"Consult the statute; 'quart.' I think, it is, 'Edwardi sext.,' or 'prim. et quint. Eliz.'"—Pope, p. 399.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—It seems to be commonly supposed, whether correctly or not, that short sentences which are in themselves distinct, and which in their stated use must be separated by the period, may sometimes be rehearsed as examples, in so close succession as not to require this point: as, "But if thou wilt enter into life, keep the commandments. He saith unto him, Which? Jesus said, Thou shalt do no murder, Thou shalt not commit adultery, Thou shalt not steal, Thou shalt not bear false witness, Honour thy father and thy mother: and, Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself."—SCOTT, ALGER, AND OTHERS: Matt., xix, 17, 18, 19. "The following sentences exemplify the possessive pronouns:—'My lesson is finished; Thy books are defaced; He loves his studies; She performs her duty; We own our faults; Your situation is distressing; I admire their virtues.'"—L. Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 55. What mode of pointing is best adapted to examples like these, is made a very difficult question by the great diversity of practice in such cases. The semicolon, with guillemets, or the semicolon and a dash, with the quotation marks, may sometimes be sufficient; but I see no good reason why the period should not in general be preferred to the comma, the semicolon, or the colon, where full and distinct sentences are thus recited. The foregoing passage of Scripture I have examined in five different languages, ten different translations, and seventeen different editions which happened to be at hand. In these it is found pointed in twelve different ways. In Leusden's, Griesbach's, and Aitton's Greek, it has nine colons; in Leusden's Latin from Montanus, eight; in the common French version, six; in the old Dutch, five; in our Bibles, usually one, but not always. In some books, these commandments are mostly or wholly divided by periods; in others, by colons; in others, by semicolons; in others, as above, by commas. The first four are negative, or prohibitory; the other two, positive, or mandatory. Hence some make a greater pause after the fourth, than elsewhere between any two. This greater pause is variously marked by the semicolon, the colon, or the period; and the others, at the same time, as variously, by the comma, the semicolon, or the colon. Dr. Campbell, in his Four Gospels, renders and points the latter part of this passage thus: "Jesus answered, 'Thou shalt not commit murder. Thou shalt not commit adultery. Thou shalt not steal. Thou shalt not give false testimony. Honour thy father and mother; and love thy neighbour as thyself." But the corresponding passage in Luke, xviii 20, he exhibits thus: "Thou knowest the commandments. Do not commit adultery; do not commit murder; do not steal; do not give false testimony; honour thy father and thy mother." This is here given as present advice, referring to the commandments, but not actually quoting them; and, in this view of the matter, semicolons, not followed by capitals may be right. See the common reading under Rule XIV for Capitals, on page 166.

OBS. 2.—Letters written for numbers, after the manner of the Romans, though read as words, are never words in themselves; nor are they, except perhaps in one or two instances, abbreviations of words. C, a hundred, comes probably from Centum; and M, a thousand, is the first letter of Mille; but the others, I, V, X, L, D, and the various combinations of them all, are direct numerical signs, as are the Arabic figures. Hence it is not really necessary that the period should be set after them, except at the end of a sentence, or where it is suitable as a sign of pause. It is, however, and always has been, a prevalent custom, to mark numbers of this kind with a period, as if they were abbreviations; as, "While pope Sixtus V. who succeeded Gregory XIII. fulminated the thunder of the church against the king of Navarre."—Smollet's Eng., iii, 82. The period is here inserted where the reading requires only the comma; and, in my opinion, the latter point should have been preferred. Sometimes, of late, we find other points set after this period; as, "Otho II., surnamed the Bloody, was son and successor of Otho I.; he died in 983."—Univ. Biog. Dict. This may be an improvement on the former practice, but double points are not generally used, even where they are proper; and, if the period is not indispensable, a simple change of the point would perhaps sooner gain the sanction of general usage.

