THE HANDBOOK OF

SOAP MANUFACTURE

BY

W. H. SIMMONS, B.Sc. (LOND.), F.C.S.

AND

H. A. APPLETON

WITH TWENTY-SEVEN ILLUSTRATIONS

LONDON SCOTT, GREENWOOD & SON "THE OIL AND COLOUR TRADES JOURNAL" OFFICES 8 BROADWAY, LUDGATE HILL, E.C. 1908 [All rights reserved]

Transcriber's note:

For text: A word surrounded by a cedilla such as this signifies that the word is bolded in the text. A word surrounded by underscores like this signifies the word is italics in the text. Greek letters are translated into English and are in brackets, e.g. [alpha].

For numbers and equations: Parentheses have been added to clarify fractions. Underscores before bracketed numbers/letters in equations denote a subscript.

Footnotes have been moved to the end of the chapter and minor typos have been corrected.



PREFACE

In the general advance of technical knowledge and research during the last decade, the Soap Industry has not remained stationary. While there has not perhaps been anything of a very revolutionary character, steady progress has still been made in practically all branches, and the aim of the present work is to describe the manufacture of Household and Toilet Soaps as carried out to-day in an up-to-date and well-equipped factory.

In the more scientific portions of the book, an acquaintance with the principles of elementary chemistry is assumed, and in this we feel justified, as in these days of strenuous competition, no soap-maker can hope to compete successfully with his rivals unless he has a sound theoretical as well as practical knowledge of the nature of the raw materials he uses, and the reactions taking place in the pan, or at other stages of the manufacture. We also venture to hope that the work may prove useful to Works' Chemists and other Analysts consulted in connection with this Industry.

At the same time, in the greater part of the book no chemical knowledge is necessary, the subject being treated in such a way that it is hoped those who are not directly engaged in the manufacture of soap, but who desire a general idea of the subject, will find it of value.

In the sections dealing with the composition and analysis of materials, temperatures are expressed in degrees Centigrade, these being now almost invariably used in scientific work. In the rest of the book, however, they are given in degrees Fahrenheit (the degrees Centigrade being also added in brackets), as in the majority of factories these are still used.

As regards strengths of solution, in some factories the use of Baume degrees is preferred, whilst in others Twaddell degrees are the custom, and we have therefore given the two figures in all cases.

In the chapter dealing with Oils and Fats, their Saponification Equivalents are given in preference to Saponification Values, as it has been our practice for some years to express our results in this way, as suggested by Allen in Commercial Organic Analysis, and all our records, from which most of the figures for the chief oils and fats are taken, are so stated.

For the illustrations, the authors are indebted to Messrs. E. Forshaw & Son, Ltd., H. D. Morgan, and W. J. Fraser & Co., Ltd.

W. H. S. H. A. A.

LONDON, September, 1908.



CONTENTS

PAGE

CHAPTER I.

INTRODUCTION. 1

Definition of Soap—Properties—Hydrolysis—Detergent Action.

CHAPTER II.

CONSTITUTION OF OILS AND FATS, AND THEIR SAPONIFICATION 6

Researches of Chevreul and Berthelot—Mixed Glycerides—Modern Theories of Saponification—Hydrolysis accelerated by (1) HEAT OR ELECTRICITY, (2) FERMENTS, Castor-seed Ferment, Steapsin, Emulsin, and (3) CHEMICAL REAGENTS, Sulphuric Acid, Twitchell's Reagent, Hydrochloric Acid, Lime, Magnesia, Zinc Oxide, Soda and Potash.

CHAPTER III.

RAW MATERIALS USED IN SOAP-MAKING 24

Fats and Oils—Waste Fats—Fatty Acids—Less-known Oils and Fats of Limited Use—Various New Fats and Oils Suggested for Soap-making—Rosin—Alkali (Caustic and Carbonated)—Water—Salt—Soap-stock.

CHAPTER IV.

BLEACHING AND TREATMENT OF RAW MATERIALS INTENDED FOR SOAP-MAKING 41

Palm Oil—Cotton-seed Oil—Cotton-seed "Foots"—Vegetable Oils—Animal Fats—Bone Fat—Rosin.

CHAPTER V.

SOAP-MAKING 45

Classification of Soaps—Direct combination of Fatty Acids with Alkali—Cold Process Soaps—Saponification under Increased or Diminished Pressure—Soft Soap—Marine Soap—Hydrated Soaps, Smooth and Marbled—Pasting or Saponification—Graining Out—Boiling on Strength—Fitting—Curd Soaps—Curd Mottled—Blue and Grey Mottled Soaps—Milling Base—Yellow Household Soaps—Resting of Pans and Settling of Soap—Utilisation of Nigres—Transparent soaps—Saponifying Mineral Oil—Electrical Production of Soap.

CHAPTER VI.

TREATMENT OF SETTLED SOAP 60

Cleansing—Crutching—Liquoring of Soaps—Filling—Neutralising, Colouring and Perfuming—Disinfectant Soaps—Framing—Slabbing—Barring—Open and Close Piling—Drying—Stamping—Cooling.

CHAPTER VII.

TOILET, TEXTILE AND MISCELLANEOUS SOAPS 77

Toilet Soaps—Cold Process soaps—Settled Boiled Soaps—Remelted Soaps—Milled Soaps—Drying—Milling and Incorporating Colour, Perfume, or Medicament—Perfume—Colouring matter—Neutralising and Superfatting Material—Compressing—Cutting—Stamping—Medicated Soaps—Ether Soap—Floating Soaps—Shaving Soaps—Textile Soaps—Soaps for Woollen, Cotton and Silk Industries—Patent Textile Soaps—Miscellaneous Soaps.

CHAPTER VIII.

SOAP PERFUMES 95

Essential Oils—Source and Preparation—Properties—Artificial and Synthetic Perfumes.

CHAPTER IX.

GLYCERINE MANUFACTURE AND PURIFICATION 111

Treatment of Lyes—Evaporation to Crude Glycerine—Distillation—Distilled and Dynamite Glycerine—Chemically Pure Glycerine—Animal Charcoal for Decolorisation—Glycerine obtained by other methods of Saponification—Yield of Glycerine from Fats and Oils.

CHAPTER X.

ANALYSIS OF RAW MATERIALS, SOAP, AND GLYCERINE 117

Fats and Oils—Alkalies and Alkali Salts—Essential Oils—Soap—Lyes—Crude Glycerine.

CHAPTER XI.

STATISTICS OF THE SOAP INDUSTRY 140

APPENDIX A.

COMPARISON OF DEGREES, TWADDELL AND BAUME, WITH ACTUAL DENSITIES 147

APPENDIX B.

COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT THERMOMETRIC SCALES 148

APPENDIX C.

TABLE OF THE SPECIFIC GRAVITIES OF SOLUTIONS OF CAUSTIC SODA 149

APPENDIX D.

TABLE OF STRENGTH OF CAUSTIC POTASH SOLUTIONS AT 60 deg. F. 151

INDEX 153



CHAPTER I.

INTRODUCTION.

Definition of Soap—Properties—Hydrolysis—Detergent Action.

It has been said that the use of soap is a gauge of the civilisation of a nation, but though this may perhaps be in a great measure correct at the present day, the use of soap has not always been co-existent with civilisation, for according to Pliny (Nat. Hist., xxviii., 12, 51) soap was first introduced into Rome from Germany, having been discovered by the Gauls, who used the product obtained by mixing goats' tallow and beech ash for giving a bright hue to the hair. In West Central Africa, moreover, the natives, especially the Fanti race, have been accustomed to wash themselves with soap prepared by mixing crude palm oil and water with the ashes of banana and plantain skins. The manufacture of soap seems to have flourished during the eighth century in Italy and Spain, and was introduced into France some five hundred years later, when factories were established at Marseilles for the manufacture of olive-oil soap. Soap does not appear to have been made in England until the fourteenth century, and the first record of soap manufacture in London is in 1524. From this time till the beginning of the nineteenth century the manufacture of soap developed very slowly, being essentially carried on by rule-of-thumb methods, but the classic researches of Chevreul on the constitution of fats at once placed the industry upon a scientific basis, and stimulated by Leblanc's discovery of a process for the commercial manufacture of caustic soda from common salt, the production of soap has advanced by leaps and bounds until it is now one of the most important of British industries.

Definition of Soap.—The word soap (Latin sapo, which is cognate with Latin sebum, tallow) appears to have been originally applied to the product obtained by treating tallow with ashes. In its strictly chemical sense it refers to combinations of fatty acids with metallic bases, a definition which includes not only sodium stearate, oleate and palmitate, which form the bulk of the soaps of commerce, but also the linoleates of lead, manganese, etc., used as driers, and various pharmaceutical preparations, e.g., mercury oleate (Hydrargyri oleatum), zinc oleate and lead plaster, together with a number of other metallic salts of fatty acids. Technically speaking, however, the meaning of the term soap is considerably restricted, being generally limited to the combinations of fatty acids and alkalies, obtained by treating various animal or vegetable fatty matters, or the fatty acids derived therefrom, with soda or potash, the former giving hard soaps, the latter soft soaps.

The use of ammonia as an alkali for soap-making purposes has often been attempted, but owing to the ease with which the resultant soap is decomposed, it can scarcely be looked upon as a product of much commercial value.

H. Jackson has, however, recently patented (Eng. Pat. 6,712, 1906) the use of ammonium oleate for laundry work. This detergent is prepared in the wash-tub at the time of use, and it is claimed that goods are cleansed by merely immersing them in this solution for a short time and rinsing in fresh water.

