The hero of Saratoga—may his memory animate the breast of every American.

The American's triumvirate, love, honor and liberty.

The memory of Washington.

May the example of the new world regenerate the old.

Wit without virulence, wine without excess, and wisdom without affectation.

What charms, arms and disarms.

Home pleasant, and our friends at home.

Woman—She needs no eulogy, she speaks for herself.

Friendship—May its lamp ever be supplied by the oil of truth and fidelity.

The American Navy—May it ever sail on the sea of glory.

May those who are discontented with their own country leave their country for their country's good.

Discretion in speech is more than eloquence. May we always remember these three things: The manner, the place and the time.

Here's a sigh to those who love me, And a smile to those who hate, And whatever sky's above me, Here's a heart for every fate. Were't the last drop in the well, As I gasped upon the brink, Ere my fainting spirit fell, 'Tis to thee that I would drink. —Byron.

Caddy's Toast in "Erminie"—'Ere's to the 'ealth o' your Royal 'Ighness; hand may the skin o' ha gooseberry be big enough for han humbrella to cover hall your enemies."

Here's to the girl I love, And here's to the girl who loves me, And here's to all that love her whom I love, And all those that love her who love me.

I will drink to the woman who wrought my woe, In the diamond morning of long ago; To the splendor, caught from Orient skies, That thrilled in the dark of her hazel eyes, Her large eyes filled with the fire of the south, And the dewy wine of her warm red mouth. —Winter.

May those that are single get wives to their mind, And those that are married true happiness find.

Here's a health to me and mine, Not forgetting thee and thine; And when thou and thine Come to see me and mine, May we and mine make thee and thine As welcome as thou and thine Have ever made me and mine.

Industry.—The right hand of fortune, the grave of care, and the cradle of content.

Here's to the prettiest, Here's to the wittiest, Here's to the truest of all who are true. Here's to the sweetest one, Here's to them all in one—here's to you.

Our Country.—May she always be in the right—but, right or wrong, Our Country.— Stephen Decatur.

Here's to our sweethearts and our wives. May our sweethearts soon become our wives and our wives ever remain our sweethearts.

Here's to the girls of the American shore; I love but one, I love no mare. Since she's not here to drink her part, I drink her share with all my heart.

Here's to one and only one, And may that one be she Who loves but one and only one, And may that one be me.

A glass is good and a lass is good, And a pipe to smoke in cold weather. The world is good and the people are good, And we're all good fellows together.

Yesterday's yesterday while to-day's here, To-day is to-day till to-morrow appear, To-marrow's to-morrow until to-day's past, And kisses are kisses as long as they last.

Our Country.— To her we drink, for her we pray, Our voices silent never; For her we'll fight, come what may; The Stars and Stripes forever.

Woman.—The fairest work of the great Author; the edition is large, and no man should be without a copy.

Drink to me only with thine eyes, And I will pledge thee mine; Or leave a kiss within the cup, And I'll not look for wine. The thirst that from the soul doth rise Doth ask a drink divine; But might I of Jove's nectar sip, I would not change from thine. —Ben Jonson.

Drink to-day and drown all sorrow; You shall perhaps not do't to-morrow; Best while you have it, use your breath; There is no drinking after death. —Beaumont and Fletcher.

Home.—The father's kingdom; the child's paradise; the mother's world.

Here's to those I love; Here's to those who love me; Here's to those who love those I love, And here's to those who love those who love those who love me. —Ouida's Favorite Toast.

A little health, a little wealth, A little house and freedom, With some friends for certain ends, But little cause to need 'em.

Here's to the lasses we've loved, my lad, Here's to the lips we've pressed; For of kisses and lasses, Like liquor in glasses, The last is always the best.

Come in the evening, come in the morning, Come when you're looked for, come without warning.

Here's to a long life and a merry one, A quick death and an easy one, A pretty girl and a true one, A cold bottle and another one.

The Man We Love.—He who thinks the most and speaks the least ill of his neighbor.

False Friends.—May we never have friends who, like shadows, keep close to us in the sunshine only to desert us on a cloudy day or in the night.

Here's to those who'd love us if we only cared. Here's to those we'd love if we only dared.

Here's to one another and one other, whoever he or she may be.

The world is filled with flowers, And flowers are filled with dew, And dew is filled with love And you and you and you.

Here's to you as good as you are, And to me as bad as I am; And as good as you are and as bad as I am, I'm as good as you are as bad as I am.

The Law.—The only thing certain about litigation is its uncertainty.

The Lawyer—Learned gentleman, who rescues your estate from your enemies and keeps it for himself.

A Spreadeagle Toast.—The boundaries of our country: East, by the rising sun; north, by the north pole; west by all creation; and south, by the day of judgment.

When going up the bill of prosperity may you never meet a friend coming down.

May the hinges of friendship never grow rusty.

Come, come, good wine is a good familiar creature, if it be well used.—Shakespeare.

Shall I ask the brave soldier who fights by my side in the cause of mankind whether our creeds agree?

May all single men be married, and all married men be happy.

Our Country's Emblem:— The lily of France may fade, The thistle and shamrock wither, The oak of England may decay, But the stars shine on forever.

The Good Things of the World.—Parsons are preaching for them, lawyers are pleading for them, physicians are prescribing for them, authors are writing for them, soldiers are fighting for them, but true philosophers alone are enjoying them.

My life has been like sunny skies When they are fair to view; But there never yet were lives or skies Clouds might not wander through.

The Three Great American Generals.—General Peace, General Prosperity and General Satisfaction.

America.— Our hearts, our hopes are all with thee, Our hearts, our hopes, our prayers, our tears, Our faith triumphant o'er our fears, Are all with thee, are all with thee.

Our National Birds.—The American Eagle, the Thanksgiving Turkey: may one give us peace in all our States—and the other a piece for all our plates.

OPPORTUNITY.

Master of human destinies am I. Fame, Love and Fortune on my footsteps wait. Cities and fields I walk; I penetrate Deserts and seas remote, and, passing by Hovel, and mart, and palace, soon or late I knock unbidden once at every gate! If sleeping, wake—if feasting, rise before I turn away. It is the hour of fate, And they who follow me reach every state Mortals desire, and conquer every foe Condemned to failure, penury, and woe. Save death; but those who doubt or hesitate, Seek me in vain and uselessly implore: I answer not, and I return no more. —John J. Ingalls.

A health to Our Dearest.—May their purses always be heavy and their hearts always light.

An Irishman's Toast.— Here's to the land of the shamrock so green, Here's to each lad and his darling colleen, Here's to the ones we love dearest and most. And may God save old Ireland—that's an Irishman's toast.

Here's a health to the future, A sigh for the past. We can love and remember, And hope to the last, And for all the base lies That the almanacs hold. While there's love in the heart, We can never grow old.

Some hae meat and canna' eat, And some wad eat who want it; But we hae meat and we can eat, So let the Lord be thankit. —Burns.

A little health, a little wealth, A little house and freedom, With some few friends for certain ends, But little cause to need 'em.

If I were a raindrop and you a leaf, I would burst from the cloud above you, And lie on your breast in a rapture of rest, And love you—love you—love you.

If I were a brown bee and you were a rose, I would fly to you, love, nor miss you; I would sip and sip from your nectared lip, And kiss you—kiss you—kiss you. —Ella Wheeler Wilcox, in Three Women.

Strange—is it not?—that of the myriads who Before us passed the door of darkness through, Not one returns to tell us of the road, Which to discover, we must travel too? —Omar.

Away with the flimsy idea that life with a past is attended. There's now—only now—and no past. There's never a past; it has ended. Away with the obsolete story and all of its yesterday sorrow! There's only Today, almost gone, and in front of Today stands Tomorrow. —Eugene Ware.

God made man Frail as a bubble; God made Love, Love made trouble; God made the vine; Was it a sin That man made wine To drown trouble in?

"My character may be my own, but my reputation belongs to any old body that enjoys gossiping more than telling the truth."

May your joy be as deep as the ocean, Your trouble as light as its foam.

The man that has no music in himself, Nor is not moved with concord of sweet sounds, Is fit for treasons, stratagems and spoils; The motions of his spirit are dull as night, And his affections dark as Erebus. Let no such man be trusted. Mark the music. —Shakespeare.

