The Russian armies crowded down to the sweeps of the Danube, occupying every strategical position, and fortifying themselves by entrenchments and other defences as occasion seemed to require; the Russian leaders the while consolidating their hold upon the provinces thus occupied by deposing the hospodars, levying taxes and rations for the troops, taking the direction of the militia and municipalities, and when payments were made for anything giving only Russian paper, which it was never intended to redeem. Vast quantities of corn were accumulating upon the Danube and at Odessa, which could not be exported. The Russian armies must be fed; and it was a part of the policy of the occupation to detain these stores for any emergency that might arise. With all these evils pressing down the unfortunate Wallachians and Moldavians, forced enlistment was resorted to; and the boyards who refused complicity with the treasonable hospodars were placed in the Russian ranks. To crown all the horrors which filled with fear these wasted and tortured lands, cholera, which broke out in the corps of General Luders, communicated itself to the people of the country, and every town and many districts, from the windings of the Danube to the confines of Podolia, were swept by the cold hand of the unseen messenger of woe. As statements of all these calamities reached Western Europe, the people of England were indignant; and although the desire for peace was intense, the increasing indignation of the British people was loudly expressed. None of these things moved their government—their faith was in protocols and protests, both very gentle and harmless; and the Western powers literally did nothing effective during the summer and autumn until the 10th of September, when the French ambassador, as if in sudden alarm, and without any orders from his government or concert with his colleague of the British embassy, ordered three frigates to ascend the Sea of Marmora and anchor in the Bosphorus. The English minister, after much importunity, adopted a similar measure; but pains were taken to make the Czar and the world believe that this measure was intended to protect the Porte from its own subjects, and not from him. Indeed, the allies seemed to name Russia with "'bated breath;" while Russia was filling the world with boasting, fabricating reports of successes over the tribes of Central Asia, pushing a force even to Bokhara, and menacing and wheedling Persia by turns. The Petersburg Gazette threatened that if England went to war, peace should be dictated to her from Calcutta; she was treated by the emperor and his subjects with utter disdain.

The Turkish government took example from Russia rather than from the allies; she made prodigious efforts to meet the exigency. Her first care was wisely not in the direction of the Danube. She knew that, numerous as were the Russian legions, they could not force the passage of the Balkan, and meet her in defence of her capital upon the plains of Roumelia, before the allied fleets and allied troops would secure it. She had another and more urgent danger; that pointed out by Lord Aberdeen in his despatch upon the treaty of Adrianople.

* * * * *

Russia might penetrate through Armenia into Asia Minor; she might, from the southern shores of the Black Sea, rundown new hosts, overrun provinces comparatively unprotected, and by another route reach the Dardanelles, and menace not only Constantinople, but the allied fleets within its waters. The divan accordingly organized an army of Asia, and with it occupied Anatolia. Selim Pasha was appointed as commander-in-chief and seraskier of the province. Had he possessed the genius of Omar Pasha, to whom the army of the Danube was committed, he might, as events have since proved, have driven the Russians from Georgia and Circassia, and freed the Caucasus from their presence. He was wholly unfit to command a division, much less an army. The Asiatic danger provided against, Omar was sent to collect and organize an army in Bulgaria, and strong reinforcements were promised to be held ready at Adrianople. Two conscriptions, of 80,000 men each, were made before the end of September; and Russia replied to these demonstrations by two enormous levies.

Thus the note of preparation sounded through all the vast empire of the sultan, from Hindostan to the Bosphorus, and thence to the Danube.*

* Nolan's "History of the War against Russia."

The allies made attempts to open negotiations at Vienna, in which the Russian, Austrian, and Turkish diplomatists proved themselves superior to those of Western Europe. The only result was to prove that the dispute could be settled only by the arbitrament of war. This the sultan declared on the 4th of October, the new year's day of the Turks. Fifteen days were given by the sultan for the czar to withdraw his armies before any attack was made upon them.

The events which followed will best and most briefly be depicted by a quotation from the author's work already referred to.

Four days after the declaration of war, the sultan made a formal demand for the allied fleets to enter the Dardanelles. The demand was complied with, and the ministers of the Western powers presented the admirals with great "pomp and circumstance" to the sultan. The further request of the sultan that the fleets or a portion of them should pass also the straits of the Bosphorus was refused by the ambassadors, on the ground that the Western powers were not at war with Russia. In vain the foreign minister of the sultan urged the danger to which his ships and coasts were exposed in the Black Sea. The answer was, that Prince Gortschakoff had promised to make the war on the part of Russia strictly defensive; and that Count Nesselrode, in his circular despatch (above referred to), had repeated that promise. There was, in the opinion of the ambassadors, no reason for doubting the good faith of the Russian government; and they would not, by a demonstration so hostile as that of sending the fleets into the Enxine, provoke Russia to change the character of the war, and make it one of offensive operation. The reply of the Turkish minister was, that Russia could not make the war offensive upon the shores of the Black Sea if the fleets were to cruise there and that the only chance of her being able to convert the war upon the Danube into one of active offensive operations, was her having command of the Black Sea for the easy transport of stores of all kinds to the vicinity of the armies. This reasoning, irrefutable although it obviously was, and most important as it soon and fatally proved itself to be, was met by the reply that the ambassadors had no instructions for any demonstration more active than the assemblage of the fleets for the protection of Stamboul. Again the Turkish minister pressed upon the ambassadors and admirals the exposed situation of the coast of the Black Sea and the Turkish squadron within its waters; and showed that, for the present, there was no necessity for the allied fleets in the Sea of Marmora; that the sultan, in calling them through the Dardanelles, contemplated their further progress through the other straits; that the Russians could not endanger the capital until they had forced the Danube, captured Shumla and Sophia, forced the passes of the Balkan, and were victors at Adrianople; or, from the eastern frontier, had pushed a victorious campaign from the Caucasus, through Asia Minor. It was, however, in vain that the enlightened men then in the Turkish foreignoffice demonstrated that if the fleets were sent to defend Turkey, the Black Sea was their appropriate sphere of action: the admirals had no orders, and the ambassadors would give them none, and pleaded the absence of any discretionary power.

While the fleets spread the tricolor and the union-jack upon the gentle breezes of the Bosphorus, Omar Pasha, with frame of iron and intellect of light, seemed to do everything, as well as direct everything, upon the northern frontier of Bulgaria; and only just allowed the fifteen days' "notice to quit" to expire, before he showed Russia and the world that the Turks had a general, and that with a general they were still soldiers, as when the blazing scimitar of Orchan first flashed upon Europe, or Byzantium shook before the thunder of the artillery of Mohammed II. They were still worthy of their father, Osman, the "Bone-breaker;" and, in hand-to-hand combat, an overmatch for the boors of Russia, both in courage and strength. It must be said, to their disadvantage, that they were not very precise concerning the declaration of war; for on the very day it was declared, and without the knowledge of their chief, a semi-brigade hurried over the river, fell upon a Russian detachment, routed it, seized a considerable booty, and, like true Bashi-bazouks, were away again upon their own side before the foray could be chastised.

With the end of October, the time granted to Prince Gortschakoff by Omar Pasha expired; by whom strong detachments were immediately expedited to the Russian side of the disputed river. Crossing at once in several places, they were soon established in some force upon the frontier of Wallachia, and pushing forward a strong advance-guard upon the Russians, the latter skirmished, refused battle, and slowly and sullenly retreated upon Slatina. The Turks fought and gained several sanguinary battles on the Danube during the month of November, which was followed by various contests, less important, but scarcely less sanguinary.

The month of November, however glorious to the Turkish armies, was disastrous to its navy. The fleet lay in the harbour of Sinope, upon the Black Sea. The Russians, contrary to the official declaration made to the allies, to confine the war to defensive operations, resolved to attack the Turkish fleet by a surprise. The enterprise of the Russian admiral was successful. The unsuspecting Turks were surprised; no opportunity of surrender was given; the attack led, not to a battle, but to a massacre. The whole fleet was destroyed, with an unsparing barbarity and a vindictive bloodthirstiness that must leave a stain for ever upon the pages of Russian history.

War continued to roll along the Bulgarian and Wallachian frontiers to the close of the year; the Turks displaying undaunted heroism, and surpassing the Russians in nearly every soldierly quality, so that the Russian armies lost by battles and marches 35,000 men, exclusive of the sick and wounded.

Prodigious efforts were made by the Russian emperor and the nation. The people contributed voluntarily 150 millions of silver rubles for the expenses of the war between the date of Omar Pasha's crossing the Danube to the end of the year. Of this vast sum the clergy contributed nearly one-half. All Russia was wrought up to a pitch of fanatical enthusiasm for the war, and every heart burned with ambition to see the Greek cross upon the dome of St. Sophia.