Neither of the definitions given above includes the sodium and potassium salts of rosin, commonly called rosin soap, for the acid constituents of rosin have been shown to be aromatic, but in view of the analogous properties of these resinates to true soap, they are generally regarded as legitimate constituents of soap, having been used in Great Britain since 1827, and receiving legislative sanction in Holland in 1875.

Other definitions of soap have been given, based not upon its composition, but upon its properties, among which may be mentioned that of Kingzett, who says that "Soap, considered commercially, is a body which on treatment with water liberates alkali," and that of Nuttall, who defines soap as "an alkaline or unctuous substance used in washing and cleansing".

Properties of Soap.—Both soda and potash soaps are readily soluble in either alcohol or hot water. In cold water they dissolve more slowly, and owing to slight decomposition, due to hydrolysis (vide infra), the solution becomes distinctly turbid. Sodium oleate is peculiar in not undergoing hydrolysis except in very dilute solution and at a low temperature. On cooling a hot soap solution, a jelly of more or less firm consistence results, a property possessed by colloidal bodies, such as starch and gelatine, in contradistinction to substances which under the same conditions deposit crystals, due to diminished solubility of the salt at a lower temperature.

Krafft (Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind., 1896, 206, 601; 1899, 691; and 1902, 1301) and his collaborators, Wiglow, Strutz and Funcke, have investigated this property of soap solutions very fully, the researches extending over several years. In the light of their more recent work, the molecules, or definite aggregates of molecules, of solutions which become gelatinous on cooling move much more slowly than the molecules in the formation of a crystal, but there is a definite structure, although arranged differently to that of a crystal. In the case of soda soaps the colloidal character increases with the molecular weight of the fatty acids.

Soda soaps are insoluble in concentrated caustic lyes, and, for the most part, in strong solutions of sodium chloride, hence the addition of caustic soda or brine to a solution of soda soap causes the soap to separate out and rise to the surface. Addition of brine to a solution of potash soap, on the other hand, merely results in double decomposition, soda soap and potassium chloride being formed, thus:—

C{17}H{35}COOK + NaCl = C{17}H{35}COONa + KCl potassium sodium sodium potassium stearate chloride stearate chloride

The solubility of the different soaps in salt solution varies very considerably. Whilst sodium stearate is insoluble in a 5 per cent. solution of sodium chloride, sodium laurate requires a 17 per cent. solution to precipitate it, and sodium caproate is not thrown out of solution even by a saturated solution.

Hydrolysis of Soap.—The term "hydrolysis" is applied to any resolution of a body into its constituents where the decomposition is brought about by the action of water, hence when soap is treated with cold water, it is said to undergo hydrolysis, the reaction taking place being represented in its simplest form by the equation:—

2NaC{18}H{35}O{2} + H{2}O = NaOH + HNa(C{18}H{35}O{2}){2} sodium water caustic acid sodium stearate soda stearate

The actual reaction which occurs has been the subject of investigation by many chemists, and very diverse conclusions have been arrived at. Chevreul, the pioneer in the modern chemistry of oils and fats, found that a small amount of alkali was liberated, as appears in the above equation, together with the formation of an acid salt, a very minute quantity of free fatty acid remaining in solution. Rotondi (Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind., 1885, 601), on the other hand, considered that a neutral soap, on being dissolved in water, was resolved into a basic and an acid salt, the former readily soluble in both hot and cold water, the latter insoluble in cold water, and only slightly soluble in hot water. He appears, however, to have been misled by the fact that sodium oleate is readily soluble in cold water, and his views have been shown to be incorrect by Krafft and Stern (Ber. d. Chem. Ges., 1894, 1747 and 1755), who from experiments with pure sodium palmitate and stearate entirely confirm the conclusions arrived at by Chevreul.

The extent of dissociation occurring when a soap is dissolved in water depends upon the nature of the fatty acids from which the soap is made, and also on the concentration of the solution. The sodium salts of cocoa-nut fatty acids (capric, caproic and caprylic acids) are by far the most easily hydrolysed, those of oleic acid and the fatty acids from cotton-seed oil being dissociated more readily than those of stearic acid and tallow fatty acids. The decomposition increases with the amount of water employed.

The hydrolytic action of water on soap is affected very considerably by the presence of certain substances dissolved in the water, particularly salts of calcium and magnesium. Caustic soda exerts a marked retarding effect on the hydrolysis, as do also ethyl and amyl alcohols and glycerol.

Detergent Action of Soap.—The property possessed by soap of removing dirt is one which it is difficult to satisfactorily explain. Many theories, more or less complicated, have been suggested, but even now the question cannot be regarded as solved.

The explanation commonly accepted is that the alkali liberated by hydrolysis attacks any greasy matter on the surface to be cleansed, and, as the fat is dissolved, the particles of dirt are loosened and easily washed off. Berzelius held this view, and considered that the value of a soap depended upon the ease with which it yielded free alkali on solution in water.

This theory is considered by Hillyer (Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc., 1903, 524), however, to be quite illogical, for, as he points out, the liberated alkali would be far more likely to recombine with the acid or acid salt from which it has been separated, than to saponify a neutral glyceride, while, further, unsaponifiable greasy matter is removed by soap as easily as saponifiable fat, and there can be no question of any chemical action of the free alkali in its case. Yet another argument against the theory is that hydrolysis is greater in cold and dilute solutions, whereas hot concentrated soap solutions are generally regarded as having the best detergent action.

Rotondi (Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind., 1885, 601) was of the opinion that the basic soap, which he believed to be formed by hydrolysis, was alone responsible for the detergent action of soap, this basic soap dissolving fatty matter by saponification, but, as already pointed out, his theory of the formation of a basic soap is now known to be incorrect, and his conclusions are therefore invalid.

Several explanations have been suggested, based on the purely physical properties of soap solutions. Most of these are probably, at any rate in part, correct, and there can be little doubt that the ultimate solution of the problem lies in this direction, and that the detergent action of soap will be found to depend on many of these properties, together with other factors not yet known.

Jevons in 1878 in some researches on the "Brownian movement" or "pedesis" of small particles, a movement of the particles which is observed to take place when clay, iron oxide, or other finely divided insoluble matter is suspended in water, found that the pedetic action was considerably increased by soap and sodium silicate, and suggested that to this action of soap might be attributed much of its cleansing power.

Alder Wright considered that the alkali liberated by hydrolysis in some way promoted contact of the water with the substance to be cleansed, and Knapp regarded the property of soap solutions themselves to facilitate contact of the water with the dirt, as one of the chief causes of the efficacy of soap as a detergent.

Another way in which it has been suggested that soap acts as a cleanser is that the soap itself or the alkali set free by hydrolysis serves as a lubricant, making the dirt less adherent, and thus promoting its removal.

The most likely theory yet advanced is that based on the emulsifying power of soap solutions. The fact that these will readily form emulsions with oils has long been known, and the detergent action of soap has frequently been attributed to it, the explanation given being that the alkali set free by the water emulsifies the fatty matter always adhering to dirt, and carries it away in suspension with the other impurities. Experiments by Hillyer (loc. cit.) show, however, that while N/10 solution of alkali will readily emulsify a cotton-seed oil containing free acidity, no emulsion is produced with an oil from which all the acidity has been removed, or with kerosene, whereas a N/10 solution of sodium oleate will readily give an emulsion with either, thus proving that the emulsification is due to the soap itself, and not to the alkali.

Plateau (Pogg. Ann., 141, 44) and Quincke (Wiedmann's. Ann., 35, 592) have made very complete researches on the emulsification and foaming of liquids and on the formation of bubbles. The former considers that there are two properties of a liquid which play an important part in the phenomenon, (1) it must have considerable viscosity, and (2) its surface tension must be low. Quincke holds similar views, but considers that no pure liquid will foam.

Soap solution admirably fulfils Plateau's second condition, its surface tension being only about 40 per cent. of that of water, while its cohesion is also very small; and it is doubtless to this property that its emulsifying power is chiefly due. So far as viscosity is concerned, this can have but little influence, for a 1 per cent. solution of sodium oleate, which has a viscosity very little different from that of pure water, is an excellent emulsifying agent.

Hillyer, to whose work reference has already been made, investigated the whole question of detergent action very exhaustively, and, as the result of a very large number of experiments, concludes that the cleansing power of soap is largely or entirely to be explained by the power which it has of emulsifying oily substances, of wetting and penetrating into oily textures, and of lubricating texture and impurities so that these may be removed easily. It is thought that all these properties may be explained by taking into account the low cohesion of the soap solutions, and their strong attraction or affinity to oily matter, which together cause the low surface tension between soap solution and oil.



CHAPTER II.

CONSTITUTION OF OILS AND FATS, AND THEIR SAPONIFICATION.

Researches of Chevreul and Berthelot—Mixed Glycerides—Modern Theories of Saponification—Hydrolysis accelerated by (1) Heat or Electricity, (2) Ferments; Castor-seed Ferment, Steapsin, Emulsin, and (3) Chemical Reagents; Sulphuric Acid, Twitchell's Reagent, Hydrochloric Acid, Lime, Magnesia, Zinc Oxide, Soda and Potash.

The term oil is of very wide significance, being applied to substances of vastly different natures, both organic and inorganic, but so far as soap-making materials are concerned, it may be restricted almost entirely to the products derived from animal and vegetable sources, though many attempts have been made during the last few years to also utilise mineral oils for the preparation of soap. Fats readily become oils on heating beyond their melting points, and may be regarded as frozen oils.