OBS. 3.—Some writers, judging the period to be wrong or needless in such cases, omit it, and insert only such points as the reading requires; as, "For want of doing this, Judge Blackstone has, in Book IV, Chap. 17, committed some most ludicrous errors."—Cobbett's Gram., Let. XIX, 251. To insert points needlessly, is as bad a fault as to omit them when they are requisite. In Wm. Day's "Punctuation Reduced to a System," (London, 1847,) we have the following obscure and questionable RULE: "Besides denoting a grammatical pause, the full point is used to mark contractions, and is requisite after every abbreviated word, as well as after numeral letters."—Page 102. This seems to suggest that both a pause and a contraction may be denoted by the same point. But what are properly called "contractions," are marked not by the period, but by the apostrophe, which is no sign of pause; and the confounding of these with words "abbreviated," makes this rule utterly absurd. As for the period "after numeral letters," if they really needed it at all, they would need it severally, as do the abbreviations; but there are none of them, which do not uniformly dispense with it, when not final to the number; and they may as well dispense with it, in like manner, whenever they are not final to the sentence.

OBS. 4.—Of these letters, Day gives this account: "M. denotes mille, 1,000; D., dimidium mille, half a thousand, or 500; C. centum, 100; L. represents the lower half of C., and expresses 50; X. resembles V. V., the one upright, the other inverted, and signifies 10; V. stands for 5, because its sister letter U is the fifth vowel; and I. signifies 1, probably because it is the plainest and simplest letter in the alphabet."—Day's Punctuation, p. 103. There is some fancy in this. Dr. Adam says, "The letters employed for this purpose [i.e., to express numbers.] were C. I. L. V. X."—Latin and Eng. Gram., p. 288. And again: "A thousand is marked thus CI[C-reverserd], which in later times was contracted into M. Five hundred is marked thus, I[C-reversed], or by contraction, D."—Ib. Day inserts periods thus: "IV. means 4; IX., 9; XL., 40; XC., 90; CD., 400; CM., 900."—Page 703. And again: "4to., quarto, the fourth of a sheet of paper; 8vo., octavo, the eighth part of a sheet of paper; 12mo., duodecimo, the twelfth of a sheet of paper; N. L., 8 deg.., 9'., 10''., North latitude, eight degrees, nine minutes, ten seconds."—Page 104. But IV may mean 4, without the period; 4to or 8vo has no more need of it than 4th or 8th; and N. L. 8 deg. 9' 10'' is an expression little to be mended by commas, and not at all by additional periods.

OBS. 5.—To allow the period of abbreviation to supersede all other points wherever it occurs, as authors generally have done, is sometimes plainly objectionable; but, on the other hand, to suppose double points to be always necessary wherever abbreviations or Roman numbers have pauses less than final, would sometimes seem more nice than wise, as in the case of Biblical and other references. A concordance or a reference Bible pointed on this principle, would differ greatly from any now extant. In such references, numbers are very frequently pointed with the period, with scarcely any regard to the pauses required in the reading; as, "DIADEM, Job 29. 14. Isa. 28. 5. and 62. 3. Ezek. 21. 26."—Brown's Concordance. "Where no vision is, the people perish, Prov. xxix. 18. Acts iv. 12. Rom. x. 14."—Brown's Catechism, p. 104. "What I urge from 1. Pet. 3. 21. in my Apology."—Barclay's Works, iii, 498. "I. Kings—II. Kings."—Alger's Bible, p. iv. "Compare iii. 45. with 1. Cor. iv. 13."—Scott's Bible, Pref. to Lam. Jer. "Hen. v. A. 4. Sc. 5."—Butler's Gram., p. 41. "See Rule iii. Rem. 10."—Ib., p. 162. Some set a colon between the number of the chapter and that of the verse; which mark serves well for distinction, where both numbers are in Arabic figures: as, "'He that formed the eye, shall he not see?'—Ps. 94: 9."—Wells's Gram., p. 126. "He had only a lease-hold title to his service. Lev. 25: 39, Exod. 21: 2."—True Amer., i. 29. Others adopt the following method which seems preferable to any of the foregoing: "Isa. Iv, 3; Ezek. xviii, 20; Mic. vi, 7."—Gurney's Essays, p. 133. Churchill, who is uncommonly nice about his punctuation, writes as follows: "Luke. vi, 41, 42. See also Chap. xv, 8; and Phil., iii. 12."—New Gram., p. 353.

