon quitted these "virtually for ever" under Rossetti's influence, and "rose into the spiritual passion which first expressed itself in his 'Light of the World,'" with this difference, as Ruskin points out, between him and his "forerunner," that whereas Rossetti treated the story of the New Testament as a mere thing of beauty, with Hunt, "when once his mind entirely fastened on it, it became ... not merely a Reality, not merely the greatest of Realities, but the only Reality"; in this religious realistic spirit, as Ruskin further remarks, all Hunt's great work is done, and he notices how in all subjects which fall short of the religious element, "his power also is shortened, and he does those things worst which are easiest to other men"; his principal works in this spirit are "The Scape-Goat," "The Finding of Christ in the Temple," "The Shadow of Death," and the "Triumph of the Innocents," to which we may add "The Strayed Sheep," remarkable as well for its vivid sunshine, "producing," says Ruskin, "the same impressions on the mind as are caused by the light itself"; b. 1827.

HUNT, LEIGH, essayist and poet; was of the Cockney school, a friend of Keats and Shelley; edited the Examiner, a Radical organ; was a busy man but a thriftless, and always in financial embarrassment, though latterly he had a fair pension; lived near Carlyle, who at one time saw a good deal of him, his household, and its disorderliness, an eyesore to Carlyle, a "poetical tinkerdom" he called it, in which, however, he received his visitors "in the spirit of a king, apologising for nothing"; Carlyle soon tired of him, though he was always ready to help him when in need (1784-1859).

HUNTER, JOHN, anatomist and surgeon, born near East Kilbride, Lanarkshire; started practice as a surgeon in London, became surgeon to St. George's Hospital, and at length surgeon to the king; is distinguished for his operations in the cure of aneurism; he built a museum, in which he collected an immense number of specimens illustrative of subjects of medical study, which, after his death, was purchased by Government (1728-1793).

HUNTER, SIR WILLIAM, Indian statistician, in the Indian Civil Service, and at the head of the Statistical Department; has written several statistical accounts, the "Gazetteer of India," and other elaborate works on India; with Lives of the Earl of Mayo and the Marquis of Dalhousie; b. 1862.

HUNTINGDON (4), the county town of Huntingdonshire, stands on the left bank of the Ouse 59 m. N. of London; has breweries, brick-works, and nurseries, and was the birthplace of Oliver Cromwell.

HUNTINGDON, COUNTESS OF, a leader among the Whitfield Methodists, and foundress of a college for the "Connexion" at Cheshunt (1707-1791).

HUNTINGDONSHIRE (57), an undulating county NE. of the Fen district, laid out for most part in pasture and dairy land; many Roman remains are to be found scattered about in it.

HURD, RICHARD, English bishop in succession of Lichfield and Worcester; was both a religious writer and a critic; was the author of "Letters on Chivalry and Romance," "Dissertations on Poetry," and "Commentaries on Horace's Ars Poetica," the last much admired by Gibbon (1720-1808).

HURON, a lake in N. America, 263 m. long and 70 m. broad, the second largest on the average of the five on the Lawrence basin, interspersed with numerous islands.

HURONS, THE, a tribe of Red Indians of the Iroquois family.

HUSKISSON, WILLIAM, an English statesman and financier; distinguished for his services when in office in the relaxation of restrictions on trade (1770-1830).

HUSS, JOHN, a Bohemian church reformer; was a disciple of Wyclif, and did much to propagate his teaching, in consequence of which he was summoned in 1414 to answer for himself before the Council of Constance; went under safe-conduct from the emperor; "they laid him instantly in a stone dungeon, three feet wide, six feet high, seven feet long; burnt the true voice of him out of this world; choked it in smoke and fire" (1373-1415).

HUTCHESON, FRANCIS, moral philosopher, born in Ulster, son of a Presbyterian minister; educated in Glasgow; became professor in the university there and founder of the Scotch school of philosophy, who, according to Dr. Stirling, has not received the honour in that regard which is his due (1094-1747).

HUTCHINSON, ANNE, a religious fanatic, born in England, settled in New England, U.S.; expelled from the colony for Antinomian heresy, took refuge in Rhode Island, and was with her family butchered by the Indians (1590-1643).

HUTCHINSON, COLONEL, one of the Puritan leaders, and a prominent actor in the Puritan revolt, to the extent of signing the death-warrant of the king, but broke partnership as a republican with Cromwell when he assumed sovereign power, and sullenly refused to be reconciled to the Protector, though he begged him towards his end beseechingly as his old comrade in arms (1616-1664).

HUTCHINSON, JOHN, a theological faddist, born in Yorkshire; in his "Thoughts concerning Religion," derived all religion and philosophy from the Bible, but directly, as he insisted, from the original Hebrew, in which view he had a following of a few intelligent people (1674-1737).

HUTTEN, ULRICH VON, a zealous humanist and reformer, born in the castle of Steckelberg, in Hesse, of an ancient and noble family; allied himself as a scholar with Erasmus, and then with Luther as a man; entered heart and soul into the Reformation of the latter to a rupture with the former, and by his writings, which included invectives against the clergy and appeals to the nation, did much, amid many perils, to advance the cause of German emancipation from the thraldom of the Church (1488-1523).

HUTTON, CHARLES, a mathematician, born in Newcastle; became professor at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich; wrote on mathematics and physics (1737-1825).

HUTTON, JAMES, celebrated geologist, born in Edinburgh; bred to medicine, but devoted himself to agriculture and chemistry, which led on to geology; was the author of the Plutonic theory of the earth, which ascribes the inequalities and other phenomena in the crust of it to the agency of the heat at the centre (1726-1797).

HUXLEY, THOMAS HENRY, eminent scientist in the department of natural history, born at Ealing, Middlesex; was professor of Natural History in the Royal School of Mines; distinguished by his studies and discoveries in different sections of the animal kingdom, in morphology and palaeontology; was a zealous advocate of evolution, in particular the views of Darwin, and a champion of science against the orthodoxy of the Church; he was a man of eminent literary ability as well as scientific, and of the greatest in that regard among scientific men (1825-1895).