Although Scheele in 1779 discovered that in the preparation of lead plaster glycerol is liberated, soap at that time was regarded as a mere mechanical mixture, and the constitution of oils and fats was not properly understood. It was Chevreul who showed that the manufacture of soap involved a definite chemical decomposition of the oil or fat into fatty acid and glycerol, the fatty acid combining with soda, potash, or other base, to form the soap, and the glycerol remaining free. The reactions with stearin and palmitin (of which tallow chiefly consists) and with olein (found largely in olive and cotton-seed oils) are as follows:—

CH{2}OOC{18}H{35} CH{2}OH CHOOC{18}H{35} + 3NaOH = 3NaOOC{18}H{35} + CHOH CH{2}OOC{18}H{35} CH{2}OH

stearin sodium sodium glycerol hydroxide stearate

CH{2}OOC{16}H{31} CH{2}OH CHOOC{16}H{31} + 3NaOH = 3NaOOC{16}H{31} + CHOH CH{2}OOC{16}H{31} CH{2}OH

palmitin sodium sodium glycerol hydroxide palmitate

CH{2}OOC{18}H{33} CH{2}OH CHOOC{18}H{33} + 3NaOH = 3NaOOC{18}H{33} + CHOH CH{2}OOC{18}H{33} CH{2}OH

olein sodium sodium glycerol hydroxide oleate

Berthelot subsequently confirmed Chevreul's investigations by directly synthesising the fats from fatty acids and glycerol, the method he adopted consisting in heating the fatty acids with glycerol in sealed tubes. Thus, for example:—

3C{18}H{35}O{2}H + C{3}H{5}(OH){3} = C{3}H{5}(C{18}H{35}O{2}){3} stearic acid glycerol tristearin

Since glycerol is a trihydric alcohol, i.e., contains three hydroxyl (OH) groups, the hydrogen atoms of which are displaceable by acid radicles, the above reaction may be supposed to take place in three stages. Thus, we may have:—

(1) C_{18}H_{35}O_{2}H + C_{3}H_{5}(OH)_{3} = C_{3}H_{5}(OH)_{2}C_{18}H_{35}O_{2} + H_{2}O monostearin

(2) C{18}H{35}O{2}H + C{3}H{5}(OH){2}C{18}H{35}O{2} = C{3}H{5}(OH)(C{18}H{35}O{2}){2} + H{2}O distearin

(3) C{18}H{35}O{2}H + C{3}H{5}(OH)(C{18}H{35}O{2}){2} = C{3}H{5}(C{18}H{35}O{2}){3} + H{2}O tristearin

There are two possible forms of monoglyceride and diglyceride, according to the relative position of the acid radicle, these being termed alpha and beta respectively, and represented by the following formulae, where R denotes the acid radicle:—

Monoglyceride:—

CH{2}OR CH{2}OH (alpha) CHOH and (beta) CHOR CH{2}OH CH{2}OH

Diglyceride:—

CH{2}OR CH{2}OR (alpha) CHOH and (beta) CHOR CH{2}OR CH{2}OH

According to the relative proportions of fatty acid and glycerol used, and the temperature to which they were heated, Berthelot succeeded in preparing mono-, di- and triglycerides of various fatty acids.

Practically all the oils and fats used in soap-making consist of mixtures of these compounds of glycerol with fatty acids, which invariably occur in nature in the form of triglycerides.

It was formerly considered that the three acid radicles in any naturally occurring glyceride were identical, corresponding to the formula—

CH{2}OR CHOR CH{2}OR

where R denotes the acid radicle. Recent work, however, has shown the existence of several so-called mixed glycerides, in which the hydroxyls of the same molecule of glycerol are displaced by two or sometimes three different acid radicles.

The first mixed glyceride to be discovered was oleodistearin, C_{3}H_{5}(OC_{18}H_{35}O)(OC_{18}H_{35}O)_{2}, obtained by Heise in 1896 Mkani fat. Hansen has since found that tallow contains oleodipalmitin, from C_{3}H_{5}(OC_{18}H_{35}O)(OC_{16}H_{31}O), stearodipalmitin, C_{3}H_{5}(OC_{18}H_{35}O)(OC_{16}H_{31}O), oleopalmitostearin, C_{3}H_{5}(OC_{18}H_{33}O)(OC_{16}H_{31}O)(OC_{18}H_{35}O) and palmitodistearin, CH(OC_{16}H_{31}O)(OC_{18}H_{35}O)_{2}, the latter of which has also been obtained by Kreis and Hafner from lard, while Holde and Stange have shown that olive oil contains from 1 to 2 per cent. of oleodidaturin, C_{3}H_{5}(OC_{18}H_{33}O)(OC_{17}H_{33}O)_{2}, and Hehner and Mitchell have obtained indications of mixed glycerides in linseed oil (which they consider contains a compound of glycerol with two radicles of linolenic acid and one radicle of oleic acid), also in cod-liver, cod, whale and shark oils.

In some cases the fatty acids are combined with other bases than glycerol. As examples may be cited beeswax, containing myricin or myricyl palmitate, and spermaceti, consisting chiefly of cetin or cetyl palmitate, and herein lies the essential difference between fats and waxes, but as these substances are not soap-making materials, though sometimes admixed with soap to accomplish some special object, they do not require further consideration.

The principal pure triglycerides, with their formulae and chief constants, are given in the following table:—

[Transcriber's note: Table split to fit on page better.]

- Glyceride. Formula. Chief Occurrence. - Butyrin C{3}H{5}(O.C{4}H{7}O){3} Butter fat - Isovalerin C{3}H{5}(O.C{5}H{9}O){3} Porpoise, dolphin - Caproin C{3}H{5}(O.C{6}H{11}O){3} Cocoa-nut and palm-nut oils - Caprylin C{3}H{5}(O.C{8}H{15}O){3} Do. do. - Caprin C{3}H{5}(O.C{10}H{19}O){3} Do. do. - Laurin C{3}H{5}(O.C{12}H{23}O){3} Do. do. - Myristin C{3}H{5}(O.C{14}H{27}O){3} Nutmeg butter - Palmitin C{3}H{5}(O.C{16}H{31}O){3} Palm oil, lard - Stearin C{3}H{5}(O.C{18}H{35}O){3} Tallow, lard, cacao butter - Olein C{3}H{5}(O.C{18}H{33}O){3} Olive and almond oils - Ricinolein C{3}H{5}(O.C{18}H{33}O{2}){3} Castor oil -

- Glyceride. Melting Refractive Saponification Point, deg.C. Index at 60 deg. C. Equivalent. - Butyrin Liquid at -60 1.42015 100.7 - Isovalerin ... ... 114.7 - Caproin -25 1.42715 128.7 - Caprylin -8.3 1.43316 156.7 - Caprin 31.1 1.43697 184.7 - Laurin 45 1.44039 212.7 - Myristin 56.5 1.44285 240.7 - Palmitin 63-64 ... 268.7 - Stearin 71.6 ... 296.7 - Olein Solidifies at -6 ... 294.7 - Ricinolein ... ... 310.7 -

Of the above the most important from a soap-maker's point of view are stearin, palmitin, olein and laurin, as these predominate in the fats and oils generally used in that industry. The presence of stearin and palmitin, which are solid at the ordinary temperature, gives firmness to a fat; the greater the percentage present, the harder the fat and the higher will be the melting point, hence tallows and palm oils are solid, firm fats. Where olein, which is liquid, is the chief constituent, we have softer fats, such as lard, and liquid oils, as almond, olive and cotton-seed.

Stearin (Tristearin) can be prepared from tallow by crystallisation from a solution in ether, forming small crystals which have a bright pearly lustre. The melting point of stearin appears to undergo changes and suggests the existence of distinct modifications. When heated to 55 deg. C. stearin liquefies; with increase of temperature it becomes solid, and again becomes liquid at 71.6 deg. C. If this liquid be further heated to 76 deg. C., and allowed to cool, it will not solidify until 55 deg. C. is reached, but if the liquid at 71.6 deg. C. be allowed to cool, solidification will occur at 70 deg. C.

Palmitin (Tripalmitin) may be obtained by heating together palmitic acid and glycerol, repeatedly boiling the resulting product with strong alcohol, and allowing it to crystallise. Palmitin exists in scales, which have a peculiar pearly appearance, and are greasy to the touch. After melting and solidifying, palmitin shows no crystalline fracture; when heated to 46 deg. C. it melts to a liquid which becomes solid on further heating, again liquefying when 61.7 deg. C. is reached, and becoming cloudy, with separation of crystalline particles. At 63 deg. C. it is quite clear, and this temperature is taken as the true melting point. It has been suggested that the different changes at the temperatures mentioned are due to varying manipulation, such as rate at which the temperature is raised, and the initial temperature of the mass when previously cool.

Olein (Triolein) is an odourless, colourless, tasteless oil, which rapidly absorbs oxygen and becomes rancid. It has been prepared synthetically by heating glycerol and oleic acid together, and may be obtained by submitting olive oil to a low temperature for several days, when the liquid portion may be further deprived of any traces of stearin and palmitin by dissolving in alcohol. Olein may be distilled in vacuo without decomposition taking place.

Laurin (Trilaurin) may be prepared synthetically from glycerol and lauric acid. It crystallises in needles, melting at 45 deg.-46 deg. C., which are readily soluble in ether, but only slightly so in cold absolute alcohol. Scheij gives its specific gravity, d60 deg./4 deg. = 0.8944. Laurin is the chief constituent of palm-kernel oil, and also one of the principal components of cocoa-nut oil.