See the mountains kiss high heaven, And the waves clasp one another; No sister flower would be forgiven If it disdained its brother; And the sunlight clasps the earth, And the moonbeams kiss the sea; What are all these kissings worth, If thou kiss not me? —Percy Bysshe Shelley.

Jest a-wearyin' for you, All the time a-feelin' blue; Wishin' for you, wonderin' when You'll be comin' home again; Restless—don't know what to do— Jest a-wearyin' for you. —Frank Stanton.

Here's to Love, the worker of miracles. He strengthens the weak and weakens the strong; he turns wise men into fools and fools into wise men; he feeds the passions and destroys reason, and plays havoc among young and old! —Marguerite de Valois.

"Good Bye, God Bless You."

I like the Anglo—Saxon speech With its direct revealings; It takes a hold, and seems to reach Way down into our feelings That Some folks deem it rude, I know, And therefore they abuse it; But I have never found it so— Before all else I choose it. I don't object that men should air The Gallic they have paid for, With "Au revoir," "Adieu, ma chere," For that's what French was made for. But when a crony takes your hand At parting to address you, He drops all foreign lingo and He says, "Good—bye, God bless you." —Eugene Field.



LANGUAGE OF PRECIOUS STONES.

The ancients attributed marvelous properties to many of the precious stones. We give in tabular form the different months and the stones sacred to them, as generally accepted, with their respective meanings. It has been customary among lovers and friends to notice the significance attached to the various stones in making birthday, engagement and wedding presents.

January, Garnet.—Constancy and fidelity in every engagement.

February, Amethyst—Preventive against violent passions.

March, Bloodstone—Courage, wisdom and firmness in affection.

April, Sapphire—Free from enchantment; denotes repentance.

May, Emerald—Discovers false friends, and insures true love.

June, Agate—Insures long life, health and prosperity.

July, Ruby—Discovers poison; corrects evils resulting from mistaken friendship.

August, Sardonyx—Insures conjugal felicity.

September, Chrysolite—Free from all evil passions and sadness of the mind.

October, Opal—Denotes hope, and sharpens the sight and faith of the possessor.

November, Topaz—Fidelity and friendship. Prevents bad dreams.

December, Turquoise—Prosperity in love.

Tiffany's list of birth stones is somewhat different from the above and is given below:

Birth Stones. (As given by Tiffany & Co.)

January—Garnet.

February—Amethyst, hyacinth, pearl.

March—Jasper, bloodstone.

April—Diamond, sapphire.

May—Emerald, agate.

June—Cat's-eye, turquoise, agate.

July—Turquoise, onyx.

August—Sardonyx, carnelian, moonstone, topaz.

September—Chrysolite.

October—Beryl, opal.

November—Topaz, pearl.

December—Ruby, bloodstone.



GRAMMAR-SPELLING-PRONUNCIATION

Five Hundred Common Errors Corrected

Concise Rules for the Proper Use of Words in Writing or Speaking.

The most objectionable errors in speaking or writing are those in which words are employed that are unsuitable to convey the meaning intended. Thus, a person wishing to express his intention of going to a given place says, "I propose going," when, in fact, he purposes going. The following affords an amusing illustration of this class of error: A venerable matron was speaking of her son, who, she said, was quite stage-struck: "In fact," remarked the old lady, "he is going to a premature performance this evening!" Considering that most amateur performances are premature, it cannot be said that this word was altogether misapplied, though, evidently, the maternal intention was to convey quite another meaning.

Other errors arise from the substitution of sounds similar to the words which should be employed; that is, spurious words instead of genuine ones. Thus, some people say "renumerative," when they mean "remunerative." A nurse, recommending her mistress to have a perambulator for her child, advised her to purchase a preamputator!

Other errors are occasioned by imperfect knowledge of English grammar; thus, many people say, "Between you and I," instead of "Between you and me." And there are numerous other departures from the rules of grammar, which will be pointed out hereafter.

Misuse of the Adjective—"What beautiful butter!" "What a nice landscape!" They should say, "What a beautiful landscape!" "What nice butter!" Again, errors are frequently occasioned by the following causes:

Mispronunciation of Words—Many persons say pronoun-ciation instead of pronunciation; others say pro-nun-ce-a-shun, instead of pro-nun-she-a-shun.

Misdivision of Words and Syllables—This defect makes the words an ambassador sound like a nambassador, or an adder like a nadder.

Imperfect Enunciation—As when a person says hebben for heaven, ebber for ever, jocholate for chocolate.

To correct these errors by a systematic course of study would involve a closer application than most persons could afford, but the simple and concise rules and hints here given, founded upon usage and the authority of scholars, will be of great assistance to inquirers.



ENGLISH GRAMMAR IN A NUTSHELL.

Who and whom are used in relation to persons, and which in relation to things. But it was once common to say, "the man which." This should now be avoided. It is now usual to say, "Our Father who art in heaven," instead of "which art in heaven."

Whose is, however, sometimes applied to things as well as to persons. We may therefore say, "The country whose inhabitants are free."

Thou is employed in solemn discourse, and you in common language. Ye (plural) is also used in serious addresses, and you in familiar language.

The uses of the word it are various, and very perplexing to the uneducated. It is not only used to imply persons, but things, and even ideas, and therefore in speaking or writing, its assistance is constantly required. The perplexity respecting this word arises from the fact that in using it in the construction of a long sentence, sufficient care is not taken to insure that when it is employed it really points out or refers to the object intended. For instance, "It was raining when John set out in his cart to go to market, and he was delayed so long that it was over before he arrived." Now what is to be understood by this sentence: Was the rain over? or the market? Either or both might be inferred from the construction of the sentence, which, therefore, should be written thus: "It was raining when John set out in his cart to go to market, and he was delayed so long that the market was over before he arrived."

Rule—After writing a sentence always look through it, and see that wherever the word it is employed, it refers to or carries the mind back to the object which it is intended to point out.

The general distinction between this and that may be thus defined: this denotes an object present or near, in time or place; that something which is absent.

These refers, in the same manner, to present objects, while those refers to things that are remote.

Who changes, under certain conditions, into whose and whom; but that and which always remain the same, with the exception of the possessive case, as noted above.

That may be applied to nouns or subjects of all sorts; as, the girl that went to school, the dog that bit me, the opinion that he entertains.

The misuse of these pronouns gives rise to more errors in speaking and writing than any other cause.

When you wish to distinguish between two or more persons, say: "Which is the happy man?" not who—"Which of those ladies to you admire?"

Instead of "Whom do you think him to be?" say, "Who do you think him to be?"

Whom should I see.

To whom do you speak?

Who said so?

Who gave it to you?

Of whom did you procure them?

Who was he?

Who do men say that I am?

Self should never be added to his, their, mine or thine.

Each is used to denote every individual of a number.

Every denotes all the individuals of a number.

Either and or denote an alternative: "I will take either road, at your pleasure;" "I will take this or that."

Neither means not either, and nor means not the other. Either is sometimes used for each—"Two thieves were crucified, on either side one."

"Let each esteem others as good as themselves," should be, "Let each esteem others as good as himself."

"There are bodies each of which are so small," should be, "each of which is so small."

Do not use double superlatives, such as most straightest, most highest, most finest.

The term worser has gone out of use; but lesser is stilt retained.

The use of such words as chiefest, extreamest, etc., has become obsolete, because they do not give any superior force to the meanings of the primary words, chief, extreme, etc.

Such expressions as more impossible, more indispensable, more universal, more uncontrollable, more unlimited, etc., are objectionable, as they really enfeeble the meaning which it is the object of the speaker or writer to strengthen. For instance, impossible gains no strength by rendering it more impossible. This class of error is common with persons who say, "A great large house," "A great big animal," "A little small foot," "A tiny little hand."

Here, there and where, originally denoting place, may now, by common consent, be used to denote other meanings, such as, "There I agree with you," "Where we differ," "We find pain where we expected pleasure," "Here you mistake me."

Hence, whence and thence, denoting departure, etc., may be used without the word from. The idea of from is included in the word whence—therefore it is unnecessary to say "From whence."