HUYGENS, CHRISTIAN, a Dutch geometrician, physicist, and astronomer, born at The Hague; published the first scientific work on the calculation of probabilities, improved the telescope, broached the undulatory theory of light, discovered the fourth satellite of Saturn, invented the pendulum clock, and stands as a physicist midway between Galileo and Newton (1629-1093).

HYDASPES, the ancient name of the Jhelum, the northernmost tributary of the Indus.

HYDER ALI, a Mohammedan ruler of Mysore; raised himself to be commander-in-chief of the army; organised it on the French model; unseated the rajah; conquered Calicut, Bednor, and Kananur; waged war successfully against the English and the Mahrattas, and left his kingdom to his son TIPPOO SAIB (q. v.) (1728-1782).

HYDERABAD (370), the capital of the Nizam's dominions in the Deccan, is 6 m. in circumference, strongly protected all round by a belt of rocky desert, and a centre of Mohammedanism in India. Also the capital of Sind (58), near the apex of the delta of the Indus; manufactures silks, pottery, and lacquered ware, and is strongly fortified.

HYDRA, THE LERNEAN, a monstrous reptile inhabiting a marsh, with a number of heads, that grew on again as often as they were chopped off, and the destruction of which was one of the twelve labours of Hercules, an act which symbolises the toil expended in draining the fens of the world for man's habitation.

HYGEIA, in the Greek mythology the Goddess of Health, and daughter of AEsculapius; is represented as a virgin in a long robe, with a cup in her hand and a serpent drinking out of it.

HYMEN, in the Greek mythology the God of Marriage, son of Apollo, and one of the Muses, represented as a boy with wings; originally a nuptial song sung at the departure of the bride from her parental home.

HYMER, a frost Joetun, whose cows are icebergs; splits rocks with the glance of his eye.

HYMETTUS, a mountain in Attica, famous for its honey and marble.

HYPATIA, a far-famed lady teacher of Greek philosophy in Alexandria, distinguished for her beauty and purity of life, who, one day in 415, on her return home from her lecture-room, was massacred in the streets of the city, at the instance, of both Jews and Christians, as a propagator of paganism.

HYPERBOREANS, a people blooming in youth and health, fabled by the Greeks to dwell in the extreme northern parts of the world under favour of Apollo.

HYPERMNESTRA, the only one of the DANAIDES (q. v.) who spared the life of her husband in spite of her father's orders.

HYPNOTISM, the process of inducing sleep by wearying out the optic nerve of the eyes, by making the patient fix them upon a certain spot for a time, generally situated where it is a little wearisome for the eyes to find it. The fatigue thus induced spreads from the ocular muscles to the system, causing deep sleep.

HYRCANIA, an ancient province of Persia, on the E. and SE. of the Caspian Sea, celebrated for the savage animals that inhabited its forests, as well as the savagery of its inhabitants.

HYRCANUS, JOHN, the son of Simon Maccabeus, king of Judea, as well as High-Priest of the Jews from 135 to 105 B.C.; achieved the independence of his country from the Syrian yoke, extended the borders of it, and compelled the Edomites to accept the Jewish faith at the point of the sword; in the strife then rampant between the SADDUCEES (q. v.) and the PHARISEES (q. v.) he sided with the former.



I

IACHIMO, an arch-villain in Shakespeare's "Cymbeline," who attempts to violate the chastity of Imogen.

IACHUS, the son of Zeus and Demeter, and the solemn name of Bacchus in the Eleusinian Mysteries.

IAGO, a cool, selfish, malignant, subtle, evil-scheming knave in "Othello," his "ancient" or ensign, who poisoned his mind against Desdemona.

IAMBLICHUS, a Neo-Platonic philosopher of the 4th century, in the time of Constantine, struggled, as it proved, in vain for the revival of Greek philosophy, in the hope of thereby stemming the advance of Christianity.

IAMBUS, a metrical foot, consisting of two syllables, of which the first is short and the second long, or in which the stress is on the second.

IAPETOS, in the Greek mythology a Titan, father of Atlas, Prometheus, and Epimetheus, as the Greeks fabled the ancestor of the human race.

IBERIA, the ancient and still poetic name of Spain; anciently also a territory inhabited by an agricultural population between the Black Sea and the Caspian, now called Georgia.

IBIS, the Nile bird, regarded as an avatar of deity, and held sacred by the Egyptians; it did not breed in Egypt, and was supposed to be of mystic origin; it arrives in Egypt when the Nile begins to rise.

IBRAHIM BEY, chief of the Mamelukes of Egypt at the time of Bonaparte's expedition to Egypt in 1798 (1789-1816).

IBRAHIM PASHA, viceroy of Egypt, son and successor of Mehemet-Ali; appointed generalissimo of the Egyptian army, remodelled it after the French fashion; was leader of the Turks against the Greeks; gained several victories over them in 1828, but was obliged to retire; overran and conquered Syria from the Sultan, but was forced by the Powers to surrender his conquest and restore it; he was Viceroy of Egypt only for a single year, and died at Cairo (1789-1848).

IBSEN, HENRIK, Norwegian dramatist and poet, born at Skein, in Norway; bred to medicine; is author of a succession of plays of a new type, commencing with "Catalina," a poor attempt, followed by "Doll's House," "Ghosts," "Pillars of Society," and "Brand," deemed his masterpiece, besides others; his characters are vividly drawn as if from life; he is a psychologist, and his productions have all more or less a social bearing; b. 1828.

IBYCUS, a Greek lyric poet, who was murdered by robbers, and who appealed to a flock of cranes that flew past before he died to avenge his death, and that proved the means of the discovery of the murderers.

ICARUS, son of DAEDALUS (q. v.), who, flying with his father from Crete on wax-fastened wings, soared so high that the sun melted the wax and he dropped into the sea, giving name to that part of it.

ICE BLINK, the name given to a white light seen on the horizon, due to reflection from a field of ice immediately beyond.