Fatty Acids.—When a fat or oil is saponified with soda or potash, the resulting soap dissolved in hot water, and sufficient dilute sulphuric acid added to decompose the soap, an oily layer gradually rises to the surface of the liquid, which, after clarifying by warming and washing free from mineral acid, is soluble in alcohol and reddens blue litmus paper. This oily layer consists of the "fatty acids" or rather those insoluble in water, acids like acetic, propionic, butyric, caproic, caprylic and capric, which are all more or less readily soluble in water, remaining for the most part dissolved in the aqueous portion. All the acids naturally present in oils and fats, whether free or combined, are monobasic in character, that is to say, contain only one carboxyl—CO.OH group. The more important fatty acids may be classified according to their chemical constitution into five homologous series, having the general formulae:—

I. Stearic series C{n}H{2n+1}COOH II. Oleic series C{n}H{2n-1}COOH III. Linolic series C{n}H{2n-3}COOH IV. Linolenic series C{n}H{2n-5}COOH V. Ricinoleic series C{n}H{2n-7}COOH

I. Stearic Series.—The principal acids of this series, together with their melting points and chief sources, are given in the following table:—

- Acid. Formula. Melting Found in Point, deg.C. - Acetic CH_{3}COOH 17 Macassar oil. Butyric C_{3}H_{7}COOH ... Butter, Macassar oil. Isovaleric C_{4}H_{9}COOH ... Porpoise and dolphin oils. Caproic C_{5}H_{11}COOH ... Butter, cocoa-nut oil. Caprylic C_{7}H_{15}COOH 15 Butter, cocoa-nut oil, Limburg cheese. Capric C_{9}H_{19}COOH 30 Butter, cocoa-nut oil. Lauric C_{11}H_{23}COOH 44 Cocoa-nut oil, palm-kernel oil. Ficocerylic C_{12}H_{25}COOH ... Pisang wax. Myristic C_{13}H_{27}COOH 54 Nutmeg butter, liver fat, cocoa-nut oil, dika fat, croton oil. Palmitic C_{15}H_{31}COOH 62.5 Palm oil, most animal fats. Daturic C_{16}H_{33}COOH Oil of Datura Stramonium. Stearic C_{17}H_{35}COOH 69 Tallow, lard, most solid animal fats. Arachidic C_{19}H_{39}COOH 75 Arachis or earth-nut oil, rape and mustard-seed oils. Behenic C_{21}H_{43}COOH ... Ben oil, black mustard-seed oil, rape oil. Lignoceric C_{23}H_{47}COOH 80.5 Arachis oil. Carnaubic C_{23}H_{47}COOH ... Carnauba wax. Pisangcerylic C_{23}H_{47}COOH ... Pisang wax. Hyaenic C_{24}H_{49}COOH ... Hyaena fat. Cerotic C_{25}H_{51}COOH 78 Beeswax, China wax, spermaceti. Melissic C_{29}H_{59}COOH 89 Beeswax. Psyllostearylic C_{32}H_{65}COOH ... Psylla wax. Theobromic C_{63}H_{127}COOH ... Cacao butter

Medullic and margaric acids, which were formerly included in this series, have now been shown to consist of mixtures of stearic and palmitic, and stearic palmitic and oleic acids respectively.

The acids of this group are saturated compounds, and will not combine directly with iodine or bromine. The two first are liquid at ordinary temperatures, distil without decomposition, and are miscible with water in all proportions; the next four are more or less soluble in water and distil unchanged in the presence of water, as does also lauric acid, which is almost insoluble in cold water, and only slightly dissolved by boiling water. The higher acids of the series are solid, and are completely insoluble in water. All these acids are soluble in warm alcohol, and on being heated with solid caustic alkali undergo no change.

II. Oleic Series:—

Acid. Formula. Melting Found in Point, deg.C. Tiglic C{4}H{7}COOH 64.5 Croton oil. Moringic C{14}H{27}COOH 0 Ben oil. Physetoleic C{15}H{29}COOH 30 Sperm oil. Hypogaeic C{15}H{29}COOH 33 Arachis and maize oils. Oleic C{17}H{33}COOH 14 Most oils and fats. Rapic C{17}H{33}COOH ... Rape oil. Doeglic C{18}H{35}COOH ... Bottle-nose oil. Erucic C{21}H{41}COOH 34 Mustard oils, marine animal oils, rape oil.

The unsaturated nature of these acids renders their behaviour with various reagents entirely different from that of the preceding series. Thus, they readily combine with bromine or iodine to form addition compounds, and the lower members of the series are at once reduced, on treatment with sodium amalgam in alkaline solution, to the corresponding saturated acids of Series I. Unfortunately, this reaction does not apply to the higher acids such as oleic acid, but as the conversion of the latter into solid acids is a matter of some technical importance from the point of view of the candle-maker, a number of attempts have been made to effect this by other methods.

De Wilde and Reychler have shown that by heating oleic acid with 1 per cent. of iodine in autoclaves up to 270 deg.-280 deg. C., about 70 per cent. is converted into stearic acid, and Zuerer has devised (German Patent 62,407) a process whereby the oleic acid is first converted by the action of chlorine into the dichloride, which is then reduced with nascent hydrogen. More recently Norman has secured a patent (English Patent 1,515, 1903) for the conversion of unsaturated fatty acids of Series II. into the saturated compounds of Series I., by reduction with hydrogen or water-gas in the presence of finely divided nickel, cobalt or iron. It is claimed that by this method oleic acid is completely transformed into stearic acid, and that the melting point of tallow fatty acids is raised thereby about 12 deg. C.

Another method which has been proposed is to run the liquid olein over a series of electrically charged plates, which effects its reduction to stearin.

Stearic acid is also formed by treating oleic acid with fuming hydriodic acid in the presence of phosphorus, while other solid acids are obtained by the action of sulphuric acid or zinc chloride on oleic acid.

Acids of Series II. may also be converted into saturated acids by heating to 300 deg.C. with solid caustic potash, which decomposes them into acids of the stearic series with liberation of hydrogen. This reaction, with oleic acid, for example, is generally represented by the equation—

C{18}H{34}O{2} + 2KOH = KC{2}H{3}O{2} + KC{16}H{31}O{2} + H{2},

though it must be really more complex than this indicates, for, as Edmed has pointed out, oxalic acid is also formed in considerable quantity. The process on a commercial scale has now been abandoned.

One of the most important properties of this group of acids is the formation of isomeric acids of higher melting point on treatment with nitrous acid, generally termed the elaidin reaction. Oleic acid, for example, acted upon by nitrous acid, yields elaidic acid, melting at 45 deg., and erucic acid gives brassic acid, melting at 60 deg.C. This reaction also occurs with the neutral glycerides of these acids, olein being converted into elaidin, which melts at 32 deg.C.

The lead salts of the acids of this series are much more soluble in ether, and the lithium salts more soluble in alcohol than those of the stearic series, upon both of which properties processes have been based for the separation of the solid from the liquid fatty acids.

III. Linolic Series:—

Acid. Formula. Melting Found in Point, deg.C. Elaeomargaric C{16}H{29}COOH ... Chinese-wood oil. Elaeostearic C{16}H{29}COOH 71 Chinese-wood oil. Linolic C{17}H{31}COOH Fluid Linseed, cotton-seed and maize oils. Tariric C{17}H{31}COOH 50.5 Tariri-seed oil. Telfairic C{17}H{31}COOH Fluid Telfairia oil.

These acids readily combine with bromine, iodine, or oxygen. They are unaffected by nitrous acid, and their lead salts are soluble in ether.

IV. Linolenic Series:—

Acid. Formula. Found in Linolenic C{17}H{29}COOH Linseed oil. Isolinolenic C{17}H{29}COOH Linseed oil. Jecoric C{17}H{29}COOH Cod-liver and marine animal oils.

These acids are similar in properties to those of Class III., but combine with six atoms of bromine or iodine, whereas the latter combine with only four atoms.

V. Ricinoleic Series:—

- Acid. Formula. Melting Found in Point, deg.C. - - Ricinoleic C{17}H{22}(OH)COOH 4-5 Castor oil. -

This acid combines with two atoms of bromine or iodine, and is converted by nitrous acid into the isomeric ricinelaidic acid, which melts at 52 deg.-53 deg. C. Pure ricinoleic acid, obtained from castor oil, is optically active, its rotation being [alpha]_{d} +6 deg. 25'.

Hydrolysis or Saponification of Oils and Fats.—The decomposition of a triglyceride, brought about by caustic alkalies in the formation of soap, though generally represented by the equation already given (pp. 6 and 7)—

C_{3}H_{5}(OR) + 3NaOH = C_{3}H_{5}(OH)_{3} + 3RONa,

is not by any means such a simple reaction.

In the first place, though in this equation no water appears, the presence of the latter is found to be indispensable for saponification to take place; in fact, the water must be regarded as actually decomposing the oil or fat, caustic soda or potash merely acting as a catalytic agent. Further, since in the glycerides there are three acid radicles to be separated from glycerol, their saponification can be supposed to take place in three successive stages, which are the converse of the formation of mono- and diglycerides in the synthesis of triglycerides from fatty acids and glycerine. Thus, the above equation may be regarded as a summary of the following three:—

OR OH (i.) C{3}H{5} OR + NaOH = C{3}H{5} OR + RONa OR OR OH OH (ii.) C{3}H{5} OR + NaOH = C{3}H{5} OR + RONa OR OH OH OH (iii.) C{3}H{5} OR + NaOH = C{3}H{5} OH + RONa OH OH

Geitel and Lewkowitsch, who have studied this question from the physical and chemical point of view respectively, are of opinion that when an oil or fat is saponified, these three reactions do actually occur side by side, the soap-pan containing at the same time unsaponified triglyceride, diglyceride, monoglyceride, glycerol and soap.

