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The ruin of the Greek commerce and manufactures has been ascribed to the transference of the silk trade from Thebes and Corinth to Palermo, under the judicious protection it received from Roger; but it would be more correct to say that the injudicious and oppressive financial administration of the Byzantine emperors destroyed the commercial prosperity and manufacturing industry of the Greeks; while the wise liberality and intelligent protection of the Norman kings extended the commerce and increased the industry of the Sicilians.
When the Sicilian fleet returned to Palermo, Roger determined to employ all the silk manufacturers in their original occupations. He consequently collected all their families together, and settled them at Palermo, supplying them with the means of exercising their industry with profit to themselves, and inducing them to teach his own subjects to manufacture the richest brocades and to rival the rarest productions of the East.
Roger, unlike most of the monarchs of his age, paid particular attention to improving the wealth of his dominions by increasing the prosperity of his subjects. During his reign the cultivation of the sugar-cane was introduced into Sicily. The conduct of Manuel was very different; when he concluded peace with William, the son and successor of Roger, in 1158, he paid no attention to the commercial interests of his Greek subjects; the silk manufactures of Thebes and Corinth were not reclaimed and reinstated in their native seats; they were left to exercise their industry for the profit of their new prince, while their old sovereign would have abandoned them to perish from want. Under such circumstances it is not remarkable that the commerce and the manufactures of Greece were transferred in the course of another century to Sicily and Italy.
CHRONOLOGY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY
EMBRACING THE PERIOD COVERED IN THIS VOLUME
A.D. 843-1161
JOHN RUDD, LL.D.
Events treated at length are here indicated in large type; the numerals following give volume and page.
Separate chronologies of the various nations, and of the careers of famous persons, will be found in the INDEX VOLUME, with volume and page references showing where the several events are fully treated.
A.D.
843. Messina in Sicily captured by the Saracens.
Feudalism may be said to become an actuality from about this time. See "FEUDALISM: ITS FRANKISH BIRTH AND ENGLISH DEVELOPMENT," v, 1.
The Danes—called by Arabian writers "Magioges," people of Gog and Magog—land at Lisbon from fifty-four ships and carry off a rich booty.
The treaty of Verdun, between the three sons of Louis le Debonnaire. See "DECAY OF THE FRANKISH EMPIRE," v, 22.
844. Lothair gives the title king of Italy to his son Louis, who is crowned at Rome.
Abderrahman fits out a fleet to resist the Danes who have infested the neighborhood of Cadiz and Seville.
845. Paris is pillaged for the first time by the Danes or Northmen. See "DECAY OF THE FRANKISH EMPIRE," v, 22.
Hamburg is looted and destroyed by the Danes.
846. Rome is attacked by the Saracens, who, after plundering the country, lay siege to Gaeta.
Spain afflicted by a great drought and swarms of locusts.
847. A violent storm drives the Saracens from the siege of Gaeta. The distress in Spain is relieved by Abderrahman, who remits the taxes and constructs aqueducts and fountains.
848. Louis, King of Italy, drives the Saracens out of Beneventum.
Bordeaux is assailed by the Northmen, but they are vigorously repulsed. See "DECAY OF THE FRANKISH EMPIRE," v, 22.
Pope Leo IV adds a new quarter to the city of Rome by surrounding the Vatican with walls.
849. Birth of Alfred the Great. See "CAREER OF ALFRED THE GREAT," v, 49.
Gottschalk, a German bishop who preached the doctrine of twofold predestination, sentenced by the Council of Quincy to be flogged and suffer perpetual imprisonment.
The Saracens range at will through the Mediterranean; they are defeated at the mouth of the Tiber by the combined fleets of Naples, Gaeta, and Amalphi.
On Gallic soil the benificium and practice of commendation is specially fostered. See "FEUDALISM: ITS FRANKISH BIRTH AND ENGLISH DEVELOPMENT," v, 1.
850. Roric, a nephew of Harold, collects a piratical armament in Friesland and attacks adjacent coasts; Lothair grants Durstadt to him to secure his own lands.
Pepin strengthens himself in Aquitaine by leagues with the Northmen. See "DECAY OF THE FRANKISH EMPIRE," v, 22.
851. Danes ascend the Rhine with 252 ships and plunder Ghent, Cologne, Treves, and Aix-la-Chapelle.
Roric, with 350 sail, proceeds up the Thames and pillages Canterbury and London, after defeating the King of Mercia; he is at last defeated by Ethelwulf, with great slaughter, at Ockley.
852. A revolt against the Moslems in Armenia.
853. Hastings' (the Danish chief) ruse at Tuscany. See "DECAY OF THE FRANKISH EMPIRE," v, 22.
855. Death of Lothair, Emperor of the Franks; civil war between his sons.
A band of Danes keep the Isle of Sheppey through the winter; their first foothold in England.