Tidings of the massacre of Sinope flew through Europe, and every man out of Russia, Austria, and the countries inhabited by Greeks, perused the harrowing story with indignation and disgust. In England and France the popular feeling against the tardiness of their governments rose high. The English ministry never regained the confidence of the public. The Earl of Aberdeen, Mr. Gladstone, Mr. Sidney Herbert, and the Duke of Newcastle, were known to be the members of the cabinet chiefly accountable for the policy of respect and timidity towards Russia, which had caused the British nation to take so tame and unworthy a part. The diplomatists continued to lose time by tedious and worthless negotiations, giving Russia the advantage of calling forth and organizing her resources, and fomenting by her agents sedition and insurrection among the Greek subjects of the Porte.

Little was effected by the hostile powers upon the theatre of Asia after the declaration of war during that year, but the clangour of arms resounded on the shores of the Black Sea, and along the confines of the two great empires.



PARLIAMENTARY HISTORY.

On the 10th of February parliament assembled. The usual fencing occurred between the leaders of parties. Lord Derby was fiery and impetuous, Lord Aberdeen reserved and pragmatical. Law reform first engaged the attention of the peers. The lord chancellor did not possess the confidence of the house, either as to his capacity or zeal in that direction, and, at the hands of Lord St. Leonards, his proposals received severe and able animadversion.

The topics in both houses were interesting during the first few weeks of the session, but only as connected with passing events. There was nothing done worthy of extended record, nor of particular notice within the space allotted to these volumes. The question of Jewish disabilities occupied the attention of members, under the auspices of Lord John Russell; but a bigoted hostility to the measure pervaded a large minority in the commons and a large majority of the lords. The leader of the party opposed to any concession to the Jews was the Earl of Shaftesbury, who, in a speech mild and impressive in manner, but bigoted and illogical in matter, succeeded in persuading the lords to throw out the bill.

The financial plans of the government met with the support of the commons. Mr. Gladstone introduced the budget in a speech of extraordinary eloquence, which lasted five hours, and was applauded throughout by a great majority of the house. There were no original propositions, no very ingenious contrivances; but the right hon. gentleman threw around his statements an attraction by his eloquence which won his audience: like his preceptor, Sir Robert Peel, he proved himself to be, in the language of Disraeli, "a very great member of parliament." In the debates which followed, Mr. Gladstone received several severe defeats from the more advanced liberals on his own side of the house; but all efforts on the part of the tory and protectionist section to defeat his proposals, upon their own principles, were abortive.



INDIA BILL.

The house, the public, the East India Company, and all interested in the great Eastern dependencies included under the general name of India, looked forward with anxiety to the bill which it was necessary to pass in reference to the relations of the country and the East India Company.

On the 3rd of June, Sir Charles Wood, in a speech of five hours' duration, proposed his plan for the future government of India.*

* See Nolan's "History of the British Empire in India and the East."

Mr. Bright, in one of his most elaborate parliamentary efforts, criticised the measure; he eloquently inveighed against the East India Company, but his information upon subjects connected with India did not support the influence his parliamentary powers were so calculated to command. Lord Stanley, during the debates that ensued, distinguished himself for the first time on Indian subjects, over which in a few years he was destined to hold so important an influence. The bill of the government passed the commons, but was subjected to various alterations in the interest of the East India Company in the lords. Thus amended, it was accepted by the commons and became law.

To give even the briefest abstract of this measure would be as unnecessary as it is undesirable, within the limits of our space, for in a few years a great insurrection in India led to the abolition of the act, and the removal of the East India Company from all political power in India, and the vesting in the crown the government of all our eastern possessions.

The main objects of the act of 1858 were to lessen the power of the East India Company still more than it had been fettered by previous acts; to enlarge the scope of the board of control; to increase the direct authority of the president of that board and the governor-general of India; and to simplify the procedure of the home, action, on Indian government.



DISCUSSIONS ON FOREIGN AFFAIRS.—RUSSIA AND TURKEY.

Some party debates ensued upon certain speeches made "out-of-doors" by cabinet ministers about French affairs, in which some personalities towards the French emperor were indulged. Hardly any other foreign topic engaged the debating powers of the members, except the all-absorbing one of the hostile proceedings of Russia against Turkey. It was the general opinion of the English people, that the French emperor, for dynastic purposes, brought on the war. He had not been recognised by the Russian emperor, and the policy was obviously to bring on a conflict in which, with England and Turkey for allies, victory was certain, and the beaten czar would be obliged to recognise an emperor in the person of his conqueror.

Discussions upon the relations of Turkey and Russia began as early as April, and were continued, with short intervals of intermission, while parliament sat. During these debates the ministry was severely arraigned for incapacity, tardiness, crotchety and conceited views, confidence in the czar, which could only be inspired by sympathy with his despotic views, and instability of purpose. To the Aberdeen section of the cabinet these failings were especially attributed, and the justice of the imputations was too plainly established. The Earl of Derby, Lord Lyndhurst, and the Marquis of Clanricarde, showed a large acquaintance with the subject, and their orations against the policy of the government were the happiest political and parliamentary efforts ever made by those noblemen. In the commons, Mr. Layard, Lord Dudley Stuart, and Mr. Duncombe, made severe and eloquent denunciations against the ministerial policy, which "out-of-doors" encountered universal reprobation. It was the general opinion that Lord Palmerston ought to be placed at the head of affairs: even the conservative section of the country desired such a change, but were of opinion that his lordship should serve as minister for foreign affairs, or minister of war, under Lord Derby as premier. It was plain that while Lord Palmerston supported his colleagues ostensibly, he did not interfere much in foreign affairs, but attended to the duties of the homeoffice, which had never before been so efficiently performed. He was an object of jealousy, both to the Russell Whigs and the Aberdeen Peelites, and possessed more of the confidence of his opponents than of either. Much dissatisfaction was created throughout the country by the temper and policy displayed by Mr. Cobden, Mr. Bright, Mr. Fox, and other gentlemen of the Manchester school. The great abilities of those gentlemen, the general conviction entertained of their honesty of purpose, and their past services to their country, on economical questions especially, made men reluctant to exhibit the dissatisfaction felt, and which, at a later period, displayed itself by strong practical demonstrations. These gentlemen lauded Russia as a highly civilized and Christian state; Turkey, on the other hand, was denounced as a robber power, which ought to be dispossessed. It was asserted that it was for the good of English trade that Russia should succeed in conquering Turkey; and that, at all events, it was the interest of England to be neutral, and leave France, Turkey, and Russia to concuss, as the waves of the sea against one another and the shore. A general impression, however, arose, that as the Manchester trade with Turkey and Eastern Europe was mainly transacted through Greek merchants and agents, it was the commercial interest of these men to conciliate the enemies of the sultan, apart from the political aspect of their relations. The cabinet was undoubtedly much influenced by this section of its supporters in the blind confidence it snowed to the czar, in their presumption that moral influence would suffice to prevent a war, and in the niggardly, and therefore unwise, and ultimately costly scheme upon which armaments were provided. Probably never in the House of Commons was rebuke more eloquently and sincerely given, or more justly merited, than when Lord Palmerston exposed the contradictory, selfish, and unpatriotic policy advocated by Mr. Cobden.

The hostile feeling of the Manchester section of the liberal party towards Lord Palmerston increased from that time, and his lordship made no efforts to conceal his dislike of the party, but sometimes showed it in a manner even contemptuous. The influence of the party was exercised upon the cabinet, and Lord Palmerston felt himself treated by so little consideration, that on the 16th December he resigned. Her majesty wisely refused to receive his resignation. No explanations of the cause of the circumstance were ever given in parliament, but the country, una voce, pronounced that it arose from his lordship's dissatisfaction with the truckling policy of the Aberdeen party in the cabinet, and his popularity rose still higher.

The session of 1853 was not unproductive. Various measures of importance were transacted. The cabinet possessed much administrative ability, and displayed it by carrying a number of bills of great practical utility. It was a good peace, but a bad war, ministry.



DEATHS OF EMINENT PERSONS.

In modern English history much of the greatness and glory of the country may be learned by noticing the names, characters, and exploits of the eminent persons who pass away from the theatre of life and action. So fruitful is the country in men of renown, and men who deserve renown, that to notice these is to see the mighty position which Great Britain occupies, and is likely to occupy, in the world.