ICELAND (71), a volcanic island larger by a third than Scotland, lying just S. of the polar circle, between Greenland and Norway, distant 250 m. from the former and 500 from the latter; consists of a plateau 2000 ft. high, sometimes sloping to the sea, sometimes ending in sheer precipices, from which rise numerous snow-clad volcanoes, some, like Hecla, still active. "A wild land of barrenness and lava," Carlyle characterises it, "swallowed up many months of the year in black tempests, yet with a wild gleaming beauty in summer time, towering up there stern and grim, with its snow jokuls and roaring geysers, and horrid volcanic chasms, like the waste chaotic battlefield of frost and fire." The interior comprises lava and sand tracts, and ice-fields, but outside these are river valleys and lake districts affording pasturage, and arable land capable of producing root crops. The climate is changeable, mild for the latitude, but somewhat colder than Scotland. There are few trees, and these small; cranberries grow among the heather, and Iceland moss is a plentiful article of food. The island exports sheep and ponies; the fisheries are important, including cod, seals, and whales; sulphur and coal are found; the hot springs are famous, especially the Great Geyser, near Hecla. Discovered by Irishmen and colonised by Norwegians in the 9th century, Iceland passed over to the Danes in 1388, who granted it home rule in 1893. The religion has been Protestant since 1550; its elementary education is excellent. Reykjavik (3) is the capital; two towns have 500 inhabitants each; the rest of the population is scattered in isolated farms; stock-raising and fishing are the principal industries, and the manufacture of homespun for their own use.

ICH DIEN (I serve), the motto of the Black Prince, adopted from John of Bohemia, and since then that of the English Prince of Wales.

ICHNEUMON, an animal of the weasel tribe, worshipped in Egypt from its destroying the eggs of noxious reptiles, and of the crocodile in particular.

ICHOR, an ethereal fluid presumed to supply the place of blood in the veins of the Greek gods.

ICHTHYOSAURUS (lit. a fish-reptile), an extinct marine reptile in the shape of a fish, its limbs paddles, and with a long lizard-like tail.

ICONIUM, the capital of Lycaonia, in Asia Minor, a flourishing city in St. Paul's time, who planted a church there, and of importance in the time of the Crusades; is now named Konieh.

ICONOCLASTS (i. e. breakers of images), the name given to a sect who, in the 8th century, opposed to the presence of images in churches and the worship paid to them, set about the demolition of them as savouring of idolatry, and even in 730 obtained a papal decree or condemnation of the practice; the enthusiasm died out in the next century, but the effect of it was felt in a controversy, which led to the separation of the Church of the East from that of the West.

ICTINUS, great Greek architect of the 5th century B.C., a contemporary of Pericles, designer of temples at Bussae and Eleusis, and joint-designer with Callicrates of the world's one perfect building, the Parthenon, at Athens (437 B.C.).

IDA, the name of two mountains in the East, one in Crete, on which Zeus was brought up in a cave near it, and one in Asia Minor, near Troy, "Woody Ida," the scene of the rape of Ganymedes and of the judgment of Paris, also a seat of Cybele worship.

IDAHO (88), one of the north-western States of the American Union, surrounded by Washington and Oregon in the W., Nevada and Utah in the S., Wyoming in the E., and Montana, from which it is separated by a branch of the Rocky Mountains, in the NE., the short northern boundary touches Canada; the country is traversed by lofty mountain ranges cut up into deep river valleys and canons, is extremely rugged in its northern parts, and chiefly useful for cattle-raising; there is a plateau in the centre, some arid prairie land in the S., and lake districts in the N. and in the SE.; grain farming is restricted to fringes along the river banks; the Snake River flows through the whole S.; silver, lead, gold, and copper mines are wrought successfully, and coal is found; the State was admitted to the Union in 1890; a fifth of the population are Mormons; there are still 4000 Indians. Boise City (2) is the capital.

IDDESLEIGH, EARL OF, Sir Stafford Northcote, Conservative financier and statesman, born in London of old Devonshire stock; educated at Oxford; became private secretary to Mr. Gladstone in 1842, and five years later was called to the bar; entering Parliament in 1885, he sat in succession for Dudley, for Stamford, and for North Devon; under Lord Derby he was Financial Secretary to the Treasury in 1859, and President of the Board of Trade in 1866; under Disraeli he was at the India Office in 1868, and Chancellor of the Exchequer in 1874; he succeeded Disraeli in the leadership of the Commons, and was raised to the peerage in 1885; was successively First Lord of the Treasury and Foreign Secretary under Lord Salisbury; in 1871 Mr. Gladstone appointed him Commissioner in the settlement of the Alabama claim, and he was elected Lord Hector of Edinburgh University in 1883; resigning from the Foreign Office in January 1887, he died suddenly a few days later at the Prime Minister's residence (1818-1887).

IDEALISM, that view of the universe which, in opposition to MATERIALISM (q. v.), refers everything to and derives everything from a spiritual root; is Subjective if traced no further back than the ego, and Objective if traced back to the non-ego likewise, its counterpart, or other, in the objective world. Idealism in art is art more or less at work in the region of the ideal in comparative disregard of the actual.

IDELER, CHRISTIAN LUDWIG, a German astronomer, born in Prussia; an authority on chronology, on which he wrote a handbook, as also a work on the reckoning of time among the Chinese (1766-1846).

IDENTICAL NOTE, a term in diplomacy to denote terms agreed upon by two Powers to coerce a third.

IDES, the name given in the Roman calendar to certain days that divide the month; in March, May, July, and October they fall on the 15th, in the rest on the 13th.

IDOLATRY, worship paid to a mere symbol of the divine while the heart is dead to all sense of that which it symbolises; a species of offence against the Most High, of which many are flagrantly guilty who affect to regard with pity the worshipper of idols of wood or stone. "Idolatry," says Buskin, apropos of Carlyle's well-known doctrine, "is summed up in the one broad wickedness of refusing to worship Force and resolving to worship No-Force; denying the Almighty, and bowing down to four-and-twopence with a stamp on it."

IDOMENEUS, king of Crete, grandson of Minos, and a hero of the Greeks in the war with Troy.

IDRIS, a giant, prince, and astronomer of Welsh tradition, whose rock-hewn chair on the summit of Cader Idris was supposed to mete out to the bard who spent a night upon it death, madness, or poetic inspiration.

IDUMAEA. See EDOM.