860. Iceland discovered by the Northmen.
862. Rurik, the Varangian chief, conquers Novgorod and Kiov and lays the foundation of the Russian empire.
863. Cyril and Methodius, the "apostles of the Slavs," undertake the conversion of the Moravians.
Pope Nicholas deposes Photius and declares Ignatius to be the patriarch of Constantinople; Photius in turn excommunicates the Pope.
Charles the Bald founds the County of Flanders.
864. Pope Nicholas asserts his exclusive right to appoint and depose bishops; the sovereigns and prelates of France and Germany resist his claim.
Christianity first introduced into Russia; it makes little progress.
865. First naval expedition of the Varangians or Russians against Constantinople; their fleet is dispersed by a storm.
866. East Anglia invaded by a numerous body of Danes.
Accession of Alfonso the Great of Asturias.
868. Nottingham captured by the Danes; they are besieged by Burhred, Alfred, and his brother, who allow them to return to York with their booty. See "CAREER OF ALFRED THE GREAT," v, 49.
869. Eighth general council held at Constantinople; the deposition of Photius confirmed and all iconoclasts anathematized.
870. Malta captured by the Saracens.
East Anglia captured by the Danes; Edmund, titular king of the country, is treacherously slain by them; is afterward canonized.
871. Hincmar, a French prelate, encourages Charles the Bald to resist the authority assumed by the Pope over the church of France.
Bari, a Saracen fortress in Southern Italy, is surrendered to the Franks and Greeks.
Alfred ascends the throne of Wessex. See "CAREER OF ALFRED THE GREAT," v, 49.
872. Louis of Germany relinquishes to Emperor Louis his portion of Lorraine.
873. On the approach of Emperor Louis with an army the Saracens, who were besieging Salerno, retire; they land in Calabria and commit great depredations.
Locusts lay waste Italy, France, and Germany.
Organs introduced into the churches of Germany.
874. Mercia is conquered by the Danes, who set up Ceolwulf as their king.
Iceland is settled by the Danes.
875. Death of Emperor Louis; Charles the Bald and Louis of Germany contend for the succession. The former, by granting new privileges to the Church of Rome, obtains the support of the Pope, and is acknowledged as the king of Italy and emperor of the West.
Alfred, King of Wessex, fits out a fleet and conquers the Danes in a great sea battle. See "CAREER OF ALFRED THE GREAT," v, 49.
876. Death of Louis of Germany; division of his kingdom among his three sons: Bavaria to Carloman; Saxony to Louis the Stammerer; and East France (Franconia and Swabia) to Charles the Fat. Their uncle, Charles the Bald, attempts to dispossess them, but is defeated by Louis at Andernach.
Rollo, at the head of the Northmen, enters the Seine and makes his first settlement in Normandy. See "DECAY OF THE FRANKISH EMPIRE," v, 22.
877. No emperor of the West for three years.
Carloman acquires the crown of Italy; the Pope, who opposes him, is driven from Rome by Lambert, Duke of Spoleto, and takes refuge in France.
A large traffic in slaves carried on by the Venetians.
Count Boso founds the kingdom of Florence.
878. Alfred defeats a great host of the Danes at Eddington. See "CAREER OF ALFRED THE GREAT," v, 49.
Syracuse captured by the Saracens, who become the masters of Sicily.
879. Methodius forbidden by the Pope to perform the services of the Church for the Slavonians in their own language.
The kingdom of Cisjurane, Burgundy, founded; it included Provence, Dauphine, and the southern part of Savoy.
880. Germany is ravaged by the Northmen.
Alfred, the English King, defeats the Danes at the battle of Ethandun; by treaty he gives them equal rights, and they acknowledge his supremacy. See "CAREER OF ALFRED THE GREAT," v, 49.
881. Methodius gets leave to use the Slavonic tongue in the churches. Charles the Fat ascends the throne of Italy and Germany; is emperor of the West.
882. Albategni, the Arabian astronomer, observes the autumnal equinox, September 19th.
883. Alfred sends Singhelm and Athelstan on missions to Rome and the Christian church in India.
884. Charles the Fat reunites the Frankish empire of Charlemagne.
885. Siege of Paris by the Northmen. See "DECAY OF THE FRANKISH EMPIRE," v, 22.
886. Alfred the Great said to have founded the University of Oxford.
887. Deposition of Charles the Fat; Arnulf, natural son of Carloman of Bavaria, elected by the nobles.
888. Death of Charles the Fat; final disruption of the Frankish empire; the crown of France in dispute between the Count of Paris, Eudes, and Charles the Simple. See "DECAY OF THE FRANKISH EMPIRE," v, 22.
Founding of the kingdom of Transjurane, Burgundy, which includes the northern part of Savoy and all Switzerland between the Reuss and the Jura.
Alfred the Great begins his translations from Latin into Anglo-Saxon. See "AUGUSTINE'S MISSIONARY WORK IN ENGLAND," iv, 182.
890. Southern Italy constituted a province of the Greek empire and called Lombardia.
891. King Arnulf, of Germany, defeats the Northmen or Danes at Louvain.
894. Arnulf becomes emperor of Germany.
Hungarians (Magyars) cross the Carpathians and occupy the plains of the Theiss.