The obituary of 1853 was not more remarkable than that of previous years; but still the number of the great and good who dropped into the silence of the grave was too great for any justice to be done to their memories, or to their country, jealous of their fame. Throughout the year, admirals and general officers, who had well served their country, were removed from the ranks of her defenders. So numerous were these, that it would be invidious to select from them any for particular notice.

Among the men of other professions it is more easy to point out a few of those whose decease excited general regret.

In January, Jonathan Pereira, Esq., M.D., F.R.S., and F.L.S. He was distinguished as a professor of Materia Medica, and a writer on medical subjects.

In February, Dr. Kay, Bishop of Lincoln. The son of a linen-draper of Hammersmith, near Kensington. He rose by force of his superior intellect to the highest honours in the church. As a general scholar, as well as a theologian, he attained great eminence.

In June, the Earl of Ducie. This nobleman was one of the most excellent in the peerage. His religious zeal and charity received the acknowledgments of all classes of men, although his resources were small. He was a proficient in agricultural science, and invented various agricultural implements of utility. As a breeder of stock he was unequalled. His "Example Farm," at Whitfield, gained him much reputation. He was a sound political economist and freetrader. The author of these lines had opportunities of seeing his lordship's attainments in these respects severely tested in private intercourse with men of the highest name.

July witnessed the death of Lady Sale, widow of the heroic General Sale, who died from wounds received upon the field of battle. Lady Sale was one of the captives made by Akbar Khan in the disastrous Affghan war. During that war, and more especially during her captivity, she displayed wonderful fortitude. She possessed extraordinary military skill and knowledge, and showed judgment in campaigning and in diplomatic affairs, far superior to most of the chief officers with whom she came in contact. Her narrative of the Affghan war is ably written, and a record of most romantic events. After the death of her gallant husband, she received a pension of L500 a year from the queen. She returned to India, and resided among the hills, and ultimately died at Cape Town, Florentia, on the 6th of July, universally regarded with respect and admiration.

Although the names of eminent officers in the army and navy, who died in this year, have been passed over in these notices, from their great number, one is especially deserving of being selected from the heroic crowd.

Lieutenant-general Sir Charles James Napier, G.C.B. This extraordinary man was the eldest son of the Hon. Colonel George Napier, comptroller of the army accounts in Ireland. Before he finished his twelfth year, he was appointed to an ensigncy in the 22nd regiment of foot; and it is a remarkable fact, that his conquest of Scinde was mainly effected by the instrumentality of that regiment. His services were arduous and heroic. His mind was original, and active exceedingly. He possessed amazing vigour in command, and powers of organization rarely exhibited. The great duke held him in high estimation as a general. He was seventy-one years of age at his death, which took place at Oaklands, near Portsmouth. A monument, to celebrate his exploits, has been erected in Trafalgar Square, near to that of Nelson.

As December opened, Mrs. Opie, so celebrated as a writer, died at Norwich, her native place, in her eighty-fifth year.

On the 17th, the Marchioness of Wellesley, an American lady of Irish parentage. Her life was an eventful one. She was much esteemed as the lady of the Lord-lieutenant of Ireland, when the noble marquis held that post. She had been for many years a favourite of Queen Adelaide, and died in the Palace of Hampton-court.

The Rev. W. Jay, the eminent Congregational minister of Bath, died on the 27th, in his eighty-fifth year. He began to preach before he had attained his sixteenth year. Before he was of age, he had delivered about one thousand sermons. He had been sixty-two years minister of Argyle Chapel, Bath. His writings were varied, beautiful in style, and rich in thought and illustration. They were productive of a vast amount of good, as all denominations of Christians and all ranks of men perused them. The author of this History was on terms of intimacy with this remarkable man, and can testify that his powers of conversation were as varied and rare as his talents in the pulpit, and as a writer on religious subjects.



CHAPTER LXVI.

{VICTORIA. 1854}

Home Affairs: General excitement at the beginning of the year..... Declaration of War against Russia..... The Court..... Tidings of the loss of Captain Franklin..... Cholera..... Ireland: Party animosities and murders...... Colonies: Their General peace and prosperity..... Foreign Relations: The French Alliance..... War with Russia..... Battles by sea and land..... Dread-ful sufferings of the British Army..... Parliament: Contests concerning the conduct of the war..... Break-up of the Aberdeen government..... lord Palmerston premier..... Deaths of Eminent Persons.



HOME AFFAIRS.—GENERAL PROSPECTS.

{A.D. 1854}

The year 1854 opened gloomily upon the United Kingdom. Sickness prevailed; bad harvests in western and southern Europe caused a dearth of food; and there was reason to fear that the fleets and armies of England and France would encounter those of Russia in open war. There was much dissatisfaction with the government. The Earl of Aberdeen and the whole Peelite section of the cabinet were believed to be too friendly to the czar, and adopting a policy unworthy of English greatness and of English honour. The court was supposed to be influenced by the German powers in favour of Russia, and to be secretly hostile to the French emperor. An active and almost authoritative interference in the administrative affairs of the government, home and foreign, was attributed to Prince Albert; and that interference was believed to be unfavourable to free opinions at home, and a dignified attitude on the part of England to foreign powers. A passion for Germanizing the army and the home-office, for centralization—so contrary to English opinions and traditions—and for subjecting the policy of England to German interests, necessities, or views, was believed to possess the prince, and to spread its influence in the court. The prince, who had won so wide a popularity, became, in fact, unpopular. No open demonstrations were made of this feeling, but his royal highness was received coolly when he appeared in public, and the newspapers of the whole of the united kingdom gave him the discredit of such rumours. Happily, when parliament met, the statements of the ministers lessened these unpopular impressions, but did not efface them. It was thought that the public men who were favourable to England's taking a spirited part in defence of Turkey, in conjunction with France, and against the wishes of the German courts, were thwarted by the prince.

The desire was universally entertained that parliament should meet at the beginning of January, but it was the last day of that month before it assembled.

The approaching rupture with Russia occupied the attention of the public intensely; the youth of the country burning for war against a power so despotic and cruel. The massacre of Sinope had goaded the English nation to a feeling of resentment against the czar personally, and to an antipathy to the genius and spirit of the nation which he governed. For sake of treating the events of the time with unity, we shall pass over the home incidents connected with the proclamation of hostilities until the peaceful incidents which were important to the country are first recorded.

A new Crystal Palace was erected at Sydenham, which excited a wide-spread interest, that even the thunders of war could not distract.

The friends of literature were gratified by the erection of a monument to Thomas Hood, in the cemetery at Kensal Green. No writer of modern times, in prose or verse, possessed his facility for touching the hearts of his countrymen, and leaving his words deep in their memory.

In the autumn the public were much affected by tidings concerning the fate of the great arctic navigator, Captain Franklin, which left no longer a hope that he had survived the perils of the polar seas. Dr. Rae, the celebrated American traveller, landed at Deal, in October, and made a communication to the admiralty to the following effect: that the captain and his whole party had, according to the testimony of certain Esquimaux, perished of cold and famine in the spring of 1850. Dr. Rae and his party purchased various articles from these people, which were undoubtedly relics of the unfortunate expedition. During September, the screwsteamer, Phoenix, had arrived at Queen's Town, on her return from a searching voyage in connection with the gallant captain. This vessel was the remains of the little squadron, commanded by Captains Collinson, McClure, and Belcher. Captains Collinson and McClure succeeded in establishing the fact of a north-west passage. They were, however, unable to discover any traces of the Franklin expedition, such as would lead to any certainty as to his fate.

During the summer and autumn the cholera smote London and the provinces with great severity. During the quarter ending September, about thirty thousand persons perished in England of cholera and diarrhoea; during the three months ending with December, several thousands more were added to the sad enumeration.

One of the events of the year which most interested the commercial public, was the great loss of property by shipwreck. The coasts of the United Kingdom were strewn with wrecks in every direction, but especially along the north-east of England. There were upon the coasts of Great Britain and Ireland nine hundred and eighty-seven wrecks. During the first month of the year the greatest havoc was made. During that month four hundred and sixty-seven lives were lost. The total number lost by shipwreck during the year was one thousand five hundred and forty-nine. Such was the report of the Admiralty's register; but it is certain that omissions were made, and that the number was considerably higher.



THE COURT.

The Russian war caused her majesty many anxieties, and an expression of care and deep concern was observed upon her countenance when she appeared in public. The festivities usual to the British court, and the rural enjoyments to which her majesty and her court were so much addicted, were greatly abridged by the demands of public business upon the queen, and the exciting vicissitudes of the war.

The events of chief interest to the court, apart from the great turmoil of public affairs, were the visits of certain royal persons to the queen, and a visit made by the royal consort to the Emperor of the French.