Hither, thither and whither, denoting to a place, have generally been superseded by here, there and where. But there is no good reason why they should not be employed. If, however, they are used, it is unnecessary to add the word to, because that is implied—"Whither are you going?" "Where are you going?" Each of these sentences is complete. To say, "Where are you going to?" is redundant.

Two negatives destroy each other, and produce an affirmative. "Nor did he not observe them," conveys the idea that he did observe them.

But negative assertions are allowable. "His manners are not impolite," which implies that his manners are in some degree marked by politeness.

Instead of "Let you and I." say "Let you and me."

Instead of "I am not so tall as him," say "I am not so tall as he."

When asked "Who is there?" do not answer "Me," but "I,"

Instead of "For you and I," say "For you and me."

Instead of "Says I," say "I said."

Instead of "You are taller than me," say "You are taller than I."

Instead of "I ain't," or "I arn't," say "I am not."

Instead of "Whether I be present or no," say "Whether I be present or not."

For "Not that I know on,"' say "Not that I know."

Instead of "Was I to do so," say "Were I to do so."

Instead of "I would do the same if I was him," say "I would do the same if I were he."

Instead of "I had as lief go myself," say "I would as soon go myself," or "I would rather."

It is better to say "Six weeks ago" than "Six weeks back."

It is better to say "Since which time," than "Since when,"

It is better to say "I repeated it," than "I said so over again."

Instead of "He was too young to have suffered much," say "He was too young to suffer much."

Instead of "Less friends," say "Fewer friends." Less refers to quantity.

Instead of "A quantity of people," say "A number of people."

Instead of "He and they we know," say "Him and them."

Instead of "As far as I can see," say "So far as I can see."

Instead of "A new pair of gloves," say "A pair of new gloves."

Instead of "I hope you'll think nothing on it," say "I hope you'll think nothing of it."

Instead of "Restore it back to me," say "Restore it to me."

Instead of "I suspect the veracity of his story," say "I doubt the truth of his story."

Instead of "I seldom or ever see him," say "I seldom see him."

Instead of "I expected to have found him," say "1 expected to find him."

Instead of "Who learns you music?" say "Who teaches you music?"

Instead of "I never sing whenever I can help it," say "I never sing when I can help it."

Instead of "Before I do that I must first ask leave," say "Before I do that I must ask leave."

Instead of saying "The observation of the rule," say "The observance of the rule,"

Instead of "A man of eighty years of age," say "A man eighty years old."

Instead of "Here lays his honored head," say "Here lies his honored head."

Instead of "He died from negligence," say "He died through neglect," or "in consequence of neglect."

Instead of "Apples are plenty," say "Apples are plentiful."

Instead of "The latter end of the year," say "The end, or the close, of the year."

Instead of "The then government," say "The government of that age, or century, or year, or time."

Instead of "A couple of chairs," say "Two chairs."

Instead of "They are united together in the bonds of matrimony," say "They are united in matrimony," or "They are married," '.

Instead of "We travel slow," say "We travel slowly."

Instead of "He plunged down into the river," say "He plunged into the river."

Instead of "He jumped from off the scaffolding," say "He jumped off the scaffolding."

Instead of "He came the last of all," say "He came the last."

Instead of "universal," with reference to things that have any limit, say "general," "generally approved," instead of "universally approved," "generally beloved," instead of "universally beloved."

Instead of "They ruined one another," say "They ruined each other,"

Instead of "If in case I succeed," say "If I succeed."

Instead of "A large enough room," say "A room large enough."

Instead of "I am slight in comparison to you," say "I am slight in comparison with you."

Instead of "I went for to see him," say "I went to see him."

Instead of "The cake is all eat up," say "The cake is all eaten."

Instead of "Handsome is as handsome does," say "Handsome is who handsome does."

Instead of "The book fell on the floor," say "The book fell to the floor."

Instead of "His opinions are approved of by all," say "His opinions are approved by all."

Instead of "I will add one more argument," say "I will add one argument more," or "another argument."

Instead of "A sad curse is war," say "War is a sad curse."

Instead of "He stands six foot high," say "He measures six feet," or "His height is six feet."

Instead of "I go every now and then," say "I go sometimes (or often)."

Instead of "Who finds him in clothes," say "Who provides him with clothes."

Say "The first two," and "the last two" instead of "the two first" "the two last."

Instead of "His health was drank with enthusiasm," say "His health was drunk enthusiastically."

Instead of "Except I am prevented," say "Unless I am prevented."

Instead of "In its primary sense," say "In its primitive sense."

Instead of "It grieves me to see you," say "I am grieved to see you."

Instead of "Give me them papers," say "Give me those papers."

Instead of "Those papers I hold in my hand," say "These papers I hold in my hand."

Instead of "I could scarcely imagine but what," say "I could scarcely imagine that."

Instead of "He was a man notorious for his benevolence," say "He was noted for his benevolence."

Instead of "She was a woman celebrated for her crimes," say "She was notorious on account of her crimes."

Instead of "What may your name be?" say "What is your name?"

Instead of "I lifted it up," say "I lifted it."

Instead of "It is equally of the same value," say "It is of the same value," or "equal value."

Instead of "I knew it previous to your telling me," say "I knew it previously to your telling me."

Instead of "You was out when I called," say "You were out when I called."

Instead of "I thought I should have won this game," say "I thought I should win this game."

Instead of "This much is certain," say "Thus much is certain," or "So much is certain."

Instead of "He went away as it may be yesterday week," say "He went away yesterday week."

Instead of "He came the Saturday as it may be before the Monday," specify the Saturday on which he came.

Instead of "Put your watch in your pocket," say "Put your watch into your pocket."

Instead of "He has got riches," say "He has riches."

Instead of "Will you set down?" say "Will you sit down?"

Instead of "No thankee," say "No, thank you."

Instead of "I cannot do it without farther means," say "I cannot do it without further means."

Instead of "No sooner but," or "No other but," say "than."

Instead of "Nobody else but her," say "Nobody but her."

Instead of "He fell down from the balloon," say "He fell from the balloon."

Instead of "He rose up from the ground," say "He rose from the ground."

Instead of "These kind of oranges are not good," say "This kind of oranges is not good."

Instead of "Somehow or another," say "Somehow or other."

Instead of "Will I give you some more tea?" say "Shall I give you some more tea?"

Instead of "Oh, dear, what will I do?" say "Oh, dear, what shall I do?"

Instead of "I think indifferent of it," say "I think indifferently of it."

Instead of "I will send it conformable to your orders," say "I will send it conformably to your orders."

Instead of "To be given away gratis," say "To be given away."

Instead of "Will you enter in?" say "Will you enter?"

Instead of "This three days or more," say "These three days or more."

Instead of "He is a bad grammarian," say "He is not a grammarian."

Instead of "We accuse him for." say "We accuse him of."

Instead of "We acquit him from," say "We acquit him of."

Instead of "I am averse from that," say "I am averse to that."

Instead of "I confide on you," say "I confide in you."

Instead of "As soon as ever." say "As soon as."

Instead of "The very best," or "The very worst," say "The best or the worst."

Avoid such phrases as "No great shakes," "Nothing to boast of," "Down in my boots," "Suffering from the blues." All such sentences indicate vulgarity.

Instead of "No one hasn't called," say "No one has called."

Instead of "You have a right to pay me," say "It is right that you should pay me."

Instead of "I am going over the bridge," say "I am going across the bridge."

Instead of "I should just think I could," say "I think I can."

Instead of "There has been a good deal," say "There has been much."

Instead of "The effort you are making for meeting the bill," say "The effort you are making to meet the bill."

To say "Do not give him no more of your money," is equivalent to saying "Give him some of your money." Say "Do not give him any of your money."

Instead of saying "They are not what nature designed them," say "They are not what nature designed them to be."

Instead of saying "I had not the pleasure of hearing his sentiments when I wrote that letter," say "I had not the pleasure of having heard," etc.

Instead of "The quality of the apples were good," say "The quality of the apples was good."

Instead of "The want of learning, courage and energy are more visible," say "is more visible."

Instead of "We die for want," say "We die of want."

Instead of "He died by fever," say "He died of fever."

Instead of "I enjoy bad health," say "My health is not good."