895. Rome is captured by Emperor Arnulf of Germany; he is crowned emperor of the West.
896. Pope Stephen VII declares the election of his predecessor, Formosus, invalid; disinters his body and has it thrown in the Tiber.
897. Pope Stephen imprisoned and strangled.
Alfred constructs a powerful navy and defeats Hastings the Dane. See "CAREER OF ALFRED THE GREAT," v, 49.
899. Accession of Louis the Child, on the death of Arnulf, to the German throne.
900. Hungarians ravage Northern Italy.
901. Death of Alfred the Great, King of England; his son, Edward the Elder, succeeds.
904. Russians, with a large naval force, attack Constantinople, and the Saracens Thessalonica.
907. Bavaria desolated by the Hungarians.
909. Founding of the Fatimite caliphate in Africa. See "CONQUEST OF EGYPT BY THE FATIMITES," v, 94.
911. End of the Carlovingian line in Germany. See "HENRY THE FOWLER FOUNDS THE SAXON LINE OF GERMAN KINGS," v, 82.
912. Rollo, converted to Christianity, takes the name of Robert and receives from Peter the Simple the province afterward called Normandy, of which he is the first duke. See "DECAY OF THE FRANKISH EMPIRE," v, 22.
913. Igor, son of Rurik, by the death of his guardian, Oleg, is invested with the government of Russia.
Bodies of Hungarians and Slavs make inroads on German territory. See "HENRY THE FOWLER FOUNDS THE SAXON LINE OF GERMAN KINGS," v, 82.
914. John X elected pope through the intrigues of Theodora.
916. Berengar is crowned emperor of the West, in Italy.
918. Death of Conrad, the King of Germany. See "HENRY THE FOWLER FOUNDS THE SAXON LINE OF GERMAN KINGS," v, 82.
919. Founding of the Danish kingdom of Dublin, Ireland. "HENRY THE FOWLER FOUNDS THE SAXON LINE OF GERMAN KINGS." See v, 82.
923. Rudolph of Burgundy disputes with Charles the Simple for the crown of France.
924. Germany is overrun and devastated by the Hungarians. Death of Berengar, upon which the imperial title lapses.
925. Edward the Elder is succeeded by his son Athelstan, in England.
926. Henry the Fowler conquers the Slavonians; he establishes the margravate of Brandenburg.
928. Guido and Marozia usurp supreme temporal power in Rome and confine Pope John X in prison, where he dies. (Date uncertain.)
929. Charles the Simple dies in captivity at Peronne.
Abu Taher, the Carmathian leader, plunders Mecca and massacres the pilgrims.
930. Prague is besieged by Henry the Fowler, who becomes superior lord of Bohemia; his son, Otho, marries Eadgith, sister of Athelstan, King of England.
931. Marozia still rules in Rome; she makes her son pope John XI.
932. Hugh marries Marozia and is expelled from Rome by her son Alberic, who confines his mother, and his brother, Pope John, in St. Angelo and governs the city.
933. Henry the Fowler is victorious over the Hungarians at Merseburg. See "HENRY THE FOWLER FOUNDS THE SAXON LINE OF GERMAN KINGS," v, 82.
Union of Cis- and Transjurane Burgundy into one realm, the kingdom of Arles.
Saracens invade Castile and are defeated at Uxama.
936. Death of Henry the Fowler; accession of Otho the Great in Germany and of Louis d'Outre-Mer in France. Louis was given the surname for having been in exile in England, whence he was recalled to the crown.
From this time chivalry may be said to arise. See "GROWTH AND DECADENCE OF CHIVALRY," v, 109.
937. Confederation of Scots and Irish with the Danes of Northumberland, totally defeated by Athelstan, at Brunanburh.
France is invaded by the Hungarians.
939. The Marquis of Istria levies imposts on Venetian merchants, the repeal of which is enforced by the Doge suspending all intercourse between the two states.
940. Death of King Athelstan; his brother Edmund succeeds to the English throne.
941. Constantinople attacked by the Russians under Igor; they are repelled by Romanus.
945. Death of Igor; his widow, Olga, governs the Russians during the minority of their son Swatoslaus.
Cumberland and Westmoreland, England, granted as a fief to Malcolm, King of Scotland.
946. Edmund, who had conquered Mercia and the "Five Boroughs" of the Danish confederacy, England, slain by an outlaw; his brother Edred succeeds.
951. Otho the Great marches an army in to Italy; he dethrones Berengar for cruelly ill-treating Adelaide.
952. Otho restores Italy to Berengar and his son; they do homage to him at the Diet of Augsburg.
955. Otho vanquishes the Hungarians on the Lech; he afterward conquers the Slavonians.
Olga, the Russian Princess, baptized at Constantinople; she carries back into her own country some beginnings of civilization.
956. Many provinces, including Armenia, recovered from the Saracens by the Eastern Empire.
959. St. Dunstan made archbishop of Canterbury on the accession of Edgar.
961. Berengar finally dethroned by Otho the Great; the sovereignty of Italy passes from Charlemagne's descendants to German rulers.