On the 2nd of June, the young King of Portugal, with his brother, the Duke of Oporto, arrived at Buckingham Palace. Every hospitality was shown to these princely guests; and they accompanied her majesty and Prince Albert to various places worthy the inspection of foreign princes.

The Egyptian prince, El Hami Pasha, heir of Abbas, the Pasha of Egypt, arrived at Southampton in July. The prince was attended by various great officers of the Egyptian viceroy.

On the 5th of September several princes visited the French Emperor at Calais and Boulogne. Among them was Prince Albert and his uncle, the King of the Belgians. The prince was attended by detachments of the Life Guards and the Horse Guards as an escort. These troops were objects of much curiosity and admiration on the part of the French citizens and soldiers.

On the 14th of September her majesty paid her customary autumnal visit to her Scottish Highland retreat. En route she slept at Holyrood, the palace of the famous and unfortunate Mary, Queen of Scots. On the 12th of October her majesty left Balmoral for Windsor.



IRELAND

As usual, the people of England were, from time to time, startled by accounts of agrarian outrage, and of murders perpetrated under circumstances of savage ferocity hardly paralleled anywhere. Some of the worst criminals were found guilty; generally, juries in the Roman Catholic districts were unwilling to convict, and frequently the prosecution rested on the evidence of informers too infamous to believe. All the old evils which had so long harassed that distracted country remained in full force. The spirit of party, and of religious rancour, raged fearfully. The most terrible exemplification of sanguinary bigotry which, perhaps, the world ever witnessed, occurred in the north in September. During periods of persecution in all countries, man has proved himself swift to shed blood under the influence of intolerance and fanaticism; but seldom, if ever, in cold blood, had so horrible an atrocity been contemplated, as was attempted by the anti-Protestant party in Ulster, on the 15th of September.

The city of Londonderry, it is well known to the readers of English history, made an extraordinarily gallant defence against the army of James II., during the revolutionary war of 1688-9. Ever since it has been customary for the Protestant citizens of Derry to commemorate the glorious event. So it was, also, in the September of 1854. A large number of Protestants, many of whom were Orangemen, residing in Enniskillen and the neighbourhood, resolved to join their brethren of Derry in their festivities. For this purpose they hired a train on the railway. They arrived at Derry, joined in the demonstrations made by "the maiden city," and resumed their places in a returning train. The hostile party determined to effect the destruction of the whole party. Impediments were placed ingeniously on a particular part of the road, by which one of the two engines that drew the train was thrown down an embankment, and the other flung back upon the carriages. One of the engine-drivers was killed; two were terribly wounded. The Earl of Enniskillen, who headed the party, was on the engine, and narrowly escaped death. Several passengers were injured. It was wonderful that any escaped. The country people could hardly be prevailed upon to render assistance, they sympathised with the murderous purpose which had barely failed. The Roman Catholic party raised a great outcry against the Orangemen for provoking such an outrage. The liberal party in parliament and in the press could not afford to do without the Roman Catholic vote, and took up the same key-note of denunciation of the Orangemen. It is astonishing how little indignation the British public showed at this attempt at wholesale assassination by fanatics. A verdict of wilful murder was returned by a coroner's jury against six navvies who worked upon the rail. No adequate means were adopted by the government to trace out the offenders, or bring them to the condign punishment so extraordinary an atrocity deserved.



COLONIAL.

The colonies were generally prosperous and peaceable; much alarm was excited, especially in Australia, India, and the Straits of Malacca, by the want of fortifications and ships of war for their protection. It was deemed possible that a Russian fleet might sail through the straits, from its Siberian rendezvous, and commit great ravages in India, and that Australia was still more open to attack. Great efforts were made by the colonists to place the colonies in a good defensive condition, and even to aid the parent country in a war so popular in every part of the empire.

In Canada several public disasters occurred during the year: chiefly a terrific fire at Quebec, by which a large portion of the city was destroyed.

The coasts of India, especially of Western India around Bombay, suffered from storm. The war with Ava bore its fruits; peace was confirmed, the Birmese were taught a salutary fear of British power, and deprived of the resources by which they might again make war upon our Indian empire. There were various matters of moment to India. Oude was, like Ireland, in chronic distraction; and the policy pursued towards it by the governor-general of India and the board of control was neither salutary, nor even safe. The space allotted to this History does not allow of even a review of the affairs of the vast empire of Hindostan.



FOREIGN AFFAIRS.—THE ALLIANCE WITH FRANCE, THE WAR WITH RUSSIA.

As the events of 1853 upon the Danube and in Asia Minor became known in Western Europe, the bonds of amity between the two great Western nations were drawn more closely, and it was finally resolved to unite with Turkey in war against the haughty and sanguinary autocrat of the North.

As before related, the British parliament met on the 30th of January. It was anxious, if possible, to avert war. Whatever the events which fill up the measure of national calamities, it was felt that war was, of all, the most terrible. Still, the parliament and nation felt the truth of language directed by Lord Palmerston against Mr. Bright: "War is a calamity; but there is a greater calamity than war—national dishonour!" This was the sentiment of the nation, and of its representatives in parliament assembled. Fiery debates filled up the interval until war was actually proclaimed, and then her majesty put forth her manifesto of hostilities, with the unanimous support of a mighty people.

On the 8th of February the Russian ambassador withdrew from the British court, and the British ambassador was ordered from St. Petersburg. During the month of February troops continued to embark for Malta and for the Bosphorus. Sad were the scenes of parting which were then witnessed throughout the British Isles; more especially in the great metropolis, through or from which a large proportion of the number of troops sent proceeded. It was most touching to witness the battalions of glorious men, attended by sympathizing crowds, passing along our great thoroughfares to the expressive music of their bands—"We are going Far Away," "Love Not," "Cheer, Boys, Cheer," "The Girl I left behind Me," and other popular pieces, which suggested the sad but gallant emotions that filled the breasts of our brave. Her majesty took leave of her guards with touching tokens of her confidence, hope, and yet sorrow, for the need that arose of their services; they responded by the most enthusiastic demonstrations of loyalty and devotion. Yet, after all, it was but a demonstration of ten thousand men, which the ministry thought would exercise a decisive moral influence upon the proceedings of the czar. Mr. Gladstone was great with indignant and pompous eloquence upon the glory of this achievement.

The troops landed on the shores of the Bosphorus unprovided with almost all the great essentials of a modern army. The Duke of Newcastle and Mr. Sidney Herbert, upon whom the arrangements mainly devolved, were unequal to the task. Lord Hardinge presided at the Horse Guards—a man of party prejudices, and who was ever willing to sacrifice the interests of the army to family influence and political considerations. Lord Raglan was nominated to the command in chief—an officer who had never commanded a brigade in the field, and found himself destitute of the chief qualitities necessary in a commander of an army in a campaign. These proceedings passed before war was proclaimed. It was supposed that the mere demonstration would effect the end really in view—to cause the czar to recede somewhat in his demands. At last war was proclaimed. On the 29th of March this august solemnity took place. The people hailed it with pleasure, for it was felt that, however undesirable the event, it had been impolitically delayed. France made a similar declaration. The two great Western nations went to war with the Muscovite for the integrity of the Ottoman empire.

On April the 21st, her majesty proclaimed a day of fast and humiliation, which was observed by the whole nation on the 26th. A French journal observed, that "seldom was a sublimer spectacle presented to the world than a mighty nation, which had buckled on its armour for war, humbling itself before the Almighty, and appealing to his power and protection with one voice." Such were the leading home incidents preparatory to the great struggle in which great nations battled for ascendancy. Preparations still went on in England for the struggle, which was so soon to ensue in all its sanguinary earnestness. The estimates, which parliament was asked to vote for 1854, beginning on the 1st of April, were utterly inadequate to to the crisis; they were—

Proposed Vote. Increase.

For the Army.... 6,287,488 262,470

" Navy.... 7,487,948 1,202,455

" Ordnance 3,854,878 792,311

L17,630,314 L2,257,236

These estimates were of course the occasion of much parliamentary discussion, the feeling of the house being in favour of a larger vote. The chancellor of the exchequer, Mr. Gladstone, hoped by this "bit by bit" preparation for the war to show his majesty the czar British desire for peace; and expected to conciliate him by showing how few regiments we were willing to raise, and the modicum of expense wo contemplated. All who knew the habit of thought in Asiatic nations—and Russia is essentially an Asiatic nation—were aware that this parsimonious war-making would have a contrary effect: the czar understood it as a token of a commercial disgust to war, and a dread of adding to the national debt, and he was encouraged to proceed. That such was the feeling at St. Petersburg private letters at the time, and subsequently, abundantly established.