OBS. 6.—Arabic figures used as ordinals, or used for the numeral adverbs, first, or firstly, secondly, thirdly, &c., are very commonly pointed with the period, even where the pause required after them is less than a full stop; as, "We shall consider these words, 1. as expressing resolution; and 2. as expressing futurity."—Butler's Gram., p. 106. But the period thus followed by a small letter, has not an agreeable appearance, and some would here prefer the comma, which is, undoubtedly, better suited to the pause, A fitter practice, however, would be, to change the expression thus: "We shall consider these words, 1st, as expressing resolution; and, 2dly, as expressing futurity."

OBS. 7.—Names vulgarly shortened, then written as they are spoken, are not commonly marked with a period; as, Ben for Benjamin. "O RARE BEN JOHNSON!"—Biog. Dict.

"From whence the inference is plain, Your friend MAT PRIOR wrote with pain." —LLOYD: B. P., Vol. viii, p. 188.

IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.

FALSE PUNCTUATION.—ERRORS CONCERNING THE PERIOD.

UNDER RULE I.—DISTINCT SENTENCES.

"The third person is the position of the name spoken of; as, Paul and Silas were imprisoned, the earth thirsts, the sun shines."—Frazee's Gram., 1st Ed., p. 21; Ster. Ed., p. 23.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because three totally distinct sentences are here thrown together as examples, with no other distinction than what is made by two commas. But, according to Rule 1st for the Period, "When a sentence, whether long or short, is complete in respect to sense, and independent in respect to construction, it should be marked with the period." Therefore, these commas should be periods; and, of course, the first letter of each example must be a capital.]

"Two and three and four make nine; if he were here, he would assist his father and mother, for he is a dutiful son; they live together, and are happy, because they enjoy each other's society; they went to Roxbury, and tarried all night, and came back the next day."—Goldsbury's Parsing Lessons in his Manual of E. Gram., p. 64.

"We often resolve, but seldom perform; she is wiser than her sister; though he is often advised, yet he does not reform; reproof either softens or hardens its object; he is as old as his classmates, but not so learned; neither prosperity, nor adversity, has improved him; let him that standeth, take heed lest he fall; he can acquire no virtue, unless he make some sacrifices."—Ibid.

"Down from his neck, with blazing gems array'd, Thy image, lovely Anna! hung portray'd, Th' unconscious figure, smiling all serene, Suspended in a golden chain was seen,"—S. Barrett's E. Gr., p. 92.

UNDER RULE II.—ALLIED SENTENCES.

"This life is a mere prelude to another, which has no limits, it is a little portion of duration. As death leaves us, so the day of judgment will find us."—Merchant's School Gram., p. 76.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the pause after limits, which is sufficient for the period, is marked only by the comma. But, according to Rule 2d, "The period is often employed between two sentences which have a general connexion, expressed by a personal pronoun, a conjunction, or a conjunctive adverb." It would improve the passage, to omit the first comma, change the second to a period, and write the pronoun it with a capital. Judgment also might be bettered with an e, and another is properly two words.]

"He went from Boston to New York; he went from Boston; he went to New York; in walking across the floor, he stumbled over a chair."—Goldsbury's Manual of E. Gram., p. 62.

"I saw him on the spot, going along the road, looking towards the house; during the heat of the day, he sat on the ground, under the shade of a tree."—Id., ib.

"George came home, I saw him yesterday, here; the word him, can extend only to the individual George"—S. Barrett's E. Gram., 10th Ed., p. 45.