Instead of "Either of the three," say "Any one of the three."

Instead of "Better nor that," say "Better than that."

Instead of "We often think on you," say "We often think of you."

Instead of "Mine is so good as yours," say "Mine is as good as yours."

Instead of "This town is not as large as we thought," say "This town is not so large as we thought."

Instead of "Because why?" say "Why?"

Instead of "That there boy," say "That boy."

Instead of "The subject-matter of debate," say "The subject of debate."

Instead of saying "When he was come back," say "When he had come back."

Instead of saying "His health has been shook," say "His health has been shaken."

Instead of saying "It was spoke in my presence," say "It was spoken in my presence."

Instead of "Very right," or "Very wrong," say "Right" or "Wrong."

Instead of "The mortgagor paid him the money," say "The mortgagee paid him the money." The mortgagee lends; the mortgagor borrows.

Instead of "I took you to be another person," say "I mistook you for another person."

Instead of "On either side of the river," say "On each side of the river."

Instead of "There's fifty," say "There are fifty."

Instead of "The best of the two" say "The better of the two,"

Instead of "My clothes have become too small for me" say "I have grown too stout for my clothes."

Instead of "Two spoonsful of physic," say "Two spoonfuls of physic."

Instead of "She said, says she," say "She said."

Avoid such phrases as "I said, says I," "Thinks I to myself," etc.

Instead of "I don't think so," say "I think not."

Instead of "He was in eminent danger," say "He was in imminent danger."

Instead of "The weather is hot," say "The weather is very warm."

Instead of "I sweat," say "I perspire."

Instead of "I only want two dollars," say "I want only two dollars."

Instead of "Whatsomever," say "Whatever," or "Whatsoever."

Avoid such exclamations as "God bless me!" "God deliver me!" "By God!" "By Gosh!" "Holy Lord!" "Upon my soul!" etc., which are vulgar on the one hand, and savor of impiety all the other, for—"Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain."



ACCENT AND PRONUNCIATION.

Accent is a particular stress or force of the voice upon certain syllables or words. This mark in printing denotes the syllable upon which the stress or force of the voice should be placed.

A word may have more than one accent. Take as an instance aspiration. In uttering the word we give a marked emphasis of the voice upon the first and third syllables, and therefore those syllables are said to be accented. The first of these accents is less distinguishable than the second, upon which we dwell longer; therefore the second accent in point of order is called the primary, or chief accent of the word.

When the full accent falls on a vowel, that vowel should have a long sound, as in vo'cal; but when it falls on or after a consonant, the preceding vowel has a short sound, as in hab'it.

To obtain a good knowledge of pronunciation it is advisable for the reader to listen to the examples given by good speakers, and by educated persons. We learn the pronunciation of words, to a great extent, by imitation, just as birds acquire the notes of other birds which may be near them.

But it will be very important to bear in mind that there are many words having a double meaning or application, and that the difference of meaning is indicated by the difference of the accent, Among these words, nouns are distinguished from verbs by this means: nouns are mostly accented on the first syllabic, and verbs on the last.

Noun signifies name; nouns are the names of persons and things, as well as of things not material and palpable, but of which we have a conception and knowledge, such as courage, firmness, goodness, strength; and verbs express actions, movements, etc. If the word used signifies has been done, or is being done, or is, or is to be done, then that word is a verb.

Thus when we say that anything is "an in'sult," that word is a noun, and is accented all the first syllable; but when we say he did it "to insult' another person," that word insult' implies acting, and becomes a verb, and should be accented on the last syllable.

Simple Rules of Pronunciation.

C before a, o and u, and in some other situations, is a close articulation, like k. Before e, i and y, c is precisely equivalent to s in same, this; as in cedar, civil, cypress, capacity.

E final indicates that the preceding vowel is long; as in hate, mete, sire, robe, lyre, abate, recede, invite, remote, intrude.

E final indicates that c preceding has the sound of s; as in lace, lance, and that g preceding has the sound of j, as in charge, page, challenge.

E final in proper English words never forms a syllable, and in the most used words in the terminating unaccented syllables it is silent. Thus, motive, genuine, examine, granite, are pronounced motiv, genuin, examin, granit.

E final, in a few words of foreign origin, forms a syllable; as syncope, simile.

E final is silent after l in the following terminations: ble, cle, dle, fle, gle, kle, ple, tle, zle; as in able, manacle, cradle, ruffle, mangle, wrinkle, supple, rattle, puzzle, which are pronounced a'bl, mana'cl, cra'dl, ruf'fl, man'gl, wrin'kl, sup'pl, puz'zl.

E is usually silent in the termination en; as in taken, broken; pronounced takn, brokn. OUS, in the termination of adjectives and their derivatives, is pronounced us; as is gracious, pious, pompously.

CE, CI, TI, before a vowel, have the sound of sh; as in cetaceous, gracious, motion, partial, ingratiate; pronounced cetashus, grashus, moshun, parshal, ingrashiate.

SI, after an accented vowel, is pronounced like zh; as in Ephesian, coufusion; pronounced Ephezhan, confushon.

GH, both in the middle and at the end of words is silent; as in caught, bought, fright, nigh, sigh; pronounced caut, baut, frite, ni, si. In the following exceptions, however, gh is pronounced as f: cough, chough, clough, enough, laugh, rough, slough, tough, trough.

When WH begins a word, the aspirate h precedes w in pronunciation: as in what, whiff, whale; pronounced hwat, hwiff, hwale, w having precisely the sound of oo, French ou. In the following words w is silent:—-who, whom, whose, whoop, whole.

H after r has no sound or use; as in rheum, rhyme; pronounced reum, ryme.

H should be sounded in the middle of words; as in forehead, abhor, behold, exhaust, inhabit, unhorse.

H should always be sounded except in the following words:—heir, herb, honest, honor, hour, humor, and humble, and all their derivatives,—such as humorously, derived from humor.

K and G are silent before n; as know, gnaw; pronounced no, naw.

W before r is silent; as in wring, wreath; pronounced ring, reath.

B after m is silent; as in dumb, numb; pronounced dum, num.

L before k is silent; as in balk, walk, talk; pronounced bauk, wauk, tauk.

PH has the sound of f; as in philosophy; pronounced filosofy.

NG has two sounds, one as in singer, the other as in fin-ger.

N after m, and closing a syllable, is silent; as in hymn, condemn.

P before s and t is mute; as in psalm, pseudo, ptarmigan; pronounced salm, sudo, tarmigan.

R has two sounds, one strong and vibrating, as at the beginning of words and syllables, such as robber, reckon, error; the other is at the termination of the words, or when succeeded by a consonant, as farmer, morn.

Common Errors in Pronunciation.

—ace, is not iss, as furnace, not furniss.

—age, not idge, as cabbage, courage, postage, village.

—ain, ane, not in, as certain, certane, not certin.

—ate, not it, as moderate, not moderit.

—ect, not ec, as aspect, not aspec; subject, not subjec.

—ed, not id, or ud, as wicked, not wickid or wickud.

—el, not l, model, not modl; novel, not novl.

—en, not n, as sudden, not suddn.—Burden, burthen, garden, lengthen, seven, strengthen, often, and a few others, have the e silent.

—ence, not unce, as influence, not influ-unce.

—es, not is, as pleases, not pleasis.

—ile should be pronounced il, as fertil, not fertile, in all words except chamomile (cam), exile, gentile, infantile, reconcile, and senile, which should be pronounced ile.

—in, not n, as Latin, not Latn.

—nd, not n, as husband, not husban; thousand, not thousan.

—ness, not niss, as carefulness, not carefulniss.

—ng, not n, as singing, not singin; speaking, not speakin.

—ngth, not nth, as strength, not strenth.

—son, the o should be silent; as in treason, tre-zn, not tre-son.

—tal, not tle, as capital, not capitle; metal, not mettle; mortal, not mortle; periodical, not periodicle.

—xt, not x, as next, not nex.



SHORT RULES FOR SPELLING.

Words ending in e drop that letter on taking a suffix beginning with a vowel. Exceptions—words ending in ge, ce, or oe.

Final e of a primitive word is retained on taking a suffix beginning with a consonant. Exceptions—words ending in dge, and truly, duly, etc.