962. Otho the Great, master of Italy; his coronation as emperor of the Romans by Pope John XII; establishment of the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation.
963. Nicephorus Phocas defeats the Saracens and recovers the former provinces of the empire as far as the Euphrates.
Al Hakem, Caliph of Cordova, famous as a patron of literature and learning, and who is said to have collected a library of 600,000 volumes, employs agents in Africa and Arabia to purchase or copy manuscripts.
King Edgar, England, defeats the Welsh and exacts an annual tribute of three hundred wolves' heads.
964. Pope Leo VIII is expelled; John XII reinstated, he dies soon after; Rome is besieged and captured by the Emperor, after a revolt encouraged by Berengar.
966. After 328 years' subjection Antioch is recovered from the Saracens.
Bulgaria invaded by the Russians, who also extend their dominion to the Black Sea.
Miecislas, ruler of Poland, embraces Christianity.
969. Kahira (now Cairo) built by the Fatimites, who establish a caliphate in Egypt. See "CONQUEST OF EGYPT BY THE FATIMITES," v, 94.
Nicephorus Phocas, Emperor of the East, murdered by John Zimisces, who succeeds.
971. All munitions of war and arms are by the Venetians forbidden to be sold by their merchants to the Saracens.
973. On the death of his father, Otho the Great, Otho II ascends the throne of the German empire. His Empress, Theophania, introduces Greek customs and manners into Germany.
976. Henry, Duke of Bavaria, defeated by Otho II and deposed, takes refuge in Bohemia.
Death of Al Hakem; his reign the most glorious of the Saracenic dominion in Spain.
Commotion in Venice; the Doge attempts to introduce mercenary troops and is slain; his palace, St. Mark's, and other churches burned.
978. Otho II makes a victorious movement into France.
979. King Edward the Martyr assassinated by command of his mother-in-law, Elfrida; Ethelred the Unready succeeds. (Date uncertain.)
980. Theophania urges her husband, Otho II, to claim the Greek provinces in Italy; he advances with his army to Ravenna.
Vladimir obtains the assistance of the sea-kings, defeats his brother, Jaropolk, puts him to death, and becomes sole ruler of Russia.
982. Saracens of Africa are invited by the Greek emperors to join them in opposing Otho; battle of Basientello, total defeat of Otho; he is taken prisoner, but escapes by swimming.
983. Eric the Red, a Norseman, first visits Greenland, which he thus names, and afterward settles. See "LEIF ERICSON DISCOVERS AMERICA," v, 141.
Death of Otho II; Otho III succeeds to the throne of Germany under the regency of his mother, Theophania.
987. Death of Louis V, the last of the Carlovingian line; Hugh Capet is elected king of France; this inaugurates the Capetian dynasty.
988. Vladimir the Great of Russia embraces Christianity. See "CONVERSION OF VLADIMIR THE GREAT," v, 128.
989. Sedition in Rome; Empress Theophania arrives there and suppresses it.
In Germany rural counts and barons commence their depredations on the properties of their neighbors.
Learned men from all parts of the East flock to Cordova, Almansor, the Saracen regent, having set apart a fund to promote literature.
991. Archbishop Gerbert, of Rheims, introduces the use of Arabic numerals, which he had learned at Cordova.
Ipswich and Maldon, England, ravaged by the Danes; a tribute raised for them by means of the "Danegild" tax.
994. Hugh Capet maintains Gerbert in the see of Rheims, against the opposition of the Pope.
With a fleet of ninety-four ships the kings of Norway and Denmark attack London; they are beaten off by the citizens.
996. Death of Hugh Capet; his son Robert succeeds.
997. Venetians conquer the coast and islands of the Adriatic as far as Ragusa; their Doge styles himself duke of Dalmatia.
Death of Gejza, first Christian prince of Hungary.
Insurrection of peasants in Normandy.
998. Crescentius, having usurped power in Rome and expelled the Pope, is defeated, captured, and put to death by Otho III.
1000. Leif Ericson and Biorn discover America. See "LEIF ERICSON DISCOVERS AMERICA," v, 141.
Otho III and Boleslas the Valiant, King of Poland, meet at Gnesen.
Expectation of the end of the world causes the sowing of seed and other agricultural work to be neglected; famine ensues therefrom.
Duke Stephen of Hungary receives the royal title from Pope Sylvester II.
First invasion of India by Mahmud. See "MAHOMETANS IN INDIA," v, 151.
1002. Massacre of Danes in England; the Day of St. Brice.
Henry, Duke of Bavaria, elected king of Germany on the death of Otho III.
1003. Sweyn of Denmark invades England to avenge the massacre of his people.
1013. After various repulses and successes Sweyn takes nearly the whole of England; King Ethelred and his Queen flee to her brother Richard, Duke of Normandy.
Imperial coronation of Henry II.
1014. Death of Sweyn. Ethelred returns to England; he battles with the Danes, under Sweyn's son, Canute, who is driven from the country.