The naval preparations for the war made better progress than those of the army. A fleet was fitted out, the most magnificent the world ever saw, and was committed to the command of Vice-admiral Sir Charles Napier. Rear-admirals Chads and Plumridge were also appointed to important commands under Sir Charles. This fleet was exercised daily off Portsmouth by Admiral Chads, especially in gunnery, who had obtained great celebrity in that department of a naval officer's qualifications. The Russian fleets had paraded about the Gulfs of Bothnia and Finland the preceding autumn, and the usual boastings were heard through the Russo-German organs of the press, and from the friends of Russia in the London clubs. In consequence of these boastings, the public were very anxious for the dispatch of the Baltic fleet as early as possible in the spring, and the 11th of March was fixed upon.

The powerful fleet under Sir Charles Napier's command was reviewed by her majesty on the 7th of March. It consisted of sixteen war steamers; of which two, the Duke of Wellington and the Royal George were, three-deckers, while three carried admirals' flags—Sir Charles Napier's in the Duke, Admiral Chads' in the Edinburgh, and Admiral Plumridge's in the Leopard. The Euryalus, screw-steamer, was subsequently added.

The second division, under Vice-admiral Corry, which afterwards joined Sir Charles Napier, consisted of—seven ships of the line, four screw ships, and twelve steam frigates, sloops, &c.

Sir Charles Napier stated publicly, and personally assured the author of this History, that his fleet was badly manned as to the quality of the men, and inadequately as to the numbers on board. The proportion of skilled seamen was altogether beneath what the necessities of the fleet required, and exposed it to great danger. The admiral went so far as to aver, that had the Russian fleet the courage to come out, so unskilfully manned were his ships, that the enemy might have secured an easy conquest. This statement excited strong protests and contradictions, and has been always regarded with indignation by the gallant men who walked the decks of these proud ships of war.

It may be here a suitable place to state the force and the arrangement of the troops ultimately constituting the British expeditionary army in Turkey. It was of course subjected to various modifications afterwards, but the following is an accurate representation of the divisional arrangement of the army, and its constituent regiments:—

First Division. Lieut.-gen. the Duke of Cambridge. First Brigade (under the command of Major-general Bentinck). Grenadier Guards, 3rd battalion; Coldstream Guards, 1st battalion; Scots Fusilier Guards, 1st battalion. Second Brigade (under the command of Major-general Sir Colin Campbell). 42nd Royal regiment, or "Royal Highland Watch;" 78th regiment (Rosshire Buffs); 93rd, or Sutherland regiment.

Second Division.—Lieut.-gen. Sir De Lacy Evans. First Brigade (under the command of Major-gen. Pennefatuer).—30th regiment; 55th regiment; 95th regiment (a new regiment). The old 95th served throughout the Peninsula and at Waterloo. Second Brigade (under the command of Brigadier-general Adams).—41st regiment (Welsh); 47th regiment (The Lancashire); 49th regiment (The Princess Charlotte's).

Third Division.—Lieut.-gen. Sir Richard England. First Brigade (under the command of Brigadier-general Ryhe).—1st regiment (The Royal regiment, formerly called Royal Scots); 28th regiment (North Gloucester), during the present century this regiment has been Irish; 38th regiment (1st Staffordshire). Second Brigade (under the command of Brigadier-general Sir J. Campbell).—44th regiment (East Essex), during the present century this regiment has been an Irish one; 56th regiment (West Essex); 68th regiment (Durham Light Infantry).

Fourth Division.—Lieut.-gen. Sir George Cathgakt. First Brigade (under the command of the senior Lieut.-col., as Brigadier).—20th regiment (East Devonshire); 21st regiment (Royal North British Fusiliers); 1st battalion Rifle Brigade. Second Brigade (under the command of the senior Lieut.-col., as Brigadier).—63rd regiment (West Suffolk); 46th regiment (South Devonshire): 57th regiment (West Middlesex).

Fifth, or Light Division.—Lieut.-gen. Sir George Brown. First Brigade (under the command of Brigadier-general Goldie).—Royal Rifle Brigade, 2nd battalion; 7th Royal Fusiliers; 23rd Royal Welsh Fusiliers; 33rd regiment (Duke of Wellington's own). Second Brigade (under the command of Brigadier-general Buller.)—19th regiment (1st York, North Riding); 77th regiment (East Middlesex; 88th regiment Connaught Rangers).

Cavalry Division.—Lieut.-gen. the Earl of Luoan. First Brigade, Heavy (under the command of Brigadiergen. the Hon. J. Scarlett).—1st (Royal) Dragoons; 2nd (Royal) Dragoons (Scots Greys); 4th Dragoon Guards (Royal Irish); 5th Dragoon Guards (commonly called Green Horse); 6th Dragoons (Inniskillens). Second Brigade, Light (under the command of Major-gen. the Earl of Cardigan).—4th Light Dragoons (Queen's own); 8th King's Royal Irish Hussars; 11th Hussars (Prince Albert's own); 13th Light Dragoons; 17th Lancers.

It was finally agreed upon between the two Western governments, that England should furnish 30,000 men, and France 70,000. It was then thought that an allied force of 100,000 men in support of a Turkish army equally numerous, would be sufficient to drive the armies of the czar out of the Principalities.

Leaving for a while the din of preparation, and the dispatch of troops, it is necessary to return to the operations of the Turks upon the Danube. It is not suitable to this History to record all the victories gained by the Osmans, it is only necessary to observe, that they were almost uniformly victorious, and fought with dazzling bravery. The grand struggle, however, on the part of the Turks was in the defence of Silistria. Against that place a powerful Russian army, under its ablest artillerists and engineers, was directed. The Turks were few and badly provided, but they were encouraged by the presence of various British officers of the most heroic mould. Among these none was more distinguished than Captain Butler, who perished from a wound received in the defence, while beside the gallant British General Cannon (Behram Pasha), by whom the garrison of Silistria had been reinforced.

There was something mysterious about the policy pursued during the siege of Silistria. The place was driven to the utmost straits, although Omar Pasha was at the head of a large army at Shumla, and the Western allies were at Varna. The latter declared that they were unable to move from want of those campaigning appliances, which a French army has not been usually known to stand in need of either before or since. Omar Pasha said he could not move for want of beasts of burden, and from strategical reasons; although he supplied the allies in Bulgaria with pack animals and 500 arobas, or carts, from Shumla, and no reason could be seen why he did not push on his troops to the relief of the beleaguered and endangered city. At last he sent a portion of his troops forward, and Russia was destined to undergo a signal humiliation. When the troops of Omar Pasha sent to relieve the place advanced for that purpose, the Russians had so completely invested it against the approach of a relieving army that there seemed no hope of accomplishing that object. The Turkish army was not strong enough to fight a pitched battle, and cause the Russians to raise the siege. It was of the last importance that the drooping, wearied, and dispirited garrison should be relieved by fresh men. This exploit was accomplished by the genius and promptitude of one heroic man—General Cannon, bearing the Turkish title of Behram Pasha. He commanded the light division of the Turkish army. He caused letters to be written to the officers of the garrison, laying down a plan by which they were to co-operate with him in entering the city at a certain hour, by a certain point. These letters he managed should fall into the hands of the Russians. They accordingly prepared in great strength to defeat the stratagem they had, as they supposed, so opportunely discovered. The British general made a long detour, and after a night of forced marching he came upon an opposite part of the city, an entrance by which the Russians could not have supposed possible, and to the joy and wonder of the garrison, the best division of the Turkish army, with its best general at the head, marched into the city. From that hour the contest was no longer dubious. The Russians saw that the prize was carried from their grasp. They at last raised the siege, to be pursued by Cannon and other British officers, at the head of their gallant Turks, from victory to victory, until the baffled and beaten Muscovite fled through the Principalities he had so boastingly invaded, and so ruthlessly plundered and oppressed. To General Cannon's skill and courage the raising of the siege of Silistria, the grand turning-point of the campaign, is to be attributed. The conception of the plan, the peril of the attempt, and the glory of the achievement were all his own.

Contemporaneously with the war on the Danube, operations were conducted in Asia Minor, but no British or French troops were sent there at any period of the war.