This theory is not accepted, however, by all investigators. Balbiano and Marcusson doubt the validity of Lewkowitsch's conclusions, and Fanto, experimenting on the saponification of olive oil with caustic potash, is unable to detect the intermediate formation of any mono- or diglyceride, and concludes that in homogeneous solution the saponification is practically quadrimolecular. Kreeman, on the other hand, from physico-chemical data, supports the view of Geitel and Lewkowitsch that saponification is bimolecular, and though the evidence seems to favour this theory, the matter cannot be regarded as yet definitely settled.

Hydrolysis can be brought about by water alone, if sufficient time is allowed, but as the process is extremely slow, it is customary in practice to accelerate the reaction by the use of various methods, which include (i.) the application of heat or electricity, (ii.) action of enzymes, and (iii.) treatment with chemicals; the accelerating effect of the two latter methods is due to their emulsifying power.

The most usual method adopted in the manufacture of soap is to hydrolyse the fat or oil by caustic soda or potash, the fatty acids liberated at the same time combining with the catalyst, i.e., soda or potash, to form soap. Hitherto the other processes of hydrolysis have been employed chiefly for the preparation of material for candles, for which purpose complete separation of the glycerol in the first hydrolysis is not essential, since the fatty matter is usually subjected to a second treatment with sulphuric acid to increase the proportion of solid fatty acids. The colour of the resulting fatty acids is also of no importance, as they are always subjected to distillation.

During the last few years, however, there has been a growing attempt to first separate the glycerol from the fatty acids, and then convert the latter into soap by treatment with the carbonates of soda or potash, which are of course considerably cheaper than the caustic alkalies, but cannot be used in the actual saponification of a neutral fat. The two processes chiefly used for this purpose are those in which the reaction is brought about by enzymes or by Twitchell's reagent.

I. Application of Heat or Electricity.—Up to temperatures of 150 deg. C. the effect of water on oils and fats is very slight, but by passing superheated steam through fatty matter heated to 200 deg.-300 deg. C. the neutral glycerides are completely decomposed into glycerol and fatty acids according to the equation—

C{3}H{5}(OR){3} + 3H.OH = C{3}H{5}(OH){3} + 3ROH.

The fatty acids and glycerol formed distil over with the excess of steam, and by arranging a series of condensers, the former, which condense first, are obtained almost alone in the earlier ones, and an aqueous solution of glycerine in the later ones. This method of preparation of fatty acids is extensively used in France for the production of stearine for candle-manufacture, but the resulting product is liable to be dark coloured, and to yield a dark soap. To expose the acids to heat for a minimum of time, and so prevent discoloration, Mannig has patented (Germ. Pat. 160,111) a process whereby steam under a pressure of 8 to 10 atmospheres is projected against a baffle plate mounted in a closed vessel, where it mixes with the fat or oil in the form of a spray, the rate of hydrolysis being thereby, it is claimed, much increased.

Simpson (Fr. Pat. 364,587) has attempted to accelerate further the decomposition by subjecting oils or fats to the simultaneous action of heat and electricity. Superheated steam is passed into the oil, in which are immersed the two electrodes connected with a dynamo or battery, the temperature not being allowed to exceed 270 deg. C.

II. Action of Enzymes.—It was discovered by Muntz in 1871 (Annales de Chemie, xxii.) that during germination of castor seeds a quantity of fatty acid was developed in the seeds, which he suggested might be due to the decomposition of the oil by the embryo acting as a ferment. Schutzenberger in 1876 showed that when castor seeds are steeped in water, fatty acids and glycerol are liberated, and attributed this to the hydrolytic action of an enzyme present in the seeds. No evidence of the existence of such a ferment was adduced, however, till 1890, when Green (Roy. Soc. Proc., 48, 370) definitely proved the presence in the seeds of a ferment capable of splitting up the oil into fatty acid and glycerol.

The first experimenters to suggest any industrial application of this enzymic hydrolysis were Connstein, Hoyer and Wartenburg, who (Berichte, 1902, 35, pp. 3988-4006) published the results of a lengthy investigation of the whole subject. They found that tallow, cotton-seed, palm, olive, almond, and many other oils, were readily hydrolysed by the castor-seed ferment in the presence of dilute acid, but that cocoa-nut and palm-kernel oils only decomposed with difficulty. The presence of acidity is essential for the hydrolysis to take place, the most suitable strength being one-tenth normal, and the degree of hydrolysis is proportional to the quantity of ferment present. Sulphuric, phosphoric, acetic or butyric acids, or sodium bisulphate, may be used without much influence on the result. Butyric acid is stated to be the best, but in practice is too expensive, and acetic acid is usually adopted. The emulsified mixture should be allowed to stand for twenty-four hours, and the temperature should not exceed 40 deg. C.; at 50 deg. C. the action is weakened, and at 100 deg. C. ceases altogether.

Several investigators have since examined the hydrolysing power of various other seeds, notably Braun and Behrendt (Berichte, 1903, 36, 1142-1145, 1900-1901, and 3003-3005), who, in addition to confirming Connstein, Hoyer and Wartenburg's work with castor seeds, have made similar experiments with jequirity seeds (Abrus peccatorius) containing the enzyme abrin, emulsin from crushed almonds, the leaves of Arctostaphylos Uva Ursi, containing the glucoside arbutin, myrosin from black mustard-seed, gold lac (Cheirantus cheiri) and crotin from croton seeds. Jequirity seeds were found to have a stronger decomposing action on lanoline and carnauba wax than the castor seed, but only caused decomposition of castor oil after the initial acidity was first neutralised with alkali. Neither emulsin, arbutin nor crotin have any marked hydrolytic action on castor oil, but myrosin is about half as active as castor seeds, except in the presence of potassium myronate, when no decomposition occurs.

S. Fokin (J. russ. phys. chem. Ges., 35, 831-835, and Chem. Rev. Fett. u. Harz. Ind., 1904, 30 et seq.) has examined the hydrolytic action of a large number of Russian seeds, belonging to some thirty different families, but although more than half of these brought about the hydrolysis of over 10 per cent. of fat, he considers that in only two cases, viz., the seeds of Chelidonium majus and Linaria vulgaris, is the action due to enzymes, these being the only two seeds for which the yield of fatty acids is proportional to the amount of seed employed, while in many instances hydrolysis was not produced when the seeds were old. The seeds of Chelidonium majus were found to have as great, and possibly greater, enzymic activity than castor seeds, but those of Linaria are much weaker, twenty to thirty parts having only the same lipolytic activity as four to five parts of castor seeds.

The high percentage of free acids found in rice oil has led C. A. Brown, jun. (Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc., 1903, 25, 948-954), to examine the rice bran, which proves to have considerable enzymic activity, and rapidly effects the hydrolysis of glycerides.

The process for the utilisation of enzymic hydrolysis in the separation of fatty acids from glycerine on the industrial scale, as originally devised by Connstein and his collaborators, consisted in rubbing a quantity of the coarsely crushed castor seeds with part of the oil or fat, then adding the rest of the oil, together with acidified water (N/10 acetic acid). The quantities employed were 6-1/2 parts of decorticated castor beans for every 100 parts of oil or fat, and 50 to 60 parts of acetic acid. After stirring until an emulsion is formed, the mixture is allowed to stand for twenty-four hours, during which hydrolysis takes place. The temperature is then raised to 70 deg.-80 deg. C., which destroys the enzyme, and a 25 per cent. solution of sulphuric acid, equal in amount to one-fiftieth of the total quantity of fat originally taken, added to promote separation of the fatty acids. In this way three layers are formed, the one at the top consisting of the clear fatty acids, the middle one an emulsion containing portions of the seeds, fatty acids and glycerine, and the bottom one consisting of the aqueous glycerine. The intermediate layer is difficult to treat satisfactorily; it is generally washed twice with water, the washings being added to glycerine water, and the fatty mixture saponified and the resultant soap utilised.

The process has been the subject of a considerable amount of investigation, numerous attempts having been made to actually separate the active fat-splitting constituent of the seeds, or to obtain it in a purer and more concentrated form than is furnished by the seeds themselves. Nicloux (Comptes Rendus, 1904, 1112, and Roy. Soc. Proc., 1906, 77 B, 454) has shown that the hydrolytic activity of castor seeds is due entirely to the cytoplasm, which it is possible to separate by mechanical means from the aleurone grains and all other cellular matter. This active substance, which he terms "lipaseidine," is considered to be not an enzyme, though it acts as such, following the ordinary laws of enzyme action; its activity is destroyed by contact with water in the absence of oil. This observer has patented (Eng. Pat. 8,304, 1904) the preparation of an "extract" by triturating crushed castor or other seeds with castor oil, filtering the oily extract, and subjecting it to centrifugal force. The deposit consists of aleurone and the active enzymic substance, together with about 80 per cent. of oil, and one part of it will effect nearly complete hydrolysis of 100 parts of oil in twenty-four hours. In a subsequent addition to this patent, the active agent is separated from the aleurone by extraction with benzene and centrifugal force. By the use of such an extract, the quantity of albuminoids brought into contact with the fat is reduced to about 10 per cent. of that in the original seeds, and the middle layer between the glycerine solution and fatty acids is smaller and can be saponified directly for the production of curd soap, while the glycerine solution also is purer.