King Brian, the Brian Boroimhe or Boru, the most famous of Irish kings, defeats the Danes at the battle of Clontarf, but perishes in the conflict.
1016. Pope Benedict VIII repulses the Saracens at Luni, Tuscany; they besiege Salerno and are defeated by the aid of a band of Norman pilgrims returning from Jerusalem.
Edmund "Ironsides," the English King, assassinated. See "CANUTE BECOMES KING OF ENGLAND," v, 164.
1017. Swatopolk, Grand Duke of Russia, defeated by his brother, Jaroslav, Prince of Novgorod, seeks an asylum in Poland.
All England acknowledges Canute as king. See "CANUTE BECOMES KING OF ENGLAND," v, 164.
1018. Complete destruction of the Bulgarian realm by the Eastern emperor Basil II.
Swatopolk finally expelled from Russia by Jaroslav, who becomes ruler.
1020. Death of Firdusi, a famous Persian poet.
1022. Guido Aretinus invents the staff, and is the first to adopt as names for the notes of the musical scale the initial syllables of the hemistichs of a hymn in honor of St. John the Baptist.
1024. Death of the emperor Henry II of Germany; the Franconian dynasty inaugurated by Conrad II.
1027. Conrad II crowned emperor at Rome; Canute of England and Rudolph of Burgundy attend the ceremony.
Schleswig is formally ceded to Denmark by Conrad II.
1028. Canute invades Norway; he conquers King Olaf and annexes his dominions. See "CANUTE BECOMES KING OF ENGLAND," v, 164.
1031. End of the Ommiad caliphate of Cordova; Spain divided by the Moorish chiefs into many states.
1033. Institution of the "Truce of God." A suspension of private feuds observed in England, France, Italy, and elsewhere. Such a truce provided that these feuds should cease on all the more important church festivals and fasts, from Thursday evening to Monday morning, during Lent, or similar occasions.
Castile created an independent kingdom by Sancho the Great, King of Navarre.
Conrad II extends his dominion over the Arletan territories.
1035. Death of King Canute; his sons, Hardicanute in Denmark, Harold in England, and Sweyn in Norway, succeed him. See "CANUTE BECOMES KING OF ENGLAND," v, 164.
Aragon created an independent kingdom.
1037. Avicenna, Arabian physician and scholar, dies. (Date uncertain.)
Harold becomes king of all England.
1039. Murder of King Duncan, of Scotland, by Macbeth, who succeeds.
1042. End of the Danish rule in England; Hardicanute succeeded by Edward the Confessor.
1045. Ferdinand of Castile exacts tribute from his Moorish neighbors.
1046. Henry III holds a council at Sutri on the question of the papacy. See "HENRY III DEPOSES THE SIMONIACAL POPES," v, 177.
1047. Count Guelf given the duchy Carinthia by Emperor Henry III.
1048. On the death of Clement II, the deposed Pope again intrudes himself. See "HENRY III DEPOSES THE SIMONIACAL POPES," v, 177.
1049. Hildebrand, the monk, assumes charge of the patrimony of St. Peter, at Rome.
1050. Berenger of Tours condemned and imprisoned for denying the doctrine of transubstantiation.
1051. William of Normandy visits England; he confers with Edward the Confessor.
1052. Archbishop Robert, with the Norman bishops and nobles, driven out of England.
1053. In Italy the Norman conquests of that country are conferred on them as a fief of the Church.
1054. Separation of the Greek and Latin churches. See "DISSENSION AND SEPARATION OF THE GREEK AND ROMAN CHURCHES," v, 189.
1055. Togrul Beg drives the Buyides from Bagdad and establishes his authority there.
1056. Death of Emperor Henry III; his son, Henry IV, is elected king under the regency of his mother, Agnes.
Malcolm defeats Macbeth, King of Scotland, at Dunsinane.
1057. Harold, son of Earl Godwin, is designated heir to the throne of England. See "NORMAN CONQUEST OF ENGLAND," v, 204.
1059. Nicholas II and the Council of Rome decree that future popes shall be elected by the college of cardinals, but confirmed by the people and clergy of Rome and the emperor.
1060. King Andrew slain in battle by his brother, Bela, who ascends the throne of Hungary.
1061. Robert Guiscard and his brother Roger, at the head of the Normans, engage in the conquest of Sicily from the Saracens.
1062. The Archbishop of Cologne, Anno, assumes the reins of government after seizing the young emperor Henry IV.
1066. Death of Edward the Confessor, who is succeeded by Harold II. The Norwegians invade England; they are defeated by Harold. William, Duke of Normandy, invades and conquers England. See "NORMAN CONQUEST OF ENGLAND," v, 204.