During the closing months of 1853, the Russians organized a powerful army to drive the Turks out of Asia, but the Circassians and other tribes of the Caucasus were in arms against Russia, and fought so gallantly and perseveringly, that the troops of the czar were unable to effect anything until late in the summer of 1854. The Turks organized an army for the defence of their Asiatic possessions, and committed it to the command of Jazif Pasha, an utterly incompetent man and bigoted Mohammedan. Under him was another officer, of like character, Selim Pasha, who experienced defeat at the hands of far inferior forces of the enemy. A number of Polish and Hungarian officers, who had fought in the Hungarian revolution of 1848, were sent to assist the Turkish Muchir in forming and disciplining an army. Some of these men became Mohammedans, and obtained substantial rewards and honours; others, refusing to renounce the profession of Christianity, were not allowed to hold real authority, but acted as a species of aides-de-camp of high rank, and counsellors of the pashas. Among the foreign officers of this description was a native of the west of England, named Guyon, a man of rare genius, and as rare bravery. He had taken part in the Hungarian revolution, and as the despotic power of Austria was sacred in the eyes of Lord Stratford de Redcliffe, the British ambassador at Constantinople, and all revolutionists, however honourable their cause, were hateful to his lordship, Guyon met with no countenance or support from him. The personal prejudices and predilections of the noble ambassador were always in the ascendant, and often were sufficiently strong to injure the cause of Turkey and the allies. Guyon was, however, raised to the rank of pasha, and got the surname of Kurschid. The native pashas set his advice and authority at defiance, plundered the troops, the people, and the government, and acted more like the allies of Russia than generals or dignitaries of Turkey. Such a state of tilings in the Turkish army encouraged the Russians, and they advanced, notwithstanding the embarrassments created by the intrepid raids of the mountaineers of the Caucasus, under the enterprising Schamyl and his lieutenants. The Polish officers in the Turkish service were jealous of the superior skill and chivalrous heroism of Guy on. Indeed, throughout the war in Asia, the English officers who acted there were opposed with envenomed rancour by the Poles who happened to serve in the same cause with them, and one or two Germanized-Hungarians joined in this anti-British feeling. But for Guyon the Turkish army would have been annihilated before the autumn of 1854, and yet the mendacious Muchir and his Feriks laid the blame of every defeat upon the European officers, but especially upon the best and the bravest of them all—the dauntless and noble-hearted Guyon.

During August, 1854, the Russians advanced, with the design of attacking Erzerum. The Turkish pashas were too much intent upon plundering every one within the range of their power to offer any effectual resistance. Hungarian, German, and Polish officers, especially the two latter, were equally zealous in quarrelling with one another. Guyon alone, among the officers of superior rank in the Turkish service, displayed activity, intelligence, foresight, and spirit; but he was thwarted by the other Europeans, and insulted and defied by the Turkish Muchir, Feriks, and Beys. Again and again he pointed out the sure road to victory, and the fact that the Turks were superior in numbers and resources to their foes: his counsel was despised, delays were interposed, when no alternative but the ostensible adoption of his plans remained, and the result was the almost total dispersion of the Turkish armies, and the imminent danger of Erzerum, and even Kars, falling into the hands of the enemy without a struggle. This state of things continued until Lieut.-colonel (afterwards Majorgeneral Sir Fen wick Williams, Bart.) Williams appeared upon the scene as the commissioner of her Britannic majesty. In that character he was invested with an authority poor Guyon could not claim, and without which the latter officer struggled in vain. Colonel Williams, like Guyon, was an object of the insatiable jealousy of Lord Stratford de Redcliffe, who gave him no support, and, in spite of the entreaties—and, at last, of the commands—of the English minister for foreign affairs, thwarted Colonel Williams in every conceivable way. Supported, however, by the decision, perseverance, and intelligence of Lord Clarendon, the English commissioner held his ground in spite of the coldness, and even opposition, of the ambassador, and was enabled to re-organize the dispersed armies of the Porte, to place Kars and Erzerum in conditions of defence, and to throw such obstructions in the way of the Russians, then flushed with success, as retarded their advance, until the fall of Sebastopol decided virtually the fortunes of the war.

Leaving the struggle in Asia in the position above noticed, it is necessary to turn once more to Turkey in Europe.

When the conquering Turks drove the flying Russians before them through the Principalities, the Austrians marched in and took possession of the quarters abandoned by the fugitives. Interposing between the victors and the vanquished, the Austrians rendered valuable services to the Russians, and, perhaps, preserved their army from total destruction. Without the knowledge of the Western allies, Austria concluded a convention with the Porte for the occupation of the Provinces. There were many circumstances to prove that the French government was privy to this design, and a special policy on the part of France began to develop itself. Whatever the motives of that policy, it had, for its effect, a concert with the Austrians in exercising a domination over the Roman Provinces far more intolerable than that from which Turkish valour had delivered them. The oppressed Romans sought and obtained the sympathy of the English; but both Austria and France were jealous of that sympathy, and dreaded the dissemination of English constitutional opinions. Austria, ever the foe of freedom, barred out, as it were, English intercourse and views, in virtue of the power she obtained by her convention of occupation with the sultan. The policy of Austria was also vacillating and indeterminate. At one time she would appear ready to join the fortunes of the allies, and immediately after direct her endeavours to secure the Russian frontier from the assault of the allied armies. It was generally believed that Russia was more vulnerable from the confines of Podolia, and by a campaign carried into Poland, than elsewhere. Austria dreaded the appearance of French and English uniforms in too close proximity to Russian Poland; nor was Prussia less timid of that phenomenon; for both were apprehensive of a general rising of Poland against her tripartite oppressors. At one time Austria was said to be willing to join in the war and march across the Russian frontier in the rear of an allied invasion, provided England and France backed the movement by a certain amount of force. As the Western nations could not, or would not, march an amount of troops in that direction, such as Austria deemed necessary in consequence of the vulnerability of her own frontier line, she declined the peril, and satisfied herself with holding the Dacian Provinces in the name of the sultan; but, for her own purposes, Austria had designs upon Moldavia and Wallachia, and when the war was brought to a termination, could with difficulty be persuaded to withdraw her troops from them, and did not retire until public opinion, in England and France, was expressed in terms of resentment and menace. Such was, in brief, the history of the success of Turkey upon her own European frontier, and of the quality of the help afforded by Austria to Turkey and the allies during the war.

Another sphere of action now demands attention. The allied fleets entered the Bosphorus immediately upon the slaughter of Sinope. Still, as war was not declared, they confined their action to keeping the Russian ships of war blockaded in their own harbours. One Russian vessel, the Vladimir, gallantly broke the blockade; scoured the Black Sea; and, in spite of the allied cruisers, inflicted severe injury upon Turkish shipping all around the coasts of the Black Sea to the very entrance of the Bosphorus, escaping back to Sebastopol with impunity. Throughout the war, the enterprising and daring captain of the Vladimir performed feats worthy of the reputation of any navy in the world. It became necessary for the allies to send a flag of truce to Odessa, the bearers were treacherously fired upon. This exasperated the allies, and Odessa was bombarded. The admirals endeavoured to spare the commercial portions of the place, it being a free port; the destruction of the defences was, in consequence, only partially effected, while much damage was nevertheless inflicted upon the city itself. After the bombardment, the Muscovites, with great activity, repaired and strengthened the defences, so that the bombardment was little more than an empty demonstration of power. It displayed, however, the skill of the allied squadrons; for one of the most scientific and beautiful naval operations of the war was accomplished. The ships fired while in motion; circling round the place; delivering their broadsides as they passed; and, by their rapidity of movement, gave little chance to the batteries on shore to inflict any damage.

The British and French navies held possession of the Black Sea, incurring little loss. The destruction of the British frigate Tiger was, however, an incident which caused much regret in England. In certain operations in shallow water near Odessa, the ship went aground, and was captured. The Russians, vindictively and cowardly, continued to fire upon it while any living object was seen upon its decks. Few acts were ever perpetrated, by even the most barbarous enemy, more at variance with the laws of war, and the instincts of honour, gallantry, and generosity. The allied armies continued most uselessly to linger on the shores of the Bosphorus and at Varna, until the season proper for military operations had passed away. Never was an expedition more unprofitable. The Turks were allowed to battle against the whole power of Russia upon the Danube without the slightest help, while two large armies were within forty miles of them. In England, suspicions of treachery were entertained. Some believed that the Aberdeen government was unwilling to weaken the power of Russia; others believed that France and Austria had covert designs, and were unwilling to prosecute the war. It was not until the middle of September that the allies acted in concert. In the meantime, Russia fomented disturbances in the Greek provinces of Turkey, and invited the Greeks of independent Greece to invade the sultan's territory. The troops of the padishaw suppressed revolt with sanguinary effect, and drove the Greek sympathizers across the borders. The allied fleets landed detachments of troops in Greece, and compelled neutrality.