IDUNA, a Scandinavian goddess who kept a box of golden apples which the gods tasted when they wished to renew their youth; she was carried off one day, but being sent for by the gods, came back changed into a falcon.

IDYLL, a poem in celebration of everyday life or life in everyday costume amid natural, often pastoral and even romantic, and at times tragic surroundings.

IF, an islet in the Gulf of Marseilles, with a castle built by Francis I., and afterwards used as a State prison.

IGGDRASIL the Tree of Existence, as conceived of by the Norse, and reflecting the Norse idea of the universe, "has its roots deep down in the kingdoms of Hela, or Death; its trunk reaches up heaven-high, and spreads its boughs over the whole universe. At the foot of it, in the Death-Kingdom, sit the THREE NORNAS (q. v.) watering its roots from the sacred Well."

IGNATIEFF, NICHOLAS, Russian general and diplomatist, born at St. Petersburg; was ambassador at Pekin in 1859, and at Constantinople in 1864, and secured at both posts important concessions to Russia; he is a zealous Panslavist and Anti-Semite, too much so to carry with him the support of the country; b. 1832.

IGNATIUS, FATHER, the name by which the Rev. Joseph Lyne is known, born in London, educated at St. Paul's School and Glenalmond; commenced a movement to introduce monasticism into the Church of England, and built a monastery for monks and nuns near Llanthony Abbey, the members of which follow the rule and wear the garb of the Order of St. Benedict; b. 1837.

IGNATIUS, ST., surnamed Theophoros, an Apostolic Father of the Church, Bishop of Antioch; died a martyr at Rome about 115, by exposure to wild beasts, in the amphitheatre; is represented in Christian art as accompanied by lions, or exposed to them chained; left epistles which, if genuine as we have them, establish prelacy as the order of government in the primitive Church, and lay especial stress on the twofold nature of Christ.

IGNATIUS LOYOLA. See LOYOLA.

IGNORANTINES, a Jesuit association in the Roman Catholic Church founded in 1724, who give instruction to poor children gratis, with the object of winning them over to the Catholic faith.

IHRE, JOHAN, a learned Swedish philologist, born at Lund, of Scotch descent; was 40 years professor of Rhetoric and Political Economy at Upsala, and was the founder of Swedish philology (1707-1780).

ILE DE FRANCE, the province of France of which Paris is the capital; was also formerly the name of Mauritius.

ILE DU DIABLE, an island off the coast of French Guiana, where Captain Dreyfus was confined.

ILFRACOMBE, a popular watering-place on the coast of N. Devon, in the Bristol Channel; once a considerable place.

ILIAD, the great epic poem of Homer, consisting of 24 books, the subject of which is the "wrath of ACHILLES" (q. v.), and the events which followed during the last year of the ten years' Trojan War, so called from ILION, one of the names of Troy. See ILIUM.

ILITHYIA, the Greek goddess who presided over the travail of woman at childbirth, promoting or retarding the birth as the Fates might ordain.

ILIUM, TROY (q. v.), so called from Ilus, the son of Tros, who founded the city.

ILLINOIS (3,826), an American State as large as England and Wales; has the Mississippi for its western, the Ohio for its southern boundary, with Wisconsin and Lake Michigan in the N. and Indiana on the E.; fourth in population, seventeenth in area; "the Prairie State" is level, well watered, and extremely fertile; has a climate subject to extremes, but, except in the swamps, healthy. It produces enormous quantities of wheat, besides other cereals, of tobacco and temperate fruits. Flour-milling, pork-packing, and distilling are the chief industries. The most extensive coal-deposits in America are in this State; with navigable rivers on its borders, and traversing it Lake Michigan, a great canal, and the largest railway system in the Union, it is admirably situated for commercial development; originally acquired by Britain from the French, who entered it from Canada; it was ceded to the Americans in 1783, and admitted to the Union 1818; the State spends $12,000,000 annually on education, which is compulsory, and has a large and wealthy scientific and agricultural university at Urbana. Springfield (25) is the capital; but Chicago (1,100) is the largest city.

ILLUMINATED DOCTOR, a title bestowed on RAYMOND LULLY (q. v.).

ILLUMINATI, a class or fraternity of people who affect superior enlightenment, particularly on religious and social matters, tending of late in the one to Deism, and in the other to Republicanism, in France forming a body of materialists, and in Germany a body of idealists; the former to the disparagement of ideas, and the latter to the disparagement of reason, and both hostile to the Church.

ILLUMINATION, THE, the name given to the "advanced" thinking class who pride themselves in their emancipation from all authority in spiritual matters, the assumption of which they regard as an outrage not only against the right of private judgment, but the very constitution of man, which, they argue, is violated when respect is not before all paid to individual conviction. See AUFKLAeRUNG.

ILLYRIA, the name anciently given to a broad stretch of mountainous country of varying extent lying E. of the Adriatic Sea. The Illyrians were the last Balkan people to be civilised; becoming a Roman province 35 B.C., Illyria furnished several emperors, among them the notorious Diocletian. Constantine extended the province to include all the country S. of the Danube; at the division of the empire, Greece and Macedonia went to the East, the rest to the West; the name was revived by Napoleon, but has since been dropped.

ILUS, a legendary king of Troy, the grandson of Dardanus, and the founder of Ilium.

IMAGE WORSHIP in the Christian Church is reverence, as distinct from the supreme adoration of the Deity, paid to the crucifix and to pictures, images, or statues of saints and martyrs, and understood really as offered through these to the personages whom they represent. The practice, unknown in apostolic or sub-apostolic times, was prevalent in the 4th century, provoked by its excesses a severe reaction in the 8th century, but carefully defined by the second Council of Nice (787), has continued since both in the Greek and Roman communion; there is still controversy as to its propriety in the Anglican Church; the Lutherans still use the crucifix freely, but other Protestant Churches have entirely repudiated the practice. See ICONOCLASTS.

IMAGINARY CONVERSATIONS, a remarkable work by Landor, in 6 vols., much appreciated by many.

IMAGINATION, the name appropriate to the highest faculty of man, and defined by Ruskin as "mental creation," in the exercise of which the human being discharges his highest function as a responsible being, "the defect of which on common minds it is the main use," says Ruskin, "of works of fiction, and of the drama, as far as possible, to supply."