1067. Council of Mantua; Hildebrand denies the imperial right to interfere in the election of a pope.
1068. Carrier pigeons are employed by the Saracens to convey intelligence to the besieged in Palermo.
1069. Morocco founded by Abu-Bekr, Ameer of Lantuna.
1071. Alp Arslan, the Seljuk Sultan, defeats and captures the Eastern Emperor, Romanus Diogenes.
1072. Palermo is taken by the Normans, who reduce the whole of Sicily.
1073. Lissa, taken by the Normans, is recovered by the Venetians.
Hildebrand elected pope; he takes the name of Gregory VII; the sale of church benefices in Germany forbidden by him. See "TRIUMPHS OF HILDEBRAND," v, 231.
1074. Gregory VII suggests the first idea of a general crusade against the Turks.
1075. Lay investiture prohibited by a council called by Gregory VII. See "TRIUMPHS OF HILDEBRAND," v, 231.
1076. Atziz, Malek Shah's lieutenant, conquers Syria from the Fatimites of Egypt, and takes Jerusalem.
Christian pilgrims are persecuted by the Seljukian Turks.
Henry IV, Emperor of Germany, holds a council at Rome which deposes Gregory VII. In union with the German princes the Pope deposes the Emperor.
1077. Pope Gregory exacts an annual tribute from Alfonso, King of Castile.
At Canossa Henry IV humbles himself before the Pope and is absolved. See "TRIUMPHS OF HILDEBRAND," v, 231.
1079. Boleslas of Poland excommunicated by Gregory and expelled by his subjects.
1080. Henry IV convenes a council which deposes Gregory VII; it elects Guibert, Antipope Clement III, in his stead.
End of the war between Henry and Rudolph of Saxony caused by the death of the latter.
1081. Constantinople captured by Alexis Comnenus, who is placed by his soldiers on the Byzantine throne.
1084. Gregory VII is besieged in the castle of St. Angelo; Robert Guiscard delivers the Pope. See "TRIUMPHS OF HILDEBRAND," v, 231.
1085. Death of Gregory VII, in exile at Salerno; the papacy vacant till the following year.
Conquest of Toledo from the Moors by Alfonso of Castile.
1086. "COMPLETION OF THE DOMESDAY BOOK." See v, 242.
The Mahometans of Spain invite the chief of the Almoravides to assist them. See "DECLINE OF THE MOORISH POWER IN SPAIN," v, 256.
1087. King William of England invades France; he dies at Rouen. His eldest son, Robert, inherits Normandy; his second son, William Rufus, secures the throne of England.
1088. Yussef is called into Spain by the Moorish princes; their jealousies and discords render his assistance unavailing. See "DECLINE OF THE MOORISH POWER IN SPAIN," v, 256.
1089. Henry IV excommunicated by Pope Urban II. A violent earthquake in England.
The disease known as St. Anthony's fire breaks out in Lorraine.
1090. Hasan, Subah of Nishapur, collects a band of Carmathians who are named after him, "Assassins."
William Rufus, King of England, invades Normandy and captures St. Valery.
1091. Yussef conquers Seville and Almeria, sends Almoatamad to Africa, and becomes supreme ruler in Mahometan Spain. See "DECLINE OF THE MOORISH POWER IN SPAIN," v, 256.
1092. Guibert's party hold the castle of St. Angelo; Guibert's title to the papacy is still asserted by Henry IV.
Complete disruption of the empire of the Seljuks follows the death of Shah Malek.
1093. King Malcolm of Scotland invades England; he is killed near Alnwick, by Roger de Mowbray.
1094. Sancho, King of Aragon and Navarre, falls in battle; he is succeeded by his son Pedro.
Peter the Hermit goes on his pilgrimage to Jerusalem. See "THE FIRST CRUSADE," v, 276.
1095. Philip and Henry again excommunicated by Pope Urban II.
Henry of Besangon marries Theresa, daughter of Alfonso the Valiant, who erects Portugal into a county for his son-in-law.
1096. Aphdal, the Fatimite, expels the sons of Ortok from Jerusalem.
Movement of the first crusading armies; massacre of Jews in Europe. See "THE FIRST CRUSADE," v, 276.
1097. William Rufus expels Archbishop Anselm, from England in defiance of the papal legate.
Emperor Henry IV protects the German Jews.
Death of Albert Azzo, Marquis of Lombardy, more than 100 years old; he was father of Guelf IV, the progenitor of the Brunswick family, afterward one of the English royal lines.
The crusaders take Nicaea; the Eastern emperor Alexius, suspicious of the crusaders, obtains the city of Nicasa for himself. See "THE FIRST CRUSADE," v, 276.
1098. Edgar, son of Malcolm, seated on the throne of Scotland by Edgar Atheling with an English army.
Pope Urban II holds a council at Bari to condemn the doctrines of the Greek Church.
1099. Jerusalem captured by the crusaders. See "THE FIRST CRUSADE," v, 276.
Founding of the order of the Knights Hospitallers; Gerard of Jerusalem the first provost or grand master.
Coronation of Henry V, second son of the Emperor, as king of the Romans.
1100. New antipopes arise on the death of Guibert (Clement III), one of whom assumes the name of Sylvester IV.
William Rufus accidentally slain; Henry I becomes king of England; he renews the laws of Edward the Confessor and unites the Saxon and Norman races by his marriage with Matilda, granddaughter of Edmund "Ironside."