Final y of a primitive word, when preceded by a consonant, is generally changed into i on the addition of a suffix. Exceptions—retained before ing and ish, as pitying. Words ending in ie and dropping the e by Rule 1, change the i to y, as lying. Final y is sometimes changed to e, as duteous.

Nouns ending in y, preceded by a vowel, form their plural by adding s; o as money, moneys. Y preceded by a consonant is changed to ies in the plural; as bounty, bounties.

Final y of a primitive vowel, preceded by a vowel, should not be changed into i before a suffix; as, joyless.

In words containing ei or ie, ei is used after the sound s, as ceiling, seize, except in siege and in a few words ending in cier. Inveigle, neither, leisure and weird also have ei. In other cases ie is used, as in believe, achieve.

Words ending in ceous or cious, when relating to matter, end in ceous; all others in cious.

Words of one syllable, ending in a consonant; with a single vowel before it, double the consonant in derivatives; as, ship, shipping, etc. But if ending in a consonant with a double vowel before it, they do not double the consonant in derivatives; as troop, trooper, etc.

Words of more than one syllable, ending in a consonant preceded by a single vowel, and accented on the last syllable, double that consonant in derivatives; as commit, committed; but except chagrin, chagrined; kidnap, kidnaped.

All words of one syllable ending in l, with a single vowel before it, have ll at the close; as mill, sell.

All words of one syllable ending in l, with a double vowel before it, have only one l at the close: as mail, sail.

The words foretell, distill, instill and fulfill retain the double ll of their primitives. Derivatives of dull, skill, will and full also retain the double ll when the accent falls on these words; as dullness, skillful, willful, fullness.



PUNCTUATION.

A period (.) after every declarative and every imperative sentence; as, It is true. Do right.

A period is also used after every abbreviation; as, Dr., Mr., Capt.

An interrogation point (?) after every question.

The exclamation point (!) after exclamations; as, Alas! Oh, how lovely!

Quotation marks (" ") inclose quoted expressions; as Socrates said: "I believe the soul is immortal."

A colon (:) is used between parts of a sentence that are subdivided by semi-colons.

A colon is used before a quotation, enumeration, or observation, that is introduced by as follows, the following, or any similar expression; as, Send me the following: 10 doz. "Armstrong's Treasury," 25 Schulte's Manual, etc.

A semicolon (;) between parts that are subdivided by commas.

The semicolon is used also between clauses or members that are disconnected in sense; as, Man grows old; he passes away; all is uncertain. When as, namely, that is, is used to introduce an example or enumeration, a semicolon is put before it and a comma after it; as, The night was cold; that is, for the time of year.

A comma is used to set off interposed words, phrases and subordinate clauses not restrictive; as, Good deeds are never lost, though sometimes forgotten.

A comma is used to set off transposed phrases and clauses, as, "When the wicked entice thee, consent thou not."

A comma is used to set off interposed words, phrases and clauses; as, Let us, if we can, make others happy.

A comma is used between similar or repeated words or phrases; as, The sky, the water, the trees, were illumined with sunlight.

A comma is used to mark an ellipsis, or the omission of a verb or other important word.

A comma is used to set off a short quotation informally introduced; as, Who said, "The good die young"?

A comma is used whenever necessary to prevent ambiguity.

The marks of parenthesis ( ) are used to inclose an interpolation where such interpolation is by the writer or speaker of the sentence in which it occurs. Interpolations by an editor or by anyone other than the author of the sentence should be inclosed in brackets—[ ].

Dashes (—) may be used to set off a parenthetical expression, also to denote an interruption or a sudden change of thought or a significant pause.



THE USE OF CAPITALS.

1. Every entire sentence should begin with a capital.

2. Proper names, and adjectives derived from these, should begin with a capital.

3. All appellations of the Deity should begin with a capital.

4. Official and honorary titles begin with a capital.

5. Every line of poetry should begin with a capital.

6. Titles of books and the heads of their chapters and divisions are printed in capitals.

7. The pronoun I, and the exclamation O, are always capitals.

8. The days of the week, and the months of the year, begin with capitals.

9. Every quotation should begin with a capital letter.

10. Names of religious denominations begin with capitals.

11. In preparing accounts, each item should begin with a capital.

12. Any word of special importance may begin with a capital.



THE NAME OF GOD IN FIFTY LANGUAGES.

Hebrew, Eleah, Jehovah; Chaldaic, Eiliah; Assyrian, Eleah; Syrian and Turkish, Alah; Malay, Alla; Arabic, Allah; Languages of the Magi, Orsi; Old Egyptian, Teut; Modern Egyptian, Teun; Armenian, Teuti; Greek, Theos; Cretan, Thios; Aedian and Dorian, Ilos; Latin, Deus; Low Latin, Diex; Celtic Gaelic, Diu; French, Dieu; Spanish, Dios; Portuguese, Deos; Old German, Diet; Provencal, Diou; Low Breton, Done; Italian, Dio; Irish, Dia; Olotu, Deu; German and Swiss, Gott; Flemish, God; Dutch, God; English, God; Teutonic, Goth; Danish and Swedish, Gud; Norwegian, Gud; Slav, Buch; Polish, Bog; Polacca, Bung; Lapp, Jubinal; Finnish, Jumala; Runic, As; Zembilian, As; Pannanlian, Istu; Tartar, Magatai; Coromandel, Brama; Persian, Sire; Chinese, Prussa; Japanese, Goezer; Madagascar, Zannar; Peruvian, Puchecammae.



FACTS ABOUT SPONGES. By Albert Hart.

Sponges belong to the animal kingdom, and the principal varieties used commercially are obtained off the coasts of Florida and the West Indies; the higher grades are from the Mediterranean Sea, and are numerous in variety.

A sponge in its natural state is a different-looking object from what we see in commerce, resembling somewhat the appearance of the jelly fish, or a mass of liver, the entire surface being covered with a thin, slimy skin, usually of a dark color, and perforated to correspond with the apertures of the canals commonly called "holes of the sponge." The sponge of commerce is, in reality, only the skeleton of a sponge. The composition of this skeleton varies in the different kinds of sponges, but in the commercial grades it consists of interwoven horny fibers, among and supporting which are epiculae of silicious matter in greater or less numbers, and having a variety of forms. The fibers consist of a network of fibriles, whose softness and elasticity determine the commercial quality of a given sponge. The horny framework is perforated externally by very minute pores, and by a less number of larger openings. These are parts of an interesting double canal system, an external and an internal, or a centripetal and a centrifugal. At the smaller openings on the sponge's surface channels begin, which lead into dilated spaces. In these, in turn, channels arise, which eventually terminate in the large openings. Through these channels or canals definite currents are constantly maintained, which are essential to the life of the sponge. The currents enter through the small apertures and emerge through the large ones.

The active part of the sponge, that is, the part concerned in nutrition and growth, is a soft, fleshy mass, partly filling the meshes and lining the canals. It consists largely of cells having different functions; some utilized in the formation of the framework, some in digestion and others in reproduction. Lining the dilated spaces into which different canals lead are cells surmounted by whip-like processes. The motion of these processes produces and maintains the water currents, which carry the minute food products to the digestive cells in the same cavities. Sponges multiply by the union of sexual product. Certain cells of the fleshy pulp assume the character of ova, and others that of spermatozoa. Fertilization takes place within the sponge. The fertilized eggs, which are called larvae, pass out into the currents of the water, and, in the course of twenty-four to forty-eight hours, they settle and become attached to rocks and other hard substances, and in time develop into mature sponges. The depth of the water in which sponges grow varies from 10 to 50 feet in Florida, but considerably more in the Mediterranean Sea, the finer grades being found in the deepest water, having a temperature of 50 to 57 degrees.



DON'T BE BURIED ALIVE.

From time to time we are horrified by learning that some person has been buried alive, after assurances have been given of death. Under these circumstances the opinion of a rising French physician upon the subject becomes of world-wide interest, for since the tests which have been in use for years have been found unreliable no means should be left untried to prove beyond a doubt that life is actually extinct before conveying our loved ones to the grave.