In a further patent Nicloux (Fr. Pat. 349,213, 1904) states that the use of an acid medium is unnecessary, and claims that even better results are obtained by employing a neutral solution of calcium sulphate containing a small amount of magnesium sulphate, the proportion of salts not exceeding 0.5 per cent. of the fat, while in yet another patent, jointly with Urbain (Fr. Pat. 349,942, 1904), it is claimed that the process is accelerated by the removal of acids from the oil or fat to be treated, which may be accomplished by either washing first with acidulated water, then with pure water, or preferably by neutralising with carbonate of soda and removing the resulting soap.

Lombard (Fr. Pat. 350,179, 1904) claims that acids act as stimulating agents in the enzymic hydrolysis of oils, and further that a simple method of obtaining the active product is to triturate oil cake with its own weight of water, allow the mixture to undergo spontaneous proteolytic hydrolysis at 40 deg. C. for eight days, and then filter, the filtrate obtained being used in place of water in the enzymic process.

Hoyer, who has made a large number of experiments in the attempt to isolate the lipolytic substance from castor seeds, has obtained a product of great activity, which he terms "ferment-oil," by extracting the crushed seeds with a solvent for oils.

The Verein Chem. Werke have extended their original patent (addition dated 11th December, 1905, to Fr. Pat. 328,101, Oct., 1902), which now covers the use of vegetable ferments in the presence of water and manganese sulphate or other metallic salt. It is further stated that acetic acid may be added at the beginning of the operation, or use may be made of that formed during the process, though in the latter case hydrolysis is somewhat slower.

Experiments have been carried out by Lewkowitsch and Macleod (Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind., 1903, 68, and Proc. Roy. Soc., 1903, 31) with ferments derived from animal sources, viz., lipase from pig's liver, and steapsin from the pig or ox pancreas. The former, although it has been shown by Kastle and Loevenhart (Amer. Chem. Journ., 1900, 49) to readily hydrolyse ethyl butyrate, is found to have very little fat-splitting power, but with steapsin more favourable results have been obtained, though the yield of fatty acids in this case is considerably inferior to that given by castor seeds. With cotton-seed oil, 83-86 per cent. of fatty acids were liberated as a maximum after fifty-six days, but with lard only 46 per cent. were produced in the same time. Addition of dilute acid or alkali appeared to exert no influence on the decomposition of the cotton-seed oil, but in the case of the lard, dilute alkali seemed at first to promote hydrolysis, though afterwards to retard it.

Fokin (Chem. Rev. Fett. u. Harz. Ind., 1904, 118-120 et seq.) has attempted to utilise the pancreatic juice on a technical scale, but the process proved too slow and too costly to have any practical use.

Rancidity.—The hydrolysing power of enzymes throws a good deal of light on the development of rancidity in oils and fats, which is now generally regarded as due to the oxidation by air in the presence of light and moisture of the free fatty acids contained by the oil or fat. It has long been known that whilst recently rendered animal fats are comparatively free from acidity, freshly prepared vegetable oils invariably contain small quantities of free fatty acid, and there can be no doubt that this must be attributed to the action of enzymes contained in the seeds or fruit from which the oils are expressed, hence the necessity for separating oils and fats from adhering albuminous matters as quickly as possible.

Decomposition of Fats by Bacteria.—Though this subject is not of any practical interest in the preparation of fatty acids for soap-making, it may be mentioned, in passing, that some bacteria readily hydrolyse fats. Schriber (Arch. f. Hyg., 41, 328-347) has shown that in the presence of air many bacteria promote hydrolysis, under favourable conditions as to temperature and access of oxygen, the process going beyond the simple splitting up into fatty acid and glycerol, carbon dioxide and water being formed. Under anaerobic conditions, however, only a slight primary hydrolysis was found to take place, though according to Rideal (Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind., 1903, 69) there is a distinct increase in the amount of free fatty acids in a sewage after passage through a septic tank.

Experiments have also been made on this subject by Rahn (Centralb. Bakteriol, 1905, 422), who finds that Penicillium glaucum and other penicillia have considerable action on fats, attacking the glycerol and lower fatty acids, though not oleic acid. A motile bacillus, producing a green fluorescent colouring matter, but not identified, had a marked hydrolytic action and decomposed oleic acid. The name "lipobacter" has been proposed by De Kruyff for bacteria which hydrolyse fats.

III. Use of Chemical Reagents.—Among the chief accelerators employed in the hydrolysis of oils are sulphuric acid and Twitchell's reagent (benzene- or naphthalene-stearosulphonic acid), while experiments have also been made with hydrochloric acid (Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind., 1903, 67) with fairly satisfactory results, and the use of sulphurous acid, or an alkaline bisulphite as catalyst, has been patented in Germany. To this class belong also the bases, lime, magnesia, zinc oxide, ammonia, soda and potash, though these latter substances differ from the former in that they subsequently combine with the fatty acids liberated to form soaps.

Sulphuric Acid.—The hydrolysing action of concentrated sulphuric acid upon oils and fats has been known since the latter part of the eighteenth century, but was not applied on a practical scale till 1840 when Gwynne patented a process in which sulphuric acid was used to liberate the fatty acids, the latter being subsequently purified by steam distillation. By this method, sulpho-compounds of the glyceride are first formed, which readily emulsify with water, and, on treatment with steam, liberate fatty acids, the glycerol remaining partly in the form of glycero-sulphuric acid. The process has been investigated by Fremy, Geitel, and more recently by Lewkowitsch (J. Soc. of Arts, "Cantor Lectures," 1904, 795 et seq.), who has conducted a series of experiments on the hydrolysis of tallow with 4 per cent. of sulphuric acid of varying strengths, containing from 58 to 90 per cent. sulphuric acid, H{2}SO{4}. Acid of 60 per cent. or less appears to be practically useless as a hydrolysing agent, while with 70 per cent. acid only 47.7 per cent. fatty acids were developed after twenty-two hours' steaming, and with 80 and 85 per cent. acid, the maximum of 89.9 per cent. of fatty acids was only reached after fourteen and fifteen hours' steaming respectively. Using 98 per cent. acid, 93 per cent. of fatty acids were obtained after nine hours' steaming, and after another seven hours, only 0.6 per cent. more fatty acids were produced. Further experiments have shown that dilute sulphuric acid has also scarcely any action on cotton-seed, whale, and rape oils.

According to Lant Carpenter, some 75 per cent. of solid fatty acids may be obtained from tallow by the sulphuric acid process, owing to the conversion of a considerable quantity of oleic acid into isoleic acid (vide p. 12), but in the process a considerable proportion of black pitch is obtained. C. Dreymann has recently patented (Eng. Pat. 10,466, 1904) two processes whereby the production of any large amount of hydrocarbons is obviated. In the one case, after saponification with sulphuric acid, the liberated fatty acids are washed with water and treated with an oxide, carbonate, or other acid-fixing body, e.g., sodium carbonate, prior to distillation. In this way the distillate is much clearer than by the ordinary process, and is almost odourless, while the amount of unsaponifiable matter is only about 1.2 per cent. The second method claimed consists in the conversion of the fatty acids into their methyl esters by treatment with methyl alcohol and hydrochloric acid gas, and purification of the esters by steam distillation, the pure esters being subsequently decomposed with superheated steam, in an autoclave, with or without the addition of an oxide, e.g., 0.1 per cent. zinc oxide, to facilitate their decomposition.

Twitchell's Reagent.—In Twitchell's process use is made of the important discovery that aqueous solutions of fatty aromatic sulphuric acids, such as benzene- or naphthalene-stearosulphonic acid, readily dissolve fatty bodies, thereby facilitating their dissociation into fatty acids and glycerol. These compounds are stable at 100 deg. C., and are prepared by treating a mixture of benzene or naphthalene and oleic acid with an excess of sulphuric acid, the following reaction taking place:—

C_{6}H_{6} + C_{18}H_{34}O_{2} + H_{2}SO_{4} = C_{6}H_{4}(SO_{3}H)C_{18}H_{35}O + H_{2}O.

On boiling the resultant product with water two layers separate, the lower one consisting of a clear aqueous solution of sulphuric acid and whatever benzene-sulphonic acid has been formed, while the upper layer, which is a viscous oil, contains the benzene-stearosulphonic acid. This, after washing first with hydrochloric acid and then rapidly with petroleum ether, and drying at 100 deg. C. is then ready for use; the addition of a small quantity of this reagent to a mixture of fat (previously purified) and water, agitated by boiling with open steam, effects almost complete separation of the fatty acid from glycerol.

The process is generally carried out in two wooden vats, covered with closely fitting lids, furnished with the necessary draw-off cocks, the first vat containing a lead coil and the other a brass steam coil.

In the first vat, the fat or oil is prepared by boiling with 1 or 2 per cent. of sulphuric acid (141 deg. Tw. or 60 deg. B.) for one or two hours and allowed to rest, preferably overnight; by this treatment the fat is deprived of any dirt, lime or other impurity present. After withdrawing the acid liquor, the fat or oil is transferred to the other vat, where it is mixed with one-fifth of its bulk of water (condensed or distilled), and open steam applied. As soon as boiling takes place, the requisite amount of reagent is washed into the vat by the aid of a little hot water through a glass funnel, and the whole is boiled continuously for twelve or even twenty-four hours, until the free fatty acids amount to 85-90 per cent. The amount of reagent used varies with the grade of material, the smaller the amount consistent with efficient results, the better the colour of the finished product; with good material, from 1/2 to 3/4 per cent. is sufficient, but for materials of lower grade proportionately more up to 2 per cent. is required. The reaction appears to proceed better with materials containing a fair quantity of free acidity.

When the process has proceeded sufficiently far, the boiling is stopped and free steam allowed to fill the vat to obviate any discoloration of the fatty acids by contact with the air, whilst the contents of the vat settle.