IMAM is the title of the officer who leads the devotions in Mohammedan mosques, and in Turkey conducts marriage and funeral services, as well as performs the ceremonies connected with circumcision; the office was filled and the title borne by Mahomet, hence it sometimes signifies head of the faith, and is so applied to the Sultan of Turkey; good Mohammedans believe in the future advent of an Imam—the hidden Imam—who shall be greater than the Prophet himself.

IMAUS, a name the ancients gave to any large mountain chain in Asia, more particularly one bordering on India, or looking down upon it, as the home of the Aryans.

IMITATION OF CHRIST, a book of pious reflections, unique in its kind, and much esteemed by piously thoughtful people; ascribed to THOMAS A KEMPIS (q. v.).

IMMACULATE CONCEPTION, the doctrine held by the Roman Catholic Church that the Virgin Mary was conceived and born without taint of sin; first distinctly propounded in the 12th century, at which time a festival was introduced in celebration of it, and which became matter of dispute in the 14th century, and it was only in 1854 that it became by a bull an article of the Catholic faith.

IMMANENCE, the idea that the creative intelligence which made, with the regulative intelligence which governs, the universe, is inherent in it and pervades it.

IMMENSITIES, CENTRE OF, an expression of Carlyle's to signify that wherever any one is, he is in touch with the whole universe of being, and is, if he knew it, as near the heart of it there as anywhere else he can be.

IMMENSITY, THE TEMPLE OF, the universe as felt to be in every corner of it a temple consecrated to worship in with wonder and awe.

IMMERMANN, KARL LEBERECHT, German novelist and dramatist, born at Magdeburg; fought at Waterloo; entered the public service of Prussia and obtained an appointment at Duesseldorf, where he died; his fame rests upon his miscellaneous tales and satirical novels, such as "Muenchausen"; his dramas consisted of both tragedies and comedies (1796-1840).

IMMORTALITY, the doctrine of the continued existence of the soul of each individual after death, a doctrine the belief of which is, in one form or another, common to most religious systems; even to those which contemplate absorption in the Deity as the final goal of existence, as is evident from the prevalence in them of the doctrine of transmigration or reincarnation.

IMMORTALS, a regiment of 10,000 foot soldiers who formed the bodyguard of the ancient Persian kings; the name given to the 40 members of the French Academy.

IMOGEN, the daughter of Cymbeline, in Shakespeare's play of the name, a perfect female character, pronounced "the most tender and the most artless of all Shakespeare's women."

IMO'LA (12), a town in Italy, 10 m. N. of Faenza, with some fine palaces; manufactures leather, glass, silk, &c.

IMPANATION, a name employed to denote the union of the body of Christ with the bread of the Eucharist.

IMPENETRABILITY, the name given to that quality of matter whereby two bodies cannot occupy the same space at the same time.

IMPERATIVE, THE CATEGORICAL. See CATEGORICAL.

IMPERIAL FEDERATION, name given to a scheme for uniting more closely together the several interests of the British Empire.

IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, South Kensington, founded by the exertions of the Prince of Wales in 1887 to commemorate Queen Victoria's jubilee, was opened by her in 1893; was intended to include a complete collection of the products of the British Empire, a grand commercial intelligence bureau, and a school of modern Oriental languages; the government to be carried on by a chartered body, whose form of constitution was granted by a royal warrant of date April 21, 1891; the idea is for the present abandoned, and the premises appropriated as henceforth the seat of the London University.

IMPERIALISM, the name given by English politicians to the policy which aims at the consolidation into one empire of all the colonies and dependencies along with the mother-country.

IMPETIGO, a cutaneous eruption, generally in clusters, of yellow-scaled pustules, which grow thicker and larger; common among children ill fed and ill cared for.

IMPEY, SIR ELIJAH, Indian judge, born at Hammersmith; educated at Cambridge, and called to the bar in 1756; was sent out to Bengal as first Chief-Justice in 1774; he supported Warren Hastings's administration, and presided over the court which sentenced Nuncomar to death for forgery; in the quarrel over Hastings's alleged resignation he decided in favour of the governor; was recalled and impeached for his conduct of the Nuncomar trial in 1783, but was honourably acquitted; resigning in 1789, he sat in Parliament for New Romney till 1796 (1732-1809).

IMPONDERABLES, the name given to light, heat, and electricity when they were supposed to be material substances, but without weight.

IMPRESSIONISM, a term in painting that denotes the principle of a new school originating in France before 1870, and introduced into this country some 10 years later; it is a revolt against traditionalism in art, and aims at reproducing on canvas not what the mind knows or by close study observes is in nature, but the "impression" which eye and mind gather. The influence of the movement has been strong, and promises to be lasting both here and in Germany, and not the least interesting work of the kind has of late years issued from the "Glasgow School" and the "London Impressionists."

IMPRESSMENT, legalised enforcement of service in the British navy, which has for years been in abeyance, and is not likely to be ever again revived.

IMPROPRIATION, the transference of the revenues of a benefice to a layman or lay body to be devoted to spiritual uses.

IMPUTATION, the theological dogma of the transference of guilt or merit from one to another who is descended naturally or spiritually from the same stock as the former, as of Adam's guilt to us by nature or Christ's righteousness to us by faith; although in Scripture the term generally, if not always, denotes the reckoning to a man of the merit or the demerit involved in, not another's doings, but his own, as in a single act of faith or a single act of unbelief, the one viewed as allying him with all that is good, or as a proof of his essential goodness, and the other as allying him with all that is evil, or as a proof of his essential wickedness.

IN CAENA DOMINI (i. e. in the Supper of the Lord), a papal bull promulgated in the Middle Ages, denouncing excommunication against all who dispute the claims of the Church, and the promulgation of which was felt on all hands to be intolerable; the promulgation has been discontinued since 1773.

INACHOS, in Greek legend the first king of Argos, son of Oceanus and Tethys.

IN-AND-IN, a term applied to the breeding of animals from the same parentage.

INCA, a king or royal prince of the ancient original people of Peru.