"Commas are often used now, where parentheses were formerly; I cannot, however, esteem this an improvement."—See the Key.

"Thou, like a sleeping, faithless sentinel Didst let them pass unnoticed, unimproved, And know, for that thou slumb'rest on the guard, Thou shalt be made to answer at the bar For every fugitive." —Hallock's Gram., p. 222; Enfield's Sp., p. 380.

UNDER RULE III.—OF ABBREVIATIONS.

"The term pronoun (Lat pronomen) strictly means a word used for, or instead of a noun."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 198.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the syllable here put for the word Latin, is not marked with a period. But, according to Rule 3d, "The period is generally used after abbreviations, and very often to the exclusion of other points; but, as in this case it is not a constant sign of pause, other points may properly follow it, if the words written in full would demand them." In this instance, a period should mark the abbreviation, and a comma be set after of. By analogy, in stead is also more properly two words than one.]

"The period is also used after abbreviations; as, A. D. P. S. G. W. Johnson."—Butler's Pract. Gram., p. 211. "On this principle of classification, the later Greek grammarians divided words into eight classes or parts of speech, viz: the Article, Noun, Pronoun, Verb, Participle, Adverb, Preposition, and Conjunction."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 191.

"'Metre is not confined to verse: there is a tune in all good prose; and Shakspeare's was a sweet one.'—Epea Pter, II, 61. Mr. H. Tooke's idea was probably just, agreeing with Aristotle's, but not accurately expressed."—Churchill's New Gram., p. 385.

"Mr. J. H. Tooke was educated at Eton and at Cambridge, in which latter college he took the degree of A. M; being intended for the established church of England, he entered into holy orders when young, and obtained the living of Brentford, near London, which he held ten or twelve years."—Div. of Purley, 1st Amer. Edition, Vol. i, p. 60.

"I, nor your plan, nor book condemn, But why your name, and why A. M!"—Lloyd.

MIXED EXAMPLES OF ERROR.

"If thou turn away thy foot from the sabbath, &c. Isaiah. lviii. 7."—Butler's Gram., p. 67. "'He that hath eeris of herynge, here he. Wiclif. Matt xi."—Butler's Gram., p. 76. "See General Rules for Spelling, iii., v., and vii."—Butler's Gram., p. 81. "'False witnesses did rise up.' Ps. xxxv. ii."—Butlers Gram., p. 105.

"An explicative sentence is used for explaining. An interrogative sentence for enquiring. An imperative sentence for commanding."—S. Barrett's Prin. of Language, p. 87. "In October, corn is gathered in the field by men, who go from hill to hill with baskets, into which they put the ears; Susan labors with her needle for a livelihood; notwithstanding his poverty, he is a man of integrity."—Goldsbury's Parsing, Manual of E. Gram., p. 62.

"A word of one syllable, is called a monosyllable. A word of two syllables; a dissyllable. A word of three syllables; a trissyllable. A word of four or more syllables; a polysyllable."—Frazee's Improved Gram., 1st Ed., p. 15. "A word of one syllable, is called a monosyllable. A word of two syllables, a dissyllable. A word of three syllables, a trissyllable. A word of four or more syllables, a polysyllable."—Frazee's Improved Gram., Ster. Ed., p. 17.

"If I say, 'if it did not rain, I would take a walk;' I convey the idea that it does rain, at the time of speaking, If it rained, or did it rain, in the present time, implies, it does not rain; If it did not rain, or did it not rain, in present time, implies that it does rain; thus in this peculiarity, an affirmative sentence always implies a negation, and a negative sentence an affirmation."—Frazee's Gram., 1st Ed., p. 61; Ster. Ed., 62. "If I were loved, and, were I loved, imply, I am not loved; if I were not loved, and, were I not loved, imply, I am loved; a negative sentence implies an affirmation; and an affirmative sentence implies a negation, in these forms of the subjunctive."—Ib., Old Ed., p. 73; Ster. Ed., 72.