The settled glycerine water, which should amount in bulk to 50 or 60 per cent. of the fatty matter taken, and have a density of 7-1/2 deg. Tw. (5 deg. B.), is removed to a receptacle for subsequent neutralisation with milk of lime, and, after the separation of sludge, is ready for concentration.

The fatty acids remaining in the vat are boiled with a small quantity (0.05 per cent., or 1/10 of the Twitchell reagent requisite) of commercial barium carbonate, previously mixed with a little water; the boiling may be prolonged twenty or thirty minutes, and at the end of that period the contents of the vat are allowed to rest; the water separated should be neutral to methyl-orange indicator.

It is claimed that fatty acids so treated are not affected by the air, and may be stored in wooden packages.

Hydrochloric Acid.—Lewkowitsch (Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind., 1903, 67) has carried out a number of experiments on the accelerating influence of hydrochloric acid upon the hydrolysis of oils and fats, which show that acid of a specific gravity of 1.16 has a very marked effect on most oils, cocoa-nut, cotton-seed, whale and rape oils, tallow and lard being broken up into fatty acid and glycerol to the extent of some 82-96 per cent. after boiling 100 grams of the oil or fat with 100 c.c. of acid for twenty-four hours. The maximum amount of hydrolysis was attained with cocoa-nut oil, probably owing to its large proportion of the glycerides of volatile fatty acids. Castor oil is abnormal in only undergoing about 20 per cent. hydrolysis, but this is attributed to the different constitution of its fatty acids, and the ready formation of polymerisation products. Experiments were also made as to whether the addition of other catalytic agents aided the action of the hydrochloric acid; mercury, copper sulphate, mercury oxide, zinc, zinc dust, aluminium chloride, nitrobenzene and aniline being tried, in the proportion of 1 per cent. The experiments were made on neutral lard and lard containing 5 per cent. of free fatty acids, but in no case was any appreciable effect produced.

So far this process has not been adopted on the practical scale, its chief drawback being the length of time required for saponification. Undoubtedly the hydrolysis would be greatly facilitated if the oil and acid could be made to form a satisfactory emulsion, but although saponin has been tried for the purpose, no means of attaining this object has yet been devised.

Sulphurous Acid or Bisulphite.—The use of these substances has been patented by Stein, Berge and De Roubaix (Germ. Pat. 61,329), the fat being heated in contact with the reagent for about nine hours at 175 deg.-180 deg. C. under a pressure of some 18 atmospheres, but the process does not appear to be of any considerable importance.

Lime.—The use of lime for the saponification of oils and fats was first adopted on the technical scale for the production of candle-making material, by De Milly in 1831. The insoluble lime soap formed is decomposed by sulphuric acid, and the fatty acids steam distilled.

The amount of lime theoretically necessary to hydrolyse a given quantity of a triglyceride, ignoring for the moment any catalytic influence, can be readily calculated; thus with stearin the reaction may be represented by the equation:—

CH{2}OOC{18}H{35} CH{2}OH 2CHOOC{18}H{35} + 3Ca(OH){2} = 3Ca(OOC{18}H{35}){2} + 2CHOH CH{2}OOC{18}H{35} CH{2}OH stearin milk of lime calcium stearate glycerol

In this instance, since the molecular weight of stearin is 890 and that of milk of lime is 74, it is at once apparent that for every 1,780 parts of stearin, 222 parts of milk of lime or 168 parts of quick-lime, CaO, would be required. It is found in practice, however, that an excess of 3-5 per cent. above the theoretical quantity of lime is necessary to complete the hydrolysis of a fat when carried on in an open vessel at 100 deg.-105 deg. C., but that if the saponification be conducted under pressure in autoclaves the amount of lime necessary to secure almost perfect hydrolysis is reduced to 2-3 per cent. on the fat, the treatment of fats with 3 per cent. of lime under a pressure of 10 atmospheres producing a yield of 95 per cent. of fatty acids in seven hours. The lower the pressure in the autoclave, the lighter will be the colour of the resultant fatty acids.

Magnesia.—It has been proposed to substitute magnesia for lime in the process of saponification under pressure, but comparative experiments with lime and magnesia, using 3 per cent. of lime and 2.7 per cent. of magnesia (Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind., xii., 163), show that saponification by means of magnesia is less complete than with lime, and, moreover, the reaction requires a higher temperature and therefore tends to darken the product.

Zinc Oxide.—The use of zinc oxide as accelerating agent has been suggested by two or three observers. Poullain and Michaud, in 1882, were granted a patent for this process, the quantity of zinc oxide recommended to be added to the oil or fat being 0.2 to 0.5 per cent. Rost, in 1903, obtained a French patent for the saponification of oils and fats by steam under pressure in the presence of finely divided metals or metallic oxides, and specially mentions zinc oxide for the purpose.

It has also been proposed to use zinc oxide in conjunction with lime in the autoclave to obviate to some extent the discoloration of the fatty acids.

Other catalytic agents have been recommended from time to time, including strontianite, lead oxide, caustic baryta, aluminium hydrate, but none of these is of any practical importance.

Soda and Potash.—Unlike the preceding bases, the soaps formed by soda and potash are soluble in water, and constitute the soap of commerce. These reagents are always used in sufficient quantity to combine with the whole of the fatty acids contained in an oil or fat, though doubtless, by the use of considerably smaller quantities, under pressure, complete resolution of the fatty matter into fatty acids and glycerol could be accomplished. They are, by far, the most important saponifying agents from the point of view of the present work, and their practical use is fully described in Chapter V.



CHAPTER III.

RAW MATERIALS USED IN SOAP-MAKING.

Fats and Oils—Waste Fats—Fatty Acids—Less-known Oils and Fats of Limited Use—Various New Fats and Oils Suggested for Soap-making—Rosin—Alkali (Caustic and Carbonated)—Water—Salt—Soap-stock.

Fats and Oils.—All animal and vegetable oils and fats intended for soap-making should be as free as possible from unsaponifiable matter, of a good colour and appearance, and in a sweet, fresh condition. The unsaponifiable matter naturally present as cholesterol, or phytosterol, ranges in the various oils and fats from 0.2 to 2.0 per cent. All oils and fats contain more or less free acidity; but excess of acidity, though it may be due to the decomposition of the glyceride, and does not always denote rancidity, is undesirable in soap-making material. Rancidity of fats and oils is entirely due to oxidation, in addition to free acid, aldehydes and ketones being formed, and it has been proposed to estimate rancidity by determining the amount of these latter produced. It is scarcely necessary to observe how very important it is that the sampling of fats and oils should be efficiently performed, so that the sample submitted to the chemist may be a fairly representative average of the parcel.

In the following short description of the materials used, we give, under each heading, figures for typical samples of the qualities most suitable for soap-making.

Tallows.—Most of the imported tallow comes from America, Australia and New Zealand. South American mutton tallow is usually of good quality; South American beef tallow is possessed of a deep yellow colour and rather strong odour, but makes a bright soap of a good body and texture. North American tallows are, as a general rule, much paler in colour than those of South America, but do not compare with them in consistence. Most of the Australasian tallows are of very uniform quality and much in demand.

Great Britain produces large quantities of tallow which comes into the market as town and country tallow, or home melt. Owing to the increasing demand for edible fat, much of the rough fat is carefully selected, rendered separately, and the product sold for margarine-making. Consequently the melted tallow for soap-making is of secondary importance to the tallow melter.

The following are typical samples of tallow:—

_____________ Acidity Saponification (as Oleic Titre, Equivalent. Acid) deg.C. Per Cent. ______ ___ ___ __ Australian mutton 285 0.85 45 Australian mutton 284.4 0.48 48.3 Australian beef 284.2 1.68 43.9 Australian beef 283.6 0.85 42.6 Australian mixed 285.1 3.52 44 Australian mixed 284.6 1.89 43.5 South American mutton 284.5 1.11 47 South American mutton 285 0.90 47.4 South American beef 284.7 0.81 45 South American beef 284 0.94 44 North American mutton 284.3 1.32 44 North American mutton 85 2.18 43.2 North American beef, fine 284.5 1.97 41.5 North American beef, good 283.8 4.30 42 North American ordinary 285.2 5.07 41.75 North American prime city 286 1.01 41.2 Selected English mutton 283.9 1.45 47 Selected English beef 284.2 2.40 44 Home-rendered or country tallow 284.6 5.1 43 Town tallow 285.3 7.4 42.5 ______ ___ ___ __

Tallow should absorb from 39 to 44 per cent. iodine.

Lard.—Lard is largely imported into this country from the United States of America. The following is a typical sample of American hog's fat offered for soap-making:—

Saponification Acidity Titre, Refractive Equivalent. (as Oleic Acid) deg.C. Index at Per Cent. 60 deg. C. 286 0.5 37.5 1.4542

Lard should absorb 59 to 63 per cent. iodine.

Cocoa-nut Oil.—The best known qualities are Cochin and Ceylon oils, which are prepared in Cochin (Malabar) or the Philippine Islands and Ceylon respectively.

The dried kernels of the cocoa-nut are exported to various ports in Europe, and the oil obtained comes on the market as Continental Coprah Oil, with the prefix of the particular country or port where it has been crushed, e.g., Belgian, French and Marseilles Coprah Oil. Coprah is also imported into England, and the oil expressed from it is termed English Pressed Coprah.