INCANDESCENT LIGHT, or ELECTRIC LIGHT, a light produced by a thin strip of a non-conducting body, such as carbon, in a vacuum raised to intense heat by an electric current.

INCARNATION, the humanisation of the Divine in the person of Christ, a doctrine vehemently opposed in the early times of the Church by both Jews and Gnostics, by the former as inconsistent with the greatness of God, and by the latter as inconsistent with the inbred depravity of man.

INCENSE, a fragrance which arises from the burning of certain gums and burnt in connection with sundry religious observances, particularly in the Roman Catholic Church, as an expression of praise presumably well pleasing to God; a practice which Protestants repudiate as without warrant in Scripture.

INCHBALD, ELIZABETH, actress, dramatist, and novelist, daughter of John Simpson, a Suffolk farmer; came to London at the age of 18, seeking a theatrical engagement; after some adventures she met Joseph Inchbald, an actor of no note, to whom she was married in 1772; shortly afterwards she made her debut as Cordelia at Bristol; after seven years in the provinces and nine in London, during which she failed to rise high in her profession, she turned to literature; she wrote and adapted many plays, but the works by which she is remembered are two novels, "A Simple Story" and "Nature and Art" (1753-1821).

INCHCOLM, an island in the Firth of Forth, near Aberdour, on the Fife coast, so called as the residence of St. Columba when engaged in the conversion of the Northern Picts; has the remains of an abbey founded by Alexander I.

INCHKEITH, an island in the Firth of Forth, in the county of Fife, 21/2m. N. of Leith, and about 1/2 m. long, has a lighthouse with a revolving light, and fortifications to protect the Forth.

INCITATUS, the horse of CALIGULA (q. v.); had a house and a servant to itself, was fed from vessels of gold, admitted to the priesthood, and created a consul of Rome.

INCLEDON, CHARLES BENJAMIN, a celebrated ballad-singer with a fine tenor voice, born in Cornwall (1763-1826).

INCORRUPTIBLE, THE, ROBESPIERRE (q. v.), a man not to be seduced to betray his principles or party.

INCREMENT, UNEARNED, an expression denoting increase in the value of landed property due to increased demand and without any expenditure on the part of the proprietor.

INDEPENDENCE, DECLARATION OF, a declaration made July 4, 1776, by the North American States declaring their independence of Great Britain.

INDEPENDENCE, THE WAR OF, the name given to the struggle which the North American colonists maintained against the mother country.

INDEPENDENCE DAY, a holiday observed throughout the United States annually on the 4th of July in celebration of the Declaration of Independence in 1776 that day.

INDEPENDENTS or CONGREGATIONALISTS are a Protestant sect deriving both names from their principle of government; repudiating both Episcopacy and Presbyterianism, they hold that every congregation should manage its own affairs, and elect its own officers independent of all authority save that of Christ; they profess to derive all rules of faith and practice from the Scriptures, and are closely akin to Presbyterians in doctrine. Numerous as early as Queen Elizabeth's time, they suffered persecution then; many fled or were banished to Holland, whence the Mayflower conveyed the Pilgrim Fathers to New England in 1620. Regaining ascendency under Cromwell, they again suffered at the Restoration; but political disabilities then imposed have gradually been removed, and now they are the most vigorous Dissenting body in England. The congregations in the English Union (a union for common purposes and mutual help) number 4700, those in the Scottish Union 100.

INDEX EXPURGATORIUS, a list of books issued by the Church of Rome, which, as hostile to her teaching, are placed under her ban, and are under penalties forbidden to be read. The first list published was by Pope Paul IV. in 1557, and in 1562 the Council of Trent appointed a committee whose special business it should be to draw up a complete list of obnoxious writings, a work which it fell to Paul IV. to finish after the sittings of the Council came to a close in an index issued in 1564.

INDIA (287,223), British dependency, consisting of the great peninsula in the S. of Asia, which has the Bay of Bengal on the E. and the Arabian Sea on the W., and is separated from the mainland by the Hindu-Kush and the Himalaya Mountains; politically the name includes besides the Punjab in the N. and Burma in the E.; the centre of the peninsula is a great plateau called the Deccan, between which and the snow-clad Himalaya stretch the great fertile basins of the Ganges, the Thar Desert, and the arid wastes of the Indus Valley; great varieties of climate are of course met with, but the temperature is prevailingly high, and the monsoons of the Indian Ocean determine the regularity of the rainy season, which occurs from June to October; the country generally is insalubrious; the vegetation is correspondingly varied, but largely tropical; rice, cereal crops, sugar, and tobacco are generally grown; cotton in Bombay and the Central Provinces, opium in the Ganges Valley, jute in Eastern Bengal, and indigo in Behar; coffee and tea are raised by Europeans in the hill country on virgin soil; the chief mineral deposits are extensive coal-fields between the Ganges and the Godavari, the most valuable salt deposits in the world in the Punjab, and deposits of iron, the purest found anywhere, in many parts of the country, which, however, are wrought only by native methods; native manufactures are being largely superseded by European methods, and the young cotton-weaving industry flourishes well; the country is well populated on the whole, with a relative scarcity of big towns; the people belong to many different races, and speak languages representing four distinct stocks; the vast bulk of them are Brahmanists or Hindus; there are many Mohammedans, Buddhists (in Burma), and Parsees (in Bombay); 21/4 millions are Christians, and there are other religions; India has been subject to many conquests; the Aryan, Greek, and Mussulman invasions swept from the NW.; the Portuguese obtained a footing on the SW. coast in the 15th century; the victories of Plassey 1757, and Seringapatam 1799, established British rule throughout the whole peninsula, and the principle that native princes where they retained their thrones were vassals; Sind was won in 1843 and the Punjab in 1849, and the powers of the East India Company transferred to the Queen in 1857, who was proclaimed Empress in 1877; the government is vested in a governor-general aided by an executive and a legislative council, under control, however, of a Secretary of State for India and council at home; there are governors and lieutenant-governors of the presidencies of Madras and Bombay, and of the various provinces; native States are all attached to and subject to the supervision of the government of a province; there is a native army of 146,000 men, and 74,000 European troops are maintained in the country; British rule has developed the resources of the country, advanced its civilisation, and contributed to the welfare of the people; Indian finance is not yet satisfactory; the currency is based on silver, the steady depreciation of which metal has never ceased to hamper the national funds.