Dr. Martinot, as reported in the New York Journal, asserts that an unfailing test may be made by producing a blister on the hand or foot of the body by holding the flame of a candle to the same for a few seconds, or until the blister is formed which will always occur. If the blister contains any fluid it is evidence of life, and the blister only that produced by an ordinary burn. If, on the contrary, the blister contains only steam, it may be asserted that life is extinct. The explanation is as follows:

A corpse, says Dr. Martinot, is nothing more than inert matter, under the immediate control of physical laws which cause all liquid heated to a certain temperature to become steam; the epidermis is raised, the blister produced; it breaks with a little noise, and the steam escapes. But if, in spite of all appearances, there is any remnant of life, the organic mechanism continues to be governed by physiological laws, and the blister will contain serous matter, as in the case of any ordinary burns.

The test is as simple as the proof is conclusive. Dry blister: death. Liquid blister: life. Any one may try it; there is no error possible.



HOW TO SERVE WINE.

A fine dinner may be spoiled by not serving the proper wine at the proper time and at the proper temperature.

A white wine (Sauterne, Riesling, Moselle, etc.) should be used from the beginning of the meal to the time the roast or game comes on. With the roast serve red wine, either claret or Burgundy.

Use sparkling wines after the roast.

With dessert, serve apricot cordial.

Never serve red wine with soup or fish, and never a white wine with game.

Storage, Temperature, Etc.

Store your wines in the cellar at 50 to 60 degrees.

All bottles should lie flat so that the cork is continually moist.

This rule should be specially observed with sparkling wines. Sparkling wine should be served ice cold.

Put the wine on the ice—not ice in the wine.

Serve red wine at only about 5 degrees cooler than the dining-room.

White wine should be about 15 degrees cooler than the temperature of the room.



THE STEPS IN THE GROWTH OF AMERICAN LIBERTY.

MAGNA CHARTA.

About seven hundred years ago there was organized a movement which resulted in the great charter of English liberty—a movement which foreshadowed the battle of our American forefathers for political independence. On the 25th of August, 1213, the prelates and Barons, tiring of the tyranny and vacillation of King John, formed a council and passed measures to secure their rights. After two years of contest, with many vicissitudes, the Barons entered London and the King fled into Hampshire. By agreement both parties met at Runnymede on the 9th of June, 1215, and after several days' debate, on June 15, Magna Charta (the Great Charter), the glory of England, was signed and sealed by the sovereign. The Magna Charta is a comprehensive bill of rights, and, though crude in form, and with many clauses of merely local value, its spirit still lives and will live. Clear and prominent we find the motto, "No tax without representation." The original document is in Latin and contains sixty-one articles, of which the 39th and 40th, embodying the very marrow of our own State constitutions, are here given as translated in the English statutes:

"39. No freeman shall be taken or imprisoned or be disseised of his freehold, or liberties or free customs, or be otherwise destroped [damaged], nor will be press upon him nor seize upon him [condemn him] but by lawful judgment of his peers or by the law of the land.

"40. We will sell to no man, we will not deny or defer to any man, either right or justice."

The Great Charter recognizes a popular tribunal as a check on the official judges and may be looked upon as the foundation of the writ of Habeas Corpus. It provides that no one is to be condemned on rumor or suspicion, but only on the evidence of witnesses. It affords protection against excessive emercements, illegal distresses and various processes for debts and service due to the crown. Fines are in all cases to be proportionate to the magnitude of the offense, and even the villein or rustic is not to be deprived of his necessary chattels. There are provisions regarding the forfeiture of land for felony. The testamentary power of the subject is recognized over part of his personal estate, and the rest to be divided between his widow and children. The independence of the church is also provided for. These are the most important features of the Great Charter, which, exacted by men with arms in their hands from a resisting king, occupies so conspicuous a place in history, which establishes the supremacy of the law of England over the will of the monarch, and which still forms the basis of English liberties.



THE MECKLENBURG DECLARATION

More than a year before the signing of the Declaration of Independence a document was drawn up that was almost a model in phraseology and sentiment of the great charter of American freedom. There are various accounts of this matter, but the most trustworthy is this:

At a public meeting of the residents of Mecklenburg County, North Carolina, held at Charlotte on the 20th of May, 1775, it was

"Resolved, That whenever directly or indirectly abetted, or in any way, form or manner countenanced, the unchartered and dangerous invasion of our rights, as claimed by Great Britain, is an enemy to our country—to America—and to the inherent and inalienable rights of man.

"Resolved, That we, the citizens of Mecklenburg County, do hereby dissolve the political bonds which have connected us to the mother country, and hereby absolve ourselves from all allegiance to the British crown, and abjure all political connection, contract or association with that nation, which has wantonly trampled on our rights and liberties, and inhumanly shed the blood of American patriots at Lexington.

"Resolved, That we do hereby declare ourselves a free and independent people; are and of right ought to be a sovereign and self-governing association, under the control of no power other than that of our God and the general government of the Congress. To the maintenance of which independence we solemnly pledge to each other our mutual cooperation, our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor."

There are two other resolutions, concerning the militia and the administration of the law, but these, having no present value, are here omitted.



THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. In Congress, July 4, 1776.

When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bonds which have connected them with another, and to assume, among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the laws of Nature and Nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.

We hold these truths to be self-evident: that all men are created equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. That to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed; that whenever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or to abolish it, and to institute a new government, laying its foundation on such principles, and organizing its powers in such form as to them shall seem most likely to effect their safety and happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes; and accordingly all experience has shown that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same object, evinces a design to reduce them under absolute despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such government, and to provide new guards for their future security. Such has been the patient sufferance of these colonies, and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former systems of government. The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute tyranny over these States. To prove this, let facts be submitted to a candid world.

He has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome and necessary for the public good.

He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate and pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his assent should be obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them.

He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of representation in the legislature—a right inestimable to them, formidable to tyrants only.

He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, and distant from the depository of their public records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures.

He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly, for opposing with manly firmness his invasions on the rights of the people.

He has refused, for a long time after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected; whereby the legislative powers, incapable of annihilation, have returned to the people at large, for their exercise, the state remaining, in the meantime, exposed to all the dangers of invasion from without, and convulsions within.

He has endeavored to prevent the population of these States; for that purpose obstructing the laws for naturalization of foreigners, refusing to pass others to encourage their migration hither, and raising conditions of new appropriation of lands. He has obstructed the administration of justice, by refusing his assent to laws establishing judiciary powers.

He has made judges dependent on his will alone for the tenure of their offices and the amount and payment of their salaries.

He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither swarms of officers, to harass our people, and to eat out their substance.

He has kept among us, in times of peace, standing armies, without the consent of our legislatures.

He has affected to render the military independent of, and superior to, the civil power.

He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his assent to their acts of pretended legislation:

For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us. For protecting them, by mock trial, from punishment for any murders which they should commit on the inhabitants of these States.

For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world. For imposing taxes on us without our consent.

For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefits of trial by jury.

For transporting us beyond the seas to be tried for pretended offenses.

For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neighboring province, establishing therein an arbitrary government, and enlarging its boundaries, so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these colonies.

For taking away our charters, abolishing our most valuable laws, and altering, fundamentally, the forms of our governments.

For suspending our own legislatures and declaring themselves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever.

He has abdicated government here, by declaring us out of his protection, and waging war against us.

He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people.

He is, at this time, transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries, to complete the works of death, desolation and tyranny, already begun with circumstances of cruelty and perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the head of a civilized nation.

He has constrained our fellow-citizens, taken captive on the high seas, to bear arms against their country, to become the executioners of their friends and brethren, or to fall themselves by their hands.

He has excited domestic insurrection among us, and has endeavored to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers the merciless Indian savages, whose known rule of warfare is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes and conditions.

In every stage of these oppressions we have petitioned for redress in the most humble terms; our repeated petitions have been answered only by repeated injury. A prince whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a tyrant is unfit to be ruler of a free people.

Nor have we been wanting in attention to our British brethren. We have warned them, from time to time, of attempts by their legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity; and we have conjured them, by the ties of our common kindred, to disavow these usurpations, which would inevitably interrupt our connection and correspondence. They, too, have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity which denounces our separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, enemies in war, in peace friends.