The following are typical examples from bulk:—

_____________ Saponification Acidity Titre, Refractive Equivalent. (as Oleic Acid) deg.C. Index at Per Cent. 25 deg. C. ___ ___ ____ __ __ Cochin oil 215.5 1.5 23.5 1.4540 Cochin oil 214.3 2.6 22.1 1.4541 Ceylon oil 214.6 5.47 23 1.4535 Ceylon oil 216 3.95 22.75 1.4535 Belgian coprah 214.2 1.65 23 1.4541 Belgian coprah 215 2.60 22.1 1.4540 French coprah 214.2 6.55 23 1.4535 French coprah 214.8 7.42 22 1.4540 Pressed coprah 215.8 7.45 22.2 1.4542 Pressed coprah 216 9.41 22 1.4555 ___ ___ ____ __ __

Cocoa-nut oil should absorb 8.9 to 9.3 per cent. iodine.

Palm-nut Oil.—The kernels of the palm-tree fruit are exported from the west coast of Africa to Europe, and this oil obtained from them. Typical samples of English and Hamburg oils tested:—

Saponification Acidity Titre, Refractive Equivalent. (as Oleic Acid) deg.C. Index at Per Cent. 25 deg. C. 225 4.4 24 1.4553 227 7.7 23.8 1.4553

Palm-nut oil should absorb 10 to 13 per cent. iodine.

Olive Oil.—The olive is extensively grown in Southern Europe and in portions of Asia and Africa bordering the Mediterranean Sea. The fruit of this tree yields the oil.

The free fatty acid content of olive oil varies very considerably. Very fine oils contain less than 1 per cent. acidity; commercial oils may be graded according to their free acidity, e.g., under 5 per cent., under 10 per cent., etc., and it entirely depends upon the desired price of the resultant soap as to what grade would be used. The following is a typical sample for use in the production of high-class toilet soap:—

Saponification Acidity Titre, Refractive Equivalent. (as Oleic Acid) deg.C. Index at Per Cent. 15 deg. C. 288 1.8 21 1.4704

Olive oil should absorb 80 to 83 per cent. iodine.

Olive-kernel oil, more correctly termed Sulphur olive oil.

The amount of free fatty acids is always high and ranges from 40-70 per cent., and, of course, its glycerol content is proportionately variable. The free acidity increases very rapidly, and is, doubtless, due to the decomposition of the neutral oil by the action of hydrolytic ferment.

A representative sample of a parcel tested:—

_________ Saponification Acidity Refractive Equivalent. (as Oleic Acid) Index at Per Cent. 20 deg. C. ___ ____ __ 298 40.96 1.4666 ___ ____ __

Palm oil is produced from the fruit of palm trees, which abound along the west coast of Africa. Lagos is the best quality, whilst Camaroons, Bonny, Old Calabar and New Calabar oils are in good request for bleaching purposes.

Analysis of typical samples of crude palm oil has given:—

Saponification Acidity Titre, Water and Equivalent. (as Oleic Acid) deg.C. Impurities, Per Cent. Per Cent. 278 10.7 45 1.6 280 31.2 44.5 2.8

Palm oil should absorb 51 to 56 per cent. iodine.

In the lower qualities we have examples of the result of hydrolytic decomposition by enzymes, the free acidity often amounting to 70 per cent.

Cotton-seed Oil.—This oil is expressed from the seeds separated from the "wool" of the various kinds of cotton tree largely cultivated in America and Egypt.

In its crude state cotton-seed oil is a dark fluid containing mucilaginous and colouring matter, and is not applicable for soap-making. The following figures are representative of well-refined cotton-seed oils:—

Specific Saponification Acidity Titre, Refractive Gravity at Equivalent. (as Oleic Acid) deg.C. Index at 15 deg.C. Per Cent. 20 deg. C. 0.9229 290 0.24 33.6 1.4721 0.924 299 0.39 35 1.4719

Cotton-seed oil should absorb 104 to 110 per cent. iodine.

Cotton-seed Stearine.—The product obtained by pressing the deposit which separates on chilling refined cotton-seed oil.

A typical sample tested:—

Saponification Acidity Titre, Equivalent. (as Oleic Acid) deg.C. Per Cent. 285.1 0.05 38

Arachis Oil.—The earth-nut or ground-nut, from which arachis oil is obtained, is extensively cultivated in North America, India and Western Africa. Large quantities are exported to Marseilles where the oil is expressed. Arachis oil enters largely into the composition of Marseilles White Soaps.

Representative samples of commercial and refined oils tested:—

Specific Saponi- Acidity Refractive Gravity fication (as Oleic Titre, Index at at 15 Equi- Acid) deg.C. 20 deg. C. deg. C. valent Per Cent. Commercial 0.9184 298 2.6 28.6 Refined 0.9205 285 0.22 24.0 1.4712

Arachis oil should absorb 90 to 98 per cent. iodine.

Maize Oil.—America (U.S.) produces very large quantities of maize oil.

Typical samples of crude and refined oil gave these figures:—

Specific Saponi- Acidity Refractive Gravity fication (as Oleic Titre, Index at at 15 Equi- Acid) deg.C. 20 deg. C. deg. C. valent Per Cent. Crude 0.9246 294 1.41 15 Refined 0.9248 294.1 0.40 17.2 1.4766

Maize oil should absorb 120 to 128 per cent. iodine.

Sesame Oil.—Sesame oil is very largely pressed in Southern France from the seeds of the sesame plant which is cultivated in the Levant, India, Japan and Western Africa.

A fairly representative sample of French expressed oil tested:—

Specific Saponification Acidity Titre, Refractive Gravity at Equivalent. (as Oleic Acid) deg.C. Index at 15 deg. C. Per Cent. 20 deg. C. 0.9227 295.2 1.84 22.8 1.4731

Sesame oil should absorb 108 to 110 per cent. iodine.

Linseed Oil.—Russia, India, and Argentine Republic are the principal countries which extensively grow the flax plant, from the seeds of which linseed oil is pressed. It is used to a limited extent in soft-soap making.

A good sample gave on analysis:—

Specific Saponification Acidity Titre, Refractive Gravity at Equivalent. (as Oleic Acid) deg.C. Index at 15 deg. C. Per Cent. 15 deg. C. 0.935 292 1.2 20 1.4840

Linseed oil should absorb 170 to 180 per cent. iodine.

Hemp-seed oil is produced from the seeds of the hemp plant which grows in Russia. This oil is used in soft soap-making, more particularly on the Continent.

A typical sample gave the following figures:—

_________ Specific Saponification Titre, Gravity at Equivalent. deg.C. Iodine No. 15 deg. C. ___ ___ __ __ 0.926 292.6 15.8 143 ___ ___ __ __

Sunflower oil is produced largely in Russia.

A specimen tested:—

Specific Saponification Acidity Titre, Gravity at Equivalent. (as Oleic Acid) deg.C. Iodine No. 15 deg. C. Per Cent. 0.9259 290.7 0.81 17 126.2

Castor Oil.—The castor oil plant is really a native of India, but it is also cultivated in the United States (Illinois) and Egypt.

A typical commercial sample tested:—

____________ Saponi- Acidity Optical Refractive fication (as Oleic Titre, Iodine No. Rotation Index at Equi- Acid) deg.C. [alpha]_{D} 25 deg. C. valent Per Cent. ___ ___ __ __ ___ __ 310 1.5 2.8 84.1 + 4 deg. 50' 1.4787 ___ ___ __ __ ___ __

Fish and Marine Animal Oils.—Various oils of this class have, until recently, entered largely into the composition of soft soaps, but a demand has now arisen for soft soaps made from vegetable oils.

We quote a few typical analyses of these oils:—

_____________ Specific Saponi- Acidity Unsaponi- Gravity fication (as Oleic Titre, fiable at 15 Equi- Acid) deg.C. Matter deg.C. valent Per Cent. Per Cent. ___ __ __ ___ __ ___ Pale seal oil 0.9252 289 0.947 15.5 0.8 Straw seal oil 0.9231 288 4.77 15.8 1.2 Brown seal oil 0.9253 291 16.38 16.2 1.9 Whale oil 0.9163 297 1.49 16.1 1.8 Dark whale oil 0.9284 303 12.60 21.8 2.4 Japan fish oil 0.9336 296 4.79 26 0.67 Japan fish oil 0.9325 302 10.43 28 1.55 Brown cod oil 0.9260 313 14.91 21.8 1.9 Pure herring oil 0.9353 288 11.39 21.6 1.5 Kipper oil 0.9271 297 5.14 22.7 3.25 ___ __ __ ___ __ ___

Waste Fats.—Under this classification may be included marrow fat, skin greases, bone fats, animal grease, melted stuff from hotel and restaurant refuse, and similar fatty products. The following is a fair typical selection:—

___________ Saponification Acidity Titre, Equivalent. (as Oleic Acid) deg.C. Per Cent. ____ ___ ____ __ Marrow fat 283.3 3.6 38.7 White skin grease 287.2 4.3 36.4 Pale skin grease 286.3 9.87 35.7 Pale bone fat 289.7 8.8 40.7 Brown bone fat 289.1 11.0 41 Brown bone fat 292 20.5 40.2 Animal grease 289.4 38.1 40.4 Melted stuff 286.3 12.8 37.7 ____ ___ ____ __

The materials in the above class require to be carefully examined for the presence of unsaponifiable matter, lime salts and other impurities.

Fatty Acids.—We have already described the various methods of liberating fatty acids by hydrolysis or saponification.

Under this heading should also be included stearines produced by submitting distilled fat to hydraulic pressure, the distillates from e from unsaponifiable matter, cocoa-nut oleine, a bye-product from the manufacture of edible cocoa-nut butter and consisting largely of free acids, and palm-nut oleine obtained in a similar manner from palm-nut oil.