INDIA, (1) THE IMPERIAL ORDER OF THE CROWN OF, founded in 1878, includes the Queen and certain royal princes, English and Indian, female relatives of the Viceroy, of the governors of Bombay and Madras, and others in high places in India; (2) THE MOST EXALTED ORDER OF THE STAR OF, founded in 1861 and since enlarged, with the sovereign for head and the viceroy as grand-master, and three different grades of knights, designed severally G.C.S.I., K.C.S.I, and C.S.I., a blue ribbon with white stripes being the badge; and (3) THE MOST EMINENT ORDER OF THE EMPIRE OF, founded in 1878 and enlarged in 1887, with queen and empress at the head, and a knighthood similar to the preceding, their motto, "Imperatricis auspiciis."

INDIAN CIVIL SERVICE, a service which, besides embracing the ordinary departments of civil administration, includes judicial, medical, territorial, and even military staff appointments, appointments dependent on the possession of regulated, more or less academic, qualifications.

INDIAN MUTINY, a wide-spread rebellion on the part chiefly of the Sepoys against British authority in 1857, and which was suppressed by a strong force under Sir Colin Campbell in 1858.

INDIAN OCEAN is that stretch of sea between Africa on the W. and Australia, Java, and Sumatra on the E., which separates in the N. into the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal; the monsoons, or trade-winds, blow here with great regularity; from April to October they are strong from the SW., from October to April more gentle in the opposite direction; there are many islands and reefs of coral formation, such as the Maldive group; St. Paul's and Mauritius are volcanic, while Madagascar and Ceylon are typical continental islands.

INDIAN TERRITORY (186), a stretch of country in the basin of the Arkansas, Canadian, and Red Rivers, with Kansas on the N., Arkansas on the E., Oklahoma Territory on the W., and separated by the Red River from Texas on the S., set apart for the occupation of the Indian tribes of the western prairies; formerly double its present size, it has been reduced by the purchase in 1890 of Oklahoma.; in the centre and east are fertile plains and great forests of walnut and maple, in which deer and bears abound; the west is a treeless prairie supporting vast herds of cattle; mineral resources are probably rich, but are undeveloped; the principal tribes have their own organisations and civilised institutions, churches, schools, banks, and newspapers; the towns are small, Tahlequah, Lehigh, and M'Alister are the chief.

INDIANA (2,192), one of the smaller but most populous States of the American Union, lies between Lake Michigan and the Ohio River, with Ohio on the E. and Illinois on the W.; the climate is marked by extremes of heat and cold; the country is somewhat hilly in the S., is mostly level, well watered, and very fertile; agriculture is the chief industry, cereals, potatoes, and tobacco forming the chief crops; there is great mineral wealth, with extensive and varied industries, embracing iron, glass, and textile manufactures, waggon-building, and furniture-making; petroleum wells are abundant, and in one part of the territory natural gas is found in great quantities. First occupied by the French, Indiana was acquired by Britain in 1763, ceded to America 1783, and admitted to the Union in 1816; education in the State university and schools is free; besides Indianapolis, the capital, the largest towns are Evansville (50), Fort Wayne (30), and Terre Haute (30).

INDIANAPOLIS (169), capital of Indiana, on the White Ford River, in the centre of the State; a fine city, with wide, tree-lined streets, large iron, brass, and textile manufactures, and canned-meat industry; is a great railroad centre.

INDIANS, AMERICAN, the aborigines of America, and now gradually dying out; these aborigines were called Indians by Columbus, because when he discovered America he thought it was India. See AMERICAN INDIANS.

INDIA-RUBBER, CAOUTCHOUC, or GUM ELASTIC, is a product of the milky juices of several tropical and sub-tropical plants found in the West Indies, Central and South America, West Africa, and India; there is evidence that its properties were partially known to the Spaniards in the West Indies early in the 17th century; but its first introduction to this country was about 1770, when it was employed by artists for erasing black-lead pencil marks, hence its familiar name; it is collected by making incisions in the tree trunk and gathering the slowly exuding juice, which is first solidified by drying, then purified by boiling and washing; it is flexible and elastic, insoluble in water, and impenetrable to gases and fluids, and these qualities give it great commercial importance; the use of pure rubber has been greatly superseded by that of "vulcanised" rubber; mixed with from 1/40 to 1/2 of its weight of sulphur and combined by heat, the rubber acquires greater elasticity, is not hardened by cold or rendered viscid by heat, and is insoluble in many of the solvents of pure rubber; its usefulness is thus largely increased and greatly extended of late; the demand for rubber is in excess of the supply, but no substitute has been found effective; in recent years care has been bestowed on its economical collection and on its scientific culture.

INDICTION, a cycle of 15 years instituted by Constantine the Great, and which began on the 24th September 812, the day of his victory over Maxentius; to find the indiction of any year add 1 and divide by 15.

INDIUM, a metallic elementary body of rare occurrence, and first discovered in zinc-blende in 1863.

INDIVIDUALISM, the name given to a social system which has respect to the rights of the individual as sovereign, and is strictly opposed to Socialism.

INDO-CHINA, called also the Eastern Peninsula or Farther India, the name given to the large peninsular territory which lies between the Bay of Bengal and the Chinese Sea, lying almost wholly within the Torrid Zone, and embracing the empires of Burma and Annam and the kingdom of Cambodia and Siam, as well as territories under Britain and France, all now mostly divided between the latter two and Siam; it is sparsely peopled owing to its mountainous character and the swampy lands, and the natives are mainly of the Mongolian type.

INDO-EUROPEAN, an epithet applied to a family of the human race with the languages of its several members descended from the Aryans, and found dispersed over an area including the better part of India and Europe.

INDO-GERMANIC, a term at one time employed especially among German writers, synonymous with Aryan.