We, therefore, the representatives of the United States of America, in general Congress assembled, appealing to the supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the name and by the authority of the good people of these colonies, solemnly publish and declare that these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown, and that all political connection between them and the state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved; and that, as free and independent States, they have full power to levy war, conclude peace, contract alliances, establish commerce and to do all other acts and things which independent States may of right do. And for the support of this declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes and our sacred honor.

The foregoing declaration was, by order of the Congress, engrossed, and signed by the following members:

JOHN HANCOCK

New Hampshire—Josiah Bartlett, William Whipple, Matthew Thornton.

Massachusetts Bay—Samuel Adams, John Adams, Robert Treat Paine, Elbridge Gerry.

Rhode Island—Stephen Hopkins, William Ellery.

Connecticut—Roger Sherman, Samuel Huntington, William Williams, Oliver Wolcott

New York—William Floyd, Philip Livingston, Francis Lewis, Lewis Morris.

New Jersey—Richard Stockton. John Witherspoon, Francis Hopkinson, John Hart, Abraham Clark.

Pennsylvania—Robert Morris, Benjamin Rush, Benjamin Franklin, John Morton, George Clymer, James Smith, George Taylor, James Wilson, George Ross.

Delaware—Caesar Rodney, George Read, Thomas McKean.

Maryland—Samuel Chase, William Paco, Thomas Stone, Charles Carroll, of Carrollton.

Virginia—George Wythe, Richard Henry Lee, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Harrison, Thomas Nelson, Jr., Francis Lightfoot Lee, Carter Braxton.

North Carolina—William Hooper, Joseph Hewes, John Penn.

South Carolina—Edward Rutledge, Thomas Heyward, Jr., Thomas Lynch, Jr., Arthur Middleton.

Georgia—Button Gwinett, Lyman Hall, George Walton.

The following clause formed part of the original Declaration of Independence as signed, but was finally left out of the printed copies "out of respect to South Carolina":

"He [King George III.] has waged cruel war against human nature itself, violating its most sacred rights of life and liberty in the persons of a distant people who never offended him, captivating and carrying them into slavery in another hemisphere or to incur miserable death in their transportation thither."



THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES.

We, the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America.

Article I.

SECTION I.

1. All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives.

SECTION II.

1. The House of Representatives shall be composed of members chosen every second year by the people of the several States; and the electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the State legislature.

2. No person shall be a representative who shall not have attained to the age of twenty-five years, and have been seven years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen.

3. Representative and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the several States which may be included within this Union, according to their respective numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole number of free persons, including those bound to service for a term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three-fifths of all other persons. The actual enumeration shall be made within three years after the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as they shall by law direct. The number of representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each State shall have at least one representative; and until such enumeration shall be made, the State of New Hampshire shall be entitled to choose three; Massachusetts, eight; Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, one; Connecticut, five; New York, six; New Jersey, four; Pennsylvania, eight; Delaware, one; Maryland, six; Virginia, ten; North Carolina, five; South Carolina, five, and Georgia, three.

4. When vacancies happen in the representation from any State, the executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies.

5. The House of Representatives shall choose their speaker and other officers; and shall have the sole power of impeachment.

SECTION III.

1. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two senators from each State, chosen by the legislature thereof, for six years; and each senator shall have one vote.

2. Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the first election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three classes. The seats of the senators of the first class shall be vacated at the expiration of the second year, of the second class at the expiration of the fourth year, and of the third class at the expiration of the sixth year, so that one-third may be chosen every second year; and if vacancies happen by resignation, or otherwise, during the recess of the legislature of any State, the executive thereof may make temporary appointments until the next meeting of the legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies.

3. No person shall be a senator who shall not have attained to the age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State for which he shall be chosen.

4. The Vice-President of the United States shall be president of the Senate, but shall have no vote unless they be equally divided.

5. The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a president pro tempore, in the absence of the Vice-President, or when he shall exercise the office of President of the United States.

6. The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. When sitting for that purpose they shall be on oath or affirmation. When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside; and no person shall be convicted without the concurrence of two-thirds of the members present.

7. Judgment, in cases of impeachment, shall not extend further than to removal from office, disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of honor, trust or profit under the United States; but the party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment and punishment, according to law.

SECTION IV.

1. The times, places and manner of holding elections for senators and representatives shall be prescribed in each State by the legislature thereof; but the Congress may at any time by law make or alter such regulations, except as to the places of choosing senators.

2. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year; and such meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by law appoint a different day.

SECTION V.

1. Each house shall be the judge of the election, returns and qualifications of its own members, and a majority of each shall constitute a quorum to do business; but a smaller number may adjourn from day to day and may be authorized to compel the attendance of absent members, in such manner and under such penalties as each house may provide.

2. Each house may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its members for disorderly behavior, and, with the concurrence of two-thirds, expel a member.

3. Each house shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as in their judgment require secrecy; and the yeas and nays of the members of either house on any question shall, at the desire of one-fifth of those present, be entered on the journal.

4. Neither house, during the Session of Congress, shall, without the consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other place than that in which the two houses shall be sitting.

SECTION VI.

1. The senators and representatives shall receive a compensation for their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out of the treasury of the United States. They shall, in all cases, except treason, felony, and breach of peace, be privileged from arrest during their attendance at the session of their respective houses, and in going to and returning from the same; and for any speech or debate in either house they shall not be questioned in any other place.

2. No senator or representative shall, during the time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority of the United States, which shall have been created, or the emoluments whereof shall have been increased, during such time; and no person holding any office under the United States shall be a member of either house during his continuance in office.

SECTION VII.

1. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives; but the Senate may propose or concur with amendments as on other bills.

2. Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate, shall, before it becomes a law, be presented to the President of the United States; if he approve he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it, with his objections, to that house in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If, after such reconsideration, two-thirds of that house shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections, to the other house, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two-thirds of that house, it shall become a law. But in all such cases the votes of both houses shall be determined by yeas and nays, and the names of the persons voting for or against the bill be entered on the journal of each house respectively. If any bill shall not be returned by the President within ten days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a law in like manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress, by their adjournment, prevent its return, in which case it shall not be a law.

3. Every order, resolution or vote to which the concurrence of the Senate and the House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a question of adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the United States; and before the same shall take effect, shall be approved by him, or, being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two-thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the rules and limitations prescribed in the case of a bill.

SECTION VIII.

The Congress shall have power—

1. To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and excises to pay the debts and provide for the common defense and general welfare of the United States; but all duties, imposts and excises shall be uniform throughout the United States;

2. To borrow money on the credit of the United States;

3. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian tribes;

4. To establish a uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States;

5. To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures;

6. To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and current coin of the United States;

7. To establish post-offices and post-roads;

8. To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries;

9. To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court;

10. To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas, and offenses against the law of nations;

11. To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules concerning captures on land and water;

12. To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money to that use shall be for a longer term than two years;

13. To provide and maintain a navy;

14. To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces;

15. To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the Union, suppress insurrections and repel invasions;

16. To provide for organizing, arming and disciplining the militia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service of the United States, reserving to the States, respectively, the appointment of the officers, and the authority of training the militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress;

17. To exercise exclusive legislation, in all cases whatsoever, over such district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of particular States, and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the government of the United States, and to exercise like authority over all places purchased by the consent of the legislature of the State in which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dock-yards, and other needful buildings;

And to make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by the Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof.

SECTION IX

1. The migration or importation of such persons as any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight, but a tax or duty may be imposed on such importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each person.

2. The privilege of the writ of Habeas Corpus shall not be suspended, unless when, in cases of rebellion or invasion, the public safety may require it.

3. No bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be passed.

4. No capitation or other direct tax shall be laid, unless in proportion to the census or enumeration hereinbefore directed to be taken.

5. No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any State.

6. No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or revenue to the ports of one State over those or another; nor shall vessels bound to or from one State be obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties in another.

7. No money shall be drawn from the treasury but in consequence of appropriations made by law; and a regular statement and account of the receipts and expenditures of all public moneys shall be published from time to time.

8. No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States; and no person holding any office of profit or trust under them shall, without the consent of the Congress, accept of any present, emolument, office or title of any kind whatever, from any king, prince or foreign state.