At last the period arrived for the decisive movement of the allied armies, and it was resolved to invade the territory of Russia, and destroy her great naval and military arsenals on the Black Sea. For this purpose the troops were embarked at Varna and other places, and escorted by the fleets to the Crimea. A landing was effected at Old Fort without opposition. The allies began their march towards Sebastopol, skirmishing as they proceeded. Eupatoria, a port and city in the Crimea, was also seized by the allies, and put in a state of defence on the land side, so as to be held by a garrison against any army likely to be sent to recover it.

The armies, arriving at the river Alma, found the heights which commanded its passage occupied by the enemy in great force. A battle ensued; the first of the war in which the British and French were engaged together. The allies were successful. The Russians were completely defeated; and had the French consented to pursue them, it is possible that the Russian army might have been cut off. The British distinguished themselves greatly at the battle of the Alma. The second division, under the chivalrous Sir De Lacy Evans, bore the brunt of the combat on the British lines. His division was ably assisted by Sir Richard England, who was left in support, and without orders from his chief. He, with his guns, hastened to the aid of Sir De Lacy Evans, and distinguished himself by his courage, promptitude, and presence of mind. The Duke of Cambridge commanded the first division, with Sir Colin Campbell as his senior brigadier. His royal highness displayed in this, his maiden battle, the skill and courage for which all who had served under him had given him credit, and which he was destined to evince still more signally on the bloody slopes of Inkerman.

The allies, in consequence of the want of carriage and other appliances of a campaign, lingered for days on the site of their victory before they resumed their march against the great citadel. On arriving at the north side, it was deemed by the allied commanders desirable and feasible to effect a flank march to the south side. Curiously, at the same juncture, the Russian army, under Prince Menschikoff, attempted another flank march from the south to the north. The wings of the hostile armies came into collision; many Russians were slain or made prisoners. Neither army had any idea of the strategy of the other, and both were surprised at the partial rencontre. Arriving at the south side, Balaklava was made the basis of the allied operations: the British occupying the right, and facing, of course, the left defence. The Honourable General Cathcart advised an immediate assault upon the place, which was very indifferently defended in that direction; but General Burgoyne, the chief officer of British engineers, and the commanderin-chief, were alike opposed to it. General Evans, and other officers of high authority, were against the plan of General Cathcart as rash. Those officers still retain the opinions which then influenced the decision arrived at. It was determined to besiege the place, and conquer it by regular approaches. The Russians, who were so dispirited that it is questionable whether they would have resisted an immediate assault with any vigour, took heart and threw up defences. A young officer of engineers, named Todtleben, conceived the idea of vast erections of earthworks, and the Russians were set to defend the place with pick and mattock more strenuously than by artillery or musketry. The result was a protracted defence. The Russians plied the spade and shovel with astonishing vigour and perseverance, and Todtleben proved himself equal in genius to the exigency. The Russians were reinforced; confidence took the place of despair, and the city was defended with desperate hardihood and energy. Besides the garrison, there was a Russian army in the field upon the Tchernaya, and the heights by which it was commanded. Such was the state of affairs, with occasional skirmishing and gunnery, up to the 26th of October, when the too celebrated battle of Balaklava was fought, and the British generals incurred the imputation of folly, such as seldom has been laid to the account of military chiefs, and the British army gained a reputation for chivalrous valour which will live when even the stupidity which made the occasion of its display is forgotten. It would be impossible, within the limits of this work, to give the details of such a battle. There were redoubts thrown up in the plain beyond the heights of Balaklava, which were garrisoned by Turks. The worst possible generalship was displayed by the British commander-in-chief in occupying these redoubts with small bodies of troops far from any support. The Russians attacked and conquered the redoubts; Sir Colin Campbell, at the head of a body of infantry, took up a position in the plain. The Earl of Lucan and the British cavalry advanced beyond that position. The Russians occupied a gorge between two hills, flanked with field-pieces, a line of horse artillery in front, and guns of position placed Upon the heights so as to rake the ground upon which an attacking force must approach. To draw the British to attack them in this strong position, was the strategy of the Russian general. He succeeded. The cavalry were ordered to charge; the order was conveyed from Lord Baglan to Lord Lucan by Captain Nolan. The lieutenant-general has been censured for obeying the command; but he had no discretion allowed him; it was in writing—it was distinct—and the officer who delivered it, coming directly from Lord Baglan, must have known what the latter really intended. It has been universally believed that Captain Nolan used insulting language to the Earl of Lucan, taunting him with cowardice. This is untrue; the author of this history can declare so upon the authority of the noble lord himself. Captain Nolan did point to the enemy and the captured guns borne by them from the Turkish redoubts, and directed the general's attention to the duty of their recapture. The Earl of Lucan had no alternative but to obey, more especially as the cavalry had been much criticised by anonymous writers from the camp. The Earl of Lucan ordered the light brigade of his division to charge, and advanced the heavy brigade to its support as far as it could be brought for such a purpose. Some of the regiments of the heavy brigade advanced so far as to be under the fire of the enemy's guns. The light brigade was commanded by the Earl of Cardigan, who led it into action in the most gallant style. Whoever has read Tennyson's poem, "The Six Hundred," will have perused the most graphic and striking description of the exciting scene which followed. The brigade moved on, losing the gallant Nolan before it had reached the charge; he was the first who fell. It is commonly supposed that he led the charge. This is not so; he rode at a little distance from the line when the shot took effect, which deprived the army of one of its ablest and bravest cavalry officers. In this terrible charge, the charge of six hundred men against an army in position, with its flanks defended by strong batteries on elevated positions, there was no flinching. The gallant leader has told the author of this work that various officers shouted, brandished their swords, and were excited; that if any effort were required on the part of the commander, it was to keep the men cool and the lines regular as they galloped forward to the terrific encounter. The charge was made, how gallantly the whole world admits. The wonder is that any escaped. Probably, hardly any would, had not Colonel Sewell, at the head of the Royal Irish Hussars, thought of the peril of the Russian cavalry wheeling from the flanks and blocking up the way of return. He immediately turned his rear and found this danger in actual existence. He charged the Russian cavalry, and, with the aid of a handful of French horsemen, kept open the way for the return of those who had dashed,

"With fetlock deep in blood,"

their fiery steeds through the lines of the enemy. The leader and a portion of his gallant band escaped. It has been said of the Earl of Cardigan that "he was the first in and the first out." This is simply not true. He entered the Russian lines at the head of his men, and when his brigade was broken in pieces upon the guns and lines of the enemy, he, as a fragment of the shattered mass, like other fragments, turned to re-form and act as duty then might dictate. He rode slowly from the Russian lines under the fire of the enemy, and joined the rest of the survivors, who received him with cheers. The Earl of Lucan, with the heavy brigade, rendered the retreat of the light brigade possible. The Russian cavalry swept down in masses, approaching the British infantry, by whose fire they were deterred from charging. They approached the cavalry camp; General Scarlett was ordered, with a portion of the heavy brigade, to charge them. It was a gallant and glorious deed. Lord Raglan, who witnessed it from the heights, declared, in his despatch, that he had rarely seen such a splendid charge of cavalry, and that it was so made as never for a moment to leave success in doubt. The Russians retired to their positions and kept there, but the redoubts were held by them. Had Lord Raglan advanced his infantry, an action of a more general and scientific character would have ensued, and an opportunity might have been made available for inflicting a defeat upon the enemy which would have relieved Balaklava of his vicinity. Such was the opinion of various officers of authority, and Sir De Lacy Evans, who had as good opportunities as any general to form a judgment upon the occasion, and was as competent as any officer in Europe to do so, expressed, in conversation with the author of this History, the same opinion.

The men and horses of the British army were now suffering severely from the climate, and from various privations, which the bad commissariat arrangements, and the want of energy and capacity on the part of the commanderin-chief, entailed upon them. November opened gloomily in every way upon the besiegers. Its first event of importance was the battle of the Little Inkerman, as it was called among the soldiers. The Russians attempted a surprise upon the dangerous and exposed post of the second division, which was fortunately commanded by Sir De Lacy Evans. The result was the most scientifically-fought battle of the war. General Evans, not hampered by the interference of a commander-in-chief, whose only title to command him was that conferred by his social rank and favour with the ministry, had full scope for his own superior powers. The Russians were repulsed with great slaughter and with little loss to their victors. The French offered assistance tardily, but their aid was declined—good generalship won the battle. The men of the second division knew how to obey the commands of a general whom they trusted, and to follow a leader himself the bravest of the brave.