"What is Rule III.?"—Hart's Gram., p. 114. "How is Rule III. violated?"—Ib., p. 115. "How do you parse 'letter' in the sentence, 'James writes a letter'? Ans.—'Letter is a noun com., of the MASC. gend., in the 3d p., sing. num., and objective case, and is governed by the verb 'writes,' according to Rule III., which says. 'A transitive verb,' &c."—Ib., p. 114.[465]

"Creation sleeps. 'T is as the general pulse Of life stood still, and nature made a pause; An awful pause! prophetic of her end, And let her prophecy be soon fulfilled; Fate drop the curtain; I can lose no more."—Hallock's Gram., p. 216.



SECTION V.—THE DASH.

The Dash is mostly used to denote an unexpected or emphatic pause, of variable length; but sometimes it is a sign of faltering, or of the irregular stops of one who hesitates in speaking: as, "Then, after many pauses, and inarticulate sounds, he said: 'He was very sorry for it, was extremely concerned it should happen so—but—a—it was necessary—a—' Here lord E——— stopped him short, and bluntly demanded, if his post were destined for an other."—See Churchill's Gram., p. 170.

RULE I.—ABRUPT PAUSES.

A sudden interruption, break, or transition, should be marked with the dash; as, 1. "'I must inquire into the affair; and if'—'And if!' interrupted the farmer." 2. "Whom I—But first 't is fit the billows to restrain."—Dryd. Virg. 3. "HERE LIES THE GREAT—False marble! where? Nothing but sordid dust lies here."—Young.

RULE II.—EMPHATIC PAUSES.

To mark a considerable pause, greater than the structure or the sentence or the points inserted would seem to require, the dash may be employed; as, 1. "I pause for a reply.—None?—Then none have I offended.—I have done no more to Caesar, than you should do to Brutus."—SHAKSPEARE: Enfields Speaker, p. 182.

2. "Tarry a little. There is something else.— This bond—doth give thee here—no jot of blood." —ID.: Burgh's Sp., p. 167.

3. "It thunders;—but it thunders to preserve."—Young.

4. "Behold the picture!—Is it like?—Like whom?"—Cowper.



RULE III.—FAULTY DASHES.

Dashes needlessly inserted, or substituted for other stops more definite, are in general to be treated as errors in punctuation; as, "Here Greece stands by itself as opposed to the other nations of antiquity—She was none of the other nations—She was more polished than they."—Lennie's Gram., p. 78. "Here Greece stands by herself, as opposed to the other nations of antiquity. She was none of the other nations: She was more polished than they."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 114. If this colon is sufficient, the capital after it is needless: a period would, perhaps, be better.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—The dash does not appear to be always a rhetorical stop, or always intended to lengthen the pause signified by an other mark before it. As one instance of a different design, we may notice, that it is now very often employed between a text and a reference;—i.e., between a quotation and the name of the author of the book quoted;—in which case, as Wm. Day suggests, "it serves as a connecting mark for the two."—Day's Punctuation, p. 131. But this usage, being comparatively recent, is, perhaps, not so general or so necessary, that a neglect of it may properly be censured as false punctuation.

OBS. 2.—An other peculiar use of the dash, is its application to side-titles, to set them off from other words in the same line, as is seen often in this Grammar as well as in other works. Day says of this, "When the substance of a paragraph is given as a side-head, a dash is necessary to connect it with its relative matter."—Ibid. Wilson also approves of this usage, as well as of the others here named; saying, "The dash should be inserted between a title and the subject-matter, and also between the subject-matter, and the authority from which it is taken, when they occur in the same paragraph."—Wilson's Punctuation, Ed. of 1850, p. 139.

OBS. 3.—The dash is often used to signify the omission of something; and, when set between the two extremes of a series of numbers, it may represent all the intermediate ones; as, "Page 10-15;" i. e., "Page 10, 11, 12, &c. to 15."—"Matt, vi, 9-14."

IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.

FALSE PUNCTUATION.—ERRORS CONCERNING THE DASH.

UNDER RULE I.—ABRUPT PAUSES.

"And there is something in your very strange story, that resembles ... Does Mr. Bevil know your history particularly?"—See Key.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the abrupt pause after resembles is here marked by three periods. But, according to Rule 1st for the Dash. "A sudden interruption, break, or transition, should be marked with the dash." Therefore, the dash should be preferred to these points.]

"Sir, Mr. Myrtle, Gentlemen! You are friends; I am but a servant. But."—See Key.

"Another man now would have given plump into this foolish story; but I? No, no, your humble servant for that."—See Key.

"Do not plunge thyself too far in anger lest thou hasten thy trial; which if Lord have mercy on thee for a hen!"—See Key.

"But ere they came, O, let me say no more! Gather the sequel by that went before."—See Key.

UNDER RULE II.—EMPHATIC PAUSES.

"M, Malvolio; M, why, that begins my name."

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the pauses after M and Malvolio seem not to be sufficiently indicated here. But, according to Rule 2d for the Dash, "To mark a considerable pause, greater than the structure of the sentence or the points inserted would seem to require, the dash may be employed." Therefore, a dash may be set after the commas and the semicolon, in this sentence.]

"Thus, by the creative influence of the Eternal Spirit, were the heavens and the earth finished in the space of six days, so admirably finished, an unformed chaos changed into a system of perfect order and beauty, that the adorable Architect himself pronounced it very good, and all the sons of God shouted for joy."—See Key.

"If I were an American, as I am an Englishman, while a foreign troop remained in my country, I NEVER would lay down my arms; NEVER, NEVER, NEVER."—Columbian Orator, p. 265.

"Madam, yourself are not exempt in this, Nor your son Dorset, Buckingham, nor you."—See Key.

UNDER RULE III.—FAULTY DASHES.

"—You shall go home directly, Le Fevre, said my uncle Toby, to my house,—and we'll send for a doctor to see what's the matter,—and we'll have an apothecary,—and the corporal shall be your nurse;—and I'll be your servant, Le Fevre."—STERNE: Enfield's Speaker, p. 306.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because all the dashes here quoted, except perhaps the last, are useless, or obviously substituted for more definite marks. But, according to Rule 3d, "Dashes needlessly inserted, or substituted for other stops more definite, are in general to be treated as errors in punctuation." Therefore, the first of these should be simply expunged; the second, third, and fourth, with their commas, should be changed to semicolons; and the last, with its semicolon, may well be made a colon.]

"He continued—Inferior artists may be at a stand, because they want materials."—HARRIS: Enfield's Speaker, p. 191. "Thus, then, continued he—The end in other arts is ever distant and removed."—Id., ib.

"The nouns must be coupled with and, and when a pronoun is used it must be plural, as in the example—When the nouns are disjoined the pronoun must be singular."—Lennie's Gram., 5th Ed., p. 57.

"Opinion is a noun or substantive common,—of the singular number,—neuter gender,—nominative case,—and third person."—Wright's Philos. Gram., p. 228.

"The mountain—thy pall and thy prison—may keep thee; I shall see thee no more; but till death I will weep thee." —Felton's Gram., p. 146.

MIXED EXAMPLES OF ERROR

"If to accommodate man and beast, heaven and earth; if this be beyond me, 'tis not possible.—What consequence then follows? or can there be any other than this—if I seek an interest of my own, detached from that of others; I seek an interest which is chimerical, and can never have existence."—HARRIS: Enfield's Speaker, p. 139.

"Again—I must have food and clothing—Without a proper genial warmth, I instantly perish—Am I not related, in this view, to the very earth itself? To the distant sun, from whose beams I derive vigour?"—Id., ib., p. 140.