SECTION X.

1. No State shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confederation; grant letters of marque and reprisal; coin money; emit bills of credit; make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts; pass any bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or law impairing the obligation of contracts, or grant any title of nobility.

2. No State shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any impost or duties on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing its inspection laws; and the net produce of an duties and imposts laid by any State on imports or exports shall be for the use of the treasury of the United States; and all such laws shall be subject to the revision and control of the Congress. No State shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any duty of tonnage, keep troops or ships of war in time of peace, enter into any agreement or compact with another State, or with a foreign power, or engage in war, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent danger as will not admit of delay.

Article II.

SECTION I.

1. The executive power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America. He shall hold his office during the term of four years; and, together with the Vice-President chosen for the same term, be elected as follows:

2. Each State shall appoint, in such manner as the legislature thereof may direct, a number of electors equal to the whole number of senators and representatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress; but no senator or representative, or person holding an office of trust or profit under the United States, shall be appointed an elector.

3. The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by ballot for two persons, of whom one at least shall not be an inhabitant of the same State with themselves. And they shall make a list of all the persons voted for and of the number of votes for each; which list they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted. The person having the greatest number of votes shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed; and if there be more than one who have such a majority, and have an equal number of votes, then the House of Representatives shall immediately choose, by ballot, one of them for President, and if no person have a majority, then, from the five highest on the list, the said House shall, in like manner, choose the President. But in choosing the President the votes shall be taken by States, the representation from each State having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of all the States, and a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. In every case, after the choice of the President, the person having the greatest number of votes of the electors shall be the Vice-President. But if there should remain two or more who have equal votes, the Senate shall choose from them, by ballot, the Vice-President.

4. The Congress may determine the time of choosing the electors, and the day on which they shall give their votes, which day shall be the same throughout the United States.

5. No person, except a natural-born citizen, or a citizen of the United States at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the office of President; neither shall any person be eligible to that office who shall not have attained the age of thirty-five years, and been fourteen years a resident within the United States.

6. In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of said office, the same shall devolve on the Vice-President; and the Congress may, by law, provide for the case of removal, death, resignation or inability, both of the President and Vice-President, declaring what officer shall then act as President; and such officer shall act accordingly, until the disability be removed, or a President shall be elected.

7. The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services a compensation, which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the period for which he shall have been elected; and he shall not receive within that period any other emoluments from the United States, or any of them.

8. Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall take the following oath or affirmation:

"I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office of President of the United States; and will, to the best of my ability, preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the United States."

SECTION II.

1. The President shall be commander-in-chief of the army and navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several States, when called into the actual service of the United States. He may require the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of the executive departments, upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective offices, and he shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons for offenses against the United States, except in cases of impeachment.

2. He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, to make treaties, provided two-thirds of the Senators present concur; and he shall nominate, and, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, shall appoint embassadors, other public ministers and consuls, judges of the Supreme Court, and all other officers of the United States whose appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by law. But the Congress may, by law, vest the appointment of such inferior officers as they think proper in the President alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads of departments.

3. The President shall have power to fill all vacancies that may happen during the recess of the Senate, by granting commissions which shall expire at the end of their next session.

SECTION III.

1. He shall, from time to time, give to the Congress information of the state of the Union, and recommend to their consideration such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient. He may, on extraordinary occasions, convene both houses, or either of them; and in case of disagreement between them, with respect to the time of adjournment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper. He shall receive embassadors and other public ministers. He shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed; and shall commission all officers of the United States.

SECTION IV.

1. The President, Vice-President and all civil officers of the United States shall be removed from office on impeachment for, and conviction of, treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors.

Article III.

SECTION I

1. The judicial power of the United States shall be vested in one Supreme Court and in such inferior courts as Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The judges both of the Supreme and inferior courts shall hold their offices during good behavior; and shall, at stated times, receive for their services a compensation which shall not be diminished during their continuance of office.

SECTION II.

1. The judicial power shall extend to all cases in law and equity arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority; to all cases affecting embassadors, other public ministers and consuls; to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction; to controversies to which the United States shall be a party; to controversies between two or more States, between a State and citizens of another State, between citizens of different States, between citizens of the same State claiming lands under grants of different States, and between a State, or the citizens thereof, and foreign states, citizens, or subjects.

2. In all cases affecting embassadors, other public ministers and consuls, and those in which a State shall be a party, the Supreme Court shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other cases mentioned, the Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, with such exceptions and under such regulations as the Congress shall make.

3. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by jury, and such trial shall be held in the State where the said crime shall have been committed; but when not committed within any State, the trial shall be at such place or places as the Congress may by law have directed.

SECTION III.

l. Treason against the United States shall consist only in levying war against them or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason unless on the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in open court.

2. The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason; but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood, or forfeiture, except during the life of the person attainted.

Article IV.

SECTION I.

1. Full faith and credit shall be given in each State to the public acts, records and judicial proceedings of every other State; and the Congress may, by general laws, prescribe the manner in which such acts, records and proceedings shall be proved, and the effect thereof.

SECTION II. 1. The citizens of each State shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities of citizens in the several States.

2. A person charged in any State with treason, felony, or other crime, who shall flee from justice, and be found in another State, shall, on demand of the executive authority of the State from which he fled, be delivered up to be removed to the State having jurisdiction of the crime.

3. No person held to service or labor in one State under the laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any laws or regulations therein, be discharged from such service or labor; but shall be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such service or labor may be due.

SECTION III.

1. New States may be admitted by the Congress into this Union; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the jurisdiction of any other State, nor any State be formed by the junction of two or more States or parts of States, without the consent of the legislatures of the States concerned, as well as of Congress.

2. The Congress shall have power to dispose of, and make all needful rules and regulations respecting the territory or other property belonging to the United States; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so construed as to prejudice any claim of the United States, or of any particular State.

SECTION IV.

1. The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union a republican form of government, and shall protect each of them against invasion; and, on application of the legislature, or of the executive (when the legislature cannot be convened), against domestic violence.

Article V.

1. The Congress, whenever two-thirds of both houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose amendments to this Constitution; or, on the application of the legislatures of two-thirds of the several States, shall call a convention for proposing amendments, which, in either case, shall be valid to all intents and purposes as part of this Constitution, when ratified by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several States, or by conventions in three-fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of ratification may be proposed by the Congress; provided, that no amendment which may be made prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any manner affect the first and fourth clauses in the ninth section of the fifth article; and that no State, without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate.

Article VI.

1. All debts contracted and engagements entered into before the adoption of this Constitution shall be as valid against the United States under this Constitution as under the Confederation.

2. This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be made in pursuance thereof, and all treaties made, or which shall be made, under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme law of the land; and the judges of every State shall be bound thereby, anything in the Constitution or laws of any State to the contrary notwithstanding.

3. The senators and representatives before mentioned, and the members of the several State legislatures, and all executive and judicial officers, both of the United States and the several States, shall be bound by oath or affirmation to support this Constitution; but no religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust under the United States.

Article VII.

1. The ratification of the convention of nine States shall be sufficient for the establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying the same. Done in convention by the unanimous consent of the States present, the seventeenth day of December, in the year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and eighty-seven, and of the Independence of the United States of America the twelfth. In witness whereof we have hereunto subscribed our names.

GEORGE WASHINGTON, President, and Deputy from Virginia.

AMENDMENTS.

Article I.

Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech or of the press, or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievance.

Article II.

A well regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed.

Article III.

No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law.

Article IV.

The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated; and no warrants shall issue but upon probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.

Article V.

No person shall be held to answer for a capital or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, when in actual service in time of war or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb, nor shall be compelled, in any criminal case, to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation.

Article VI.

In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law; and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the assistance of counsel for his defense.

Article VII.

In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved; and no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise reexamined, in any court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law.

Article VIII.

Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishment inflicted.

Article IX.

The enumeration in the Constitution of certain rights shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people.

Article X.

The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people. [The preceding ten amendatory articles were proposed to the legislatures of the States by the first Congress, September 25, 1789, and notification of ratification received from all the States except Connecticut, Georgia and Massachusetts.]