The battle of the Little Inkerman was soon followed by that called, par excellence, the battle of Inkerman. The morning of the 5th of November dawned mistily and dimly over the plateau before Sebastopol, and along the dark course of the Tchernaya. The Russians ascended stealthily against the flank of the British. A terrible battle ensued. The English, surprised, fought in their great-coats; although otherwise imperfectly dressed, and some without shoes or shakos. Evans, who would have been at the head of his second division, was ill on board ship at Balaklava, and his place was nobly filled by General Pennefather. At the sound of the cannon booming heavily over the plateau of Balaklava, Evans rose from his sick bed and hurried to the front of battle, where he remained during the terrible morning of conflict which opened that eventful day. The English were all but overpowered, although they fought as Englishmen—as probably no men ever before fought—with a tenacious obstinacy that yielded to no force, with a chivalrous dash and daring which contemned all odds. The Duke of Cambridge, probably, escaped greater danger than any British officer on the field. For a time he rode along the line encouraging his men, the fire of the advancing columns of the Russians directed upon him; nearly all around him were killed or wounded. It was a critical and awful moment: the Russians were gaining the summit of the ascent; they would there have had room to deploy, and the British would have been in danger of being driven from their intrenchments, and the allied armies of being forced back upon the sea. Fortunately the French, who were engaged in watching the manoeuvres of Liprandi in the valley beneath, at last came to the assistance of their allies, and fell upon the Russian flanks. The British at the same moment received supplies of ammunition, of which they had been in need through the wretched management of everything that depended upon head-quarters; their ranks rallied and poured deadly volleys of Minie bullets upon the masses of the enemy struggling with the French. The slopes of the plateau were strewn with dead, and slippery with gore; the Russians, foiled everywhere, retreated. The French, fresh for pursuit, would not pursue unless the weary guardsmen led the van. Canrobert, the successor of Arnaud in command of the French army, complimented the British, but did not act heartily with them. The services of Sir Richard England at Inkerman have been generally overlooked by British writers. England was not favourable to the agents of the press, and he showed this feeling in a manner which offended that class. This was unwise, both for himself, his division, and the service. Were it not for that circumstance, the valuable services of that general would have become better known to the public. When the battle of Inkerman began, England occupied a position to the left of the English lines, near to a ravine which separated them from those occupied by the French. Leaving a portion of his troops under the command of one of his brigadiers, he dispatched the rest under Brigadier Campbell to the right, and himself followed. His opportune arrival supported the divisions exposed to attack; and as their several detachments moved to the more immediate theatre of conflict, England's troops occupied the ground from which they had been removed, and which would have been exposed to the enemy. It is remarkable that the plan of the Russian generals was to make the principal attack upon the extreme left of the British, so as to separate the English left from the French right. The officer in charge of the attacking column missed his way, delay was thus caused as well as the plan of assault totally deranged; possibly, to these circumstances may be attributed the failure of the Russian attack of the 5th of November.

After this battle, Sir De Lacy Evans strongly recommended Lord Raglan to change his position. He was influenced in offering this advice by the total inadequacy of the English army, numerically, to occupy such extended lines, and by the suffering of the army from ill health, climate, and deficient supplies, personal and military. This letter of the general has been much misrepresented in the London clubs, and among coteries unfriendly to the general's liberal parliamentary policy. It was, however, the opinion of Sir De Lacy that, unless reinforcements arrived in numbers far superior to what was then probable, the British would be unable to hold their ground; and, notwithstanding the actual issue, such advice was sound, and based upon facts and probabilities.

After the battle of Inkerman, the condition of the British army became truly horrible, so that the closing winter months of 1854 were such as tried the fortitude of the British troops and their hardihood of endurance to the uttermost. It would be in vain to attempt to portray, upon these pages, sufferings which excited the wonder and sympathy of all nations, or to depict the patriotism and enduring devotion to duty by which such protracted miseries were sustained. Great numbers perished of cold, hunger, and sickness; and the cholera, which ravaged the encampments of Gallipoli and Varna, pursued the army to the trenches before Sebastopol. The Russians also suffered much, and bore it as good, hardy, and loyal soldiers; but they had the shelter, hospitals, and supplies of the city. The troops on the Tchernaya were relieved by the garrison of the city, and supplied from its almost exhaustless stores. The Russian armies had the whole power of the empire in their rear; but, notwithstanding the herculean efforts made by the czar to recruit and feed his armies, the drain of life was terrible, from causes similar to those by which the English were swept away in such numbers. The French army was far better organized and more honestly administered than the armies of England and Russia, and the loss of life during 1854, after the landing in the Crimea, was less than was experienced by the British or Russians. The cholera, however, took greater effect upon the Turks, French, and Muscovites, than upon the British. At Gallipoli and Varna this was strikingly exemplified. In the Dobrudscha, upon the Danube, the division of General Espineau was nearly destroyed by the pestilence.

During the whole period to which this relation of events refers, the allied fleets were masters of the Turkish waters, from the gates of the Dardanelles to the Sea of Azoff. When the fleets conveyed the armies to Old Fort and Eupatoria, they appeared before Sebastopol; and the Russians, fearing that the enterprise of the British might penetrate the harbour, sunk their fleet in two lines, so as to bar its entrance and prevent their capture. This bold measure did much to prolong the defence. It also mortified the allies, who were thus prevented from taking naval prizes, and from conquering the place, or very much promoting its conquest by naval artillery. The Russians reserved some of their most efficient vessels behind the range of sunken ships, and with those they commanded the flanks of the besiegers, causing much waste of life, and obstructing seriously the progress of the siege.

The naval force of the czar in the Black Sea was estimated very differently by various writers. A number of statements were put forth, all professing to be authentic. We select two, and our readers will be able to judge for themselves the probable statistics. Haxthausen represents the Black Sea fleet as consisting of three divisions, each of which comprised ordinarily 1 three-decker, 2 two-deckers (among the last two ships mounting each 84 guns), 6 frigates, 1 corvette, and 4 smaller vessels. Mr. Danby Seymour is more precise, and furnishes us with what purports to be a complete list of the Russian naval force in the Euxine in 1854, viz.:—20 ships of the line, 7 frigates, 5 corvettes, 12 brigs, 9 schooners, 7 cutters, 2 yachts, 1 bombard, 30 steamers, 28 gun-boats, and 30 transports.

The British fleet consisted of the Britannia, Trafalgar, Vengeance, Rodney, Betterophon, Queen, Lynx, Sphynx, Tribune, Sampson, Terrible, Furious, Retribution, Highflyer, Spiteful, Cyclops, Vesuvius, Albion, Arethusa, London, Sanspareil, Agamemnon, Firebrand, Triton, Niger, constituting a most powerful navy. At that juncture, so great were the maritime resources of England, that a naval authority thus reported concerning her resources:—"From our ships in reserve and building, we could form a naval force far surpassing that which any other nation in the world can boast of having afloat. We have in reserve, at the four ports of Portsmouth, Devonport, Chatham, and Sheerness, not less than 161 vessels of the 'effective ships of the royal navy,' and these estimated to carry not less than 6,807 guns. Besides these, too, we have a goodly number of paddle-wheels and other small craft. Though some of the vessels may not, without considerable repairs, be in a state to send to sea, yet most of them are excellent sea-going vessels—far superior, indeed, to anything Russian—and could be fitted out for service on very short notice. Then we have of vessels building—5 at Portsmouth, 7 at Devonport, 1 at Sheerness, 6 at Chatham, 11 at Pembroke, 4 at Deptford, 4 at Woolwich, and one at Mill wall.—Total 39." The French naval force in the Black Sea, under the command of Vice-admiral Hamelin, was composed of the Friedland, Valmy, Ville de Paris, Henri IV., Bayard, Charlemagne, Lena, Lupiter, Marengo, Gomer, Descartes, Vauban, Mogador, Cacique, Magellan, Sane, Caton, Serieuse, Mercure, Oliviere, Beaumanoir, Cerf, Promethee, Salamandre, Heron, and Monette. The squadron of Viceadmiral Bruat, intended to act in the Black Sea, the Sea of Gallipoli, and in the Eastern Archipelago, comprised the following vessels:—Montebello, Napoleon, Suffren, Jean Bart, Ville de Marseille, Alger, Pomone, Caffarelli, Roland and Primauguet. Independently of these three squadrons, and all the frigates, or steam corvettes, which were assembled in the Mediterranean for the transport of the army of the East, were all the naval stations in the West Indies, the Pacific Ocean, the Indo-China seas, and in all quarters where the fishing interest existed.

The first bombardment of Sebastopol took place on the 17th of October, in which the fleet took an active part; but the combined efforts of the artillery, afloat and ashore, failed to subdue the gigantic works which had arisen for the defence.