INDORE, 1, a native principality (1,094), in Central India, somewhat larger than Wales, embraces the Vindbya and Satpura Mountains, and is traversed by the Nerbudda River; there are great forests on the mountains; the valley of the river is fertile; wheat, sugar, cotton, tobacco, and large quantities of opium are raised; the climate is sultry, and at certain seasons unhealthy; the natives are chiefly Mahratta Hindus; among the hills are Bhils and Gonds, the wildest tribes of India; the State is governed by a Maharajah styled Holkar, under supervision of an agent of the Governor-General; education is progressing. INDORE, 2, on the Kuthi River, the capital (92), is a poor city of brick and mud; the palace and the British residency, however, are fine buildings; it is connected by rail with Bombay, distant 400 m. SW., and with Ajmere; it was the scene of a British massacre in 1857.

INDRA, the king of heaven and national god of the Aryans; gives victory to his people, and is always ready to aid them; he is pre-eminently a warlike god, and as he stands on his war-chariot, drawn by five fawn-coloured horses, he is in a sort the type of an Aryan chieftain; he is sometimes assisted by other gods, but he more frequently fights alone; he is the dispenser, moreover, of all good gifts, and the author and preserver of all living; his power extends over the heavens, and he holds the earth in the hollow of his hand.

INDUCTION, the name given to the logical process by which from a study of particular instances we arrive at a general principle or law. The term is also applied to an electric or magnetic effect produced without direct contact and equal to the cause, being essentially its reproduction.

INDULGENCE, remission by Church authority of the guilt of a sin on the penitent confession of the sinner to a priest, which, according to Roman Catholic theology, the Church is enabled to dispense out of the inexhaustible treasury in reserve of the merits of Christ.

INDUS, a great river of India, 1800 m. long; rises in Thibet, on the N. of the Himalayas, flows NW. through Cashmere, then SW. through the Punjab and Sind to the sea; its upper course is through great gorges and very rapid, but after the entrance of the Kabul River its way lies through arid plains, and it is navigable; after receiving the Panjnad its volume decreases through evaporation and the sinking of some of the many streams into which it divides in the sand; on one of the branches of the delta stands the thriving port of Kurrachee.

INERTIA, that property of bodies by which they remain in a state of rest or of motion in a straight line till disturbed by a force moving them in the one case or arresting them in the other.

INEZ DE CASTRO. See CASTRO.

INFALLIBILITY, freedom from all error in the past and from all possibility of error in the future as claimed by the Church of Rome. This claim extends to all matters of faith, morals, and discipline in the Church, and is based on an interpretation of Matt. xvi. 18, xxviii. 19; Eph. iv. 11-16, and other passages. It is held that the Church is incapable of embracing any false doctrine from whatever quarter suggested, and that she is guided by the Divine Spirit in actively opposing heresy, in teaching all necessary truth, and in deciding all relative matters of controversy. Infallibility is not claimed in connection with matters of fact, science, or general opinion. The seat of infallibility has been much disputed even in the Roman Catholic Church itself, and the infallibility of the Pope was only decreed so recently as the Vatican Council in 1870. It was always agreed that where the Pope and Bishops were unanimous they were infallible, and their unanimity might be expressed either in a general council, or in a decree of a local council tacitly accepted by the Pope and the rest of the Church, or even in a decree of the Pope alone if the bishops either expressly or tacitly affirmed it. But the Vatican Council decided "that when the Roman Pontiff speaks ex cathedra—that is, when he, using his office as pastor and doctor of all Christians, in virtue of his apostolic office, defines a doctrine of faith and morals to be held by the whole Church—he by the Divine assistance, promised to him by the blessed Peter, possesses that infallibility with which the Divine Redeemer was pleased to invest His Church in the definition of doctrine in faith or morals, and that therefore such definitions of the Roman Pontiff are irreformable in their own nature and not because of the consent of the Church." The Greek Church puts forward a moderate claim to inerrancy, holding that as a matter of fact those councils which she regards as oecumenical have not erred in their decrees affecting faith and morals.

INFANTE, INFANTA, the titles given respectively to the royal princes and princesses of Spain and Portugal.

INFERI, the name given by the Latins to the nether world and the gods of it.

INFERNO, the hell of Dante, represented as included in nine circles, of which the first six, constituting the uppermost hell, are occupied by those who cannot govern themselves yet have no mind to harm any one else, of which the seventh, constituting the mid-hell, is occupied by those who cannot govern their thoughts, and of which the eighth and ninth, constituting the nether hell, are occupied by those who have wilfully done harm to other people, those in the eighth in hot blood and those in the ninth or lowest in cold blood, the former in passion and the latter without passion, far down below the freezing-point. See Ruskin's "Fors Clavigera," more fully, and by way of authority for this.

INFLECTION, the name given to the changes in the end of words to indicate relations, not so common in English—being usually expressed among us by prepositions—as in Latin, Greek, and other languages, but occurring in English as king's, mine, ours, to indicate possession; inflection in nouns is called declension, and in verbs conjugation.

INFLUENZA, an epidemic disease, closely resembles, but is quite distinct from, cold in the head. It is characterised by early and marked debility and depression; though usually of short duration, attacks must not be disregarded; fatal results often ensue on carelessness. Convalescence is slow, and complications may ensue. The cause of the malady is obscure; sporadic cases always occur, but from time to time great epidemics of this disease have travelled westward over the world. Their movement seems to depend on atmospheric conditions, but is independent of the season of the year and often contrary to the direction of the wind. Visitations occurred in Britain in 1837-38, 1847-48, and 1889-91.

INFRALAPSARIANS, those Calvinists who believe that election and predestination are subsequent to the Fall, while the Supralapsarians believe that these ordinations are as old as eternity.

INFUSORIA, a name given to certain classes of animalculae engendered in stagnant water infused with decaying organic matter.

INGELOW, JEAN, poetess and novelist, born at Boston, Lincolnshire, died at Kensington; her earliest work appeared anonymously, but a volume of verses under her name was successful in 1863; her poetry is chiefly religious and devotional; later she wrote for children; subsequently she turned to novels, and produced besides several others "Off the Skelligs" in 1872; she will be remembered for her ballad "High Tide on the Coast of Lincolnshire," and a song "Supper at the Mill" (1820-1897).