1101. Robert, Duke of Normandy, invades England and makes war on his brother, Henry I.
Guelf, Duke of Bavaria, and William, Duke of Aquitaine, conduct a large body of crusaders to the East. United with those who set out in the preceding year, they are met by Kilidsch Arslan, on entering Asia Minor, and are cut to pieces or dispersed.
1102. Pope Paschal II obtains from Matilda a deed of gift of all her states to the Church.
Coloman, King of Hungary, conquers Croatia and Dalmatia.
1103. Yussef's son Ali recognized as heir to the thrones of Spain and Africa.
1104. Baldwin, King of Jerusalem, defeats the Turks and captures Acre.
Emperor Henry IV faces a rebellion of his son, incited by the papal party.
1105. Interview between Emperor Henry and his son at Elbingen; a diet is called to be held at Mainz for the settlement of their dispute.
The English, under King Henry, take Caen and Bayeux in Normandy.
Defeat of the Turks in an attempt to retake Jerusalem; Bohemond, Prince of Tarentum, who had taken Antioch from the Turks, made prisoner.
1106. King Henry I overthrows Duke Robert, who is captured, and secures Normandy.
Death of Henry IV and accession of his son Henry V to the German throne; the new Emperor asserts his right to appoint bishops.
1108. Death of Philip, King of France; Louis VI, the Fat, succeeds.
1109. Baldwin, King of Jerusalem, assisted by a Venetian fleet, captures Tripoli.
Portugal declared independent and the hereditary succession established in Count Henry's family.
1111. Emperor Henry V enters Rome; bloody contests between his soldiers and the people. Pope Paschal II, a prisoner, resigns the right of investiture and crowns the Emperor.
1113. Death of Swatopolk, Duke of Russia; his brother Vladimir succeeds.
1114. War in Wales; King Henry I erects castles there to secure his conquests.
1117. The Doge of Venice falls at Zara in defending Dalmatia against the Hungarians.
1118. "FOUNDATION OF THE ORDER OF KNIGHTS TEMPLAR." See v, 301.
On the death of Paschal II the cardinals elect Gelasius II; the Emperor appoints the Archbishop of Braga to assume the papal dignity under the name of Gregory VIII. The factions afterward known as the Guelfs and Ghibellines arose from this event.
1119. Battle of Noyon, by which Henry I reestablishes his ascendency in Normandy.
Defeat of the Turks at Antioch by King Baldwin II and the Knights Hospitallers.
Henry I resists the papal claim to investiture in England; banishment of Thurstan, Archbishop of Canterbury.
1120. Sinking of the White Ship (La Blanche Nef), in which Prince William, son of Henry I, was lost. The King is said to have "never smiled again" after the receipt of the news.
1121. Siege of Sutri by the army of Pope Calixtus II, and surrender of Antipope Gregory.
1122. Henry V and Calixtus II compromise, at the Diet of Worms, the dispute respecting the right of investiture.
Baldwin, King of Jerusalem, and Jocelyn de Courtenay made prisoners by the Turks.
Abelard, a noted French theologian, accused of heresy at the Council of Soissons, is condemned to burn his writings.
1123. Ninth general council; First Lateran Council.
War renewed in Normandy by the rebellion of certain powerful barons; Henry I, King of England, takes their castles.
1124. A rich Pisan convoy, on its voyage from Sardinia, captured by the Genoese.
1125. Death of the emperor Henry V of Germany, which ends the Franconian dynasty; the Duke of Saxony, Lothair II, elected his successor; he declares war against the Hohenstaufens.
Punishment of the mintmen in England for issuing base coin.
1126. King Henry leaves Normandy and takes his prisoners to England.
1127. Marriage of Henry's daughter, Matilda, to Geoffrey Plantagenet; she is acknowledged by the English barons as heiress to her father's throne. See "STEPHEN USURPS THE ENGLISH CROWN," v, 317.
Death of William, Duke of Apulia; Roger II, Great Count of Sicily, succeeds. This unites the Norman conquests in Italy with Sicily; the Pope excommunicates him.
1128. Conrad, Duke of Franconia, of the Hohenstaufen house, crowned king of Italy at Milan, in opposition to Lothair II; he is excommunicated by the Pope.
Roger II overcomes the papal resistance and is formally acknowledged duke of Apulia and Calabria.
1129. King Henry of England releases his Norman prisoners and restores their lands to them.
1130. On the death of Pope Honorius II the cardinals divide into two factions, one of which elects Innocent II, and the other the antipope Anacletus II. The latter gains possession of the Lateran and is there consecrated; Innocent takes refuge in France.
1131. Birth of Maimonides, who, next to Moses, is believed to have had the greatest influence on Jewish thought. (Date uncertain.)
1132. Lothair II goes to Rome in support of Pope Innocent II against Antipope Anacletus II; he expels Conrad.
Wool-spinning is introduced into England by the Flemings at Worstead; hence the name "worsted."
1133. Lothair conducts Innocent to Rome and is there crowned emperor by him.
1134. Aragon and Navarre choose separate sovereigns, who are protected by Alfonso the Noble, King of Castile.
1135. Death of Henry I of England; Stephen usurps the throne. See "STEPHEN USURPS THE ENGLISH CROWN," v, 317.
A copy of Justinian's Pandects said to have been discovered at Amalfi.
The house of Hohenstaufen forced into submission by Lothair.
1136. Lothair marches into Italy with a large army; the cities make submission.
Matilda resists Stephen's usurpation of the English crown, and invades Normandy.
1137. Death of Louis VI; his son, Louis VII, succeeds to the French crown.
1138. David I of Scotland defeated at the Battle of the Standard. See "STEPHEN USURPS THE ENGLISH CROWN," v, 317.
Conrad, Duke of Franconia, elected emperor of Germany; he founds the Hohenstaufen dynasty. From his castle of Wiblingen his party takes the name of Ghibellines; his opponent, Henry Guelf, is put under the ban of the empire, hence the papal party were called Guelfs.
1139. Pope Innocent II taken prisoner by Roger; a treaty of peace confirms Roger's title. Arnold of Brescia is banished Italy. See "ANTI-PAPAL DEMOCRATIC MOVEMENT," v, 340.
Robert, Earl of Gloucester, a natural son of Henry I, promises assistance to Matilda in her war against King Stephen of England. See "STEPHEN USURPS THE ENGLISH CROWN," v, 317.
1140. Conrad III defeats the forces of Guelf VI, uncle of Henry the Lion, while attempting to gain possession of Bavaria.
1141. Battle of Lincoln; King Stephen defeated and carried prisoner to Bristol. See "STEPHEN USURPS THE ENGLISH CROWN," v, 317.
1142. Henry the Lion is invested with the duchy of Saxony by Conrad III. His rival, Albert the Bear, created margrave of Brandenburg.
1143. Geisa, King of Hungary, invites German emigrants to join the colony of that people in Transylvania.
1144. Edessa, Turkey, stormed and captured by Zenghi, Sultan of Aleppo.
1145. Arnold of Brescia initiates the antipapal democratic movement. See "ANTIPAPAL DEMOCRATIC MOVEMENT," v, 340.
Disruption of the Almoravide kingdom in Spain.
1146. Prince Henry inherits Anjou and Maine; Normandy submits to him.
St. Bernard, at the instance of Pope Eugenius, preaches a crusade for the protection of the Holy Land against Noureddin, Sultan of Aleppo.
Byzantium is ravaged by Roger, King of Sicily. See "DECLINE OF THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE," v, 353.
Crusaders and mobs massacre Jews in Germany.
1147. Louis VII of France and Emperor Conrad III lead the Second Crusade.
Lisbon, after being taken from the Moors, is made the capital of Portugal.
Moscow, Russia, is founded by the Prince of Suzdal, Dolgoucki.
1148. Unsuccessful sieges of Damascus and Ascalon by the crusaders.
1149. Louis, returning by sea from his crusade, is captured by the Greeks, and rescued by the Sicilian fleet.
1150. Victory of Manuel, the Byzantine Emperor, over the Servians, who become vassals of that empire.
1151. Manuel invades Hungary, crosses the Danube, grants a truce to Geisa, and carries a large booty to Constantinople.
1152. Death of Conrad III; Frederick I, Barbarossa, elected emperor.
1153. Treaty by King Stephen and Henry Plantagenet concerning the succession of the English crown. See "STEPHEN USURPS THE ENGLISH CROWN," v, 317.
1154. A large portion of France united with the crown of England on the accession of Henry II, who founds the Plantagenet line, following Stephen's death.
The first Italian expedition of Frederick Barbarossa.
Pope Adrian IV, by a bull, grants Ireland to the English crown.
1155. Frederick reestablishes the papal rule in Rome. Pope Adrian IV orders the execution of Arnold. See "ANTIPAPAL DEMOCRATIC MOVEMENT," v, 340.
1156. Henry the Lion, of the Guelf line, has Bavaria restored to him. Austria erected into a duchy.
1157. Pope Adrian, in a letter to the German Emperor, asserts Germany to be a papal benefice; Frederick resists the claim.
Poland is compelled by Emperor Frederick I to pay him homage.
1158. Eric IX of Sweden conquers the coast of Finland and builds Abo.
Frederick I, Barbarossa, a second time invades Italy; he captures Milan.
1159. Election of Pope Alexander III; Frederick I creates an anti-pope, Victor IV.
War ensues between Henry II of England and Louis VII of France; the former claiming the county of Toulouse, Southern France.
1160. Emperor Frederick I calls the Council of Pavia; it declares Victor to be pope; Alexander excommunicates them all.
1161. Peace concluded between Henry II and Louis VII; they acknowledge Alexander as pope. The kings of Denmark, Norway, Bohemia, and Hungary declare in favor of Victor.
Henry II limits the papal authority in England.
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