"Nature instantly ebb'd again—the film returned to its place—the pulse flutter'd—stopp'd—went on—throbb'd—stopp'd again—mov'd—stopp'd—shall I go on?—No."—STERNE: ib., p. 307.

"Write ten nouns of the masculine gender. Ten of the feminine. Ten of the neuter. Ten indefinite in gender."—Pardon Davis's Gram., p. 9.

"The Infinitive Mode has two tenses—the Indicative, six—the Potential, two—the Subjunctive, six, and the Imperative, one."—Frazee's Gram., Ster. Ed., p. 39; 1st Ed., 37. "Now notice the following sentences. John runs,—boys run—thou runnest."—Ib., Ster. Ed., p. 50; 1st Ed., p. 48.

"The Pronoun sometimes stands for a name—sometimes for an adjective—a sentence—a part of a sentence—and, sometimes for a whole series of propositions."—O. B. Peirce's Gram., 1st Ed., 12mo, p. 321.

"The self-applauding bird, the peacock, see— Mark what a sumptuous pharisee is he!"—Cowper, i, 49.



SECTION VI.—THE EROTEME.

The Eroteme, or Note of Interrogation, is used to designate a question.

RULE I.—QUESTIONS DIRECT.

Questions expressed directly as such, if finished, should always be followed by the note of interrogation; as, "Was it possible that virtue so exalted should be erected upon injustice? that the proudest and the most ambitious of mankind should be the great master and accomplished pattern of humility? that a doctrine so pure as the Gospel should be the work of an uncommissioned pretender? that so perfect a system of morals should be established on blasphemy?"—Jerningham's Essay, p. 81.

"In life, can love be bought with gold? Are friendship's pleasures to be sold?"—Johnson.

RULE II.—QUESTIONS UNITED.

When two or more questions are united in one compound sentence, the comma, semicolon, or dash, is sometimes used to separate them, and the eroteme occurs after the last only; as, 1. "When—under what administration—under what exigencies of war or peace—did the Senate ever before deal with such a measure in such a manner? Never, sir, never."—D. Webster, in Congress, 1846.

2. "Canst thou, and honour'd with a Christian name, Buy what is woman-born, and feel no shame; Trade in the blood of innocence, and plead Expedience as a warrant for the deed?"—Cowper.

3. "Truths would you teach, or save a sinking land? All fear, none aid you, and few understand."—Pope.

RULE III.—QUESTIONS INDIRECT.

When a question is mentioned, but not put directly as a question, it loses both the quality and the sign of interrogation; as, "The Cyprians asked me why I wept."—Murray.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—The value of the eroteme as a sign of pause, is stated very differently by different grammarians; while many of the vast multitude, by a strange oversight, say nothing about it. It is unquestionably variable, like that of the dash, or of the ecphoneme. W. H. Wells says, "The comma requires a momentary pause; the semicolon, a pause somewhat longer than the comma; the colon, a pause somewhat longer than the semicolon; and the period, a full stop. The note of interrogation, or the note of exclamation, may take the place of EITHER of these, and accordingly requires a pause of the same length as the point for which it is substituted."—Wells's School Gram., p. 175. This appears to be accurate in idea, though perhaps hardly so in language. Lindley Murray has stated it thus: "The interrogation and exclamation points are intermediate as to their quantity or time, and may be equivalent in that respect to a semicolon, a colon, or a period, as the sense may require."—Octavo Gram., p. 280. But Sanborn, in regard to his "Question Point," awkwardly says: "This pause is generally some longer than that of a period."—Analytical Gram., p. 271. Buchanan, as long ago as 1767, taught as follows: "The Pause after the two Points of Interrogation and Admiration ought to be equal to that of the Period, or a Colon at least."—English Syntax, p. 160. And J. S. Hart avers, that, "A question is reckoned as equal to a complete sentence, and the mark of interrogation as equal to a period."—Hart's English Gram., p. 166. He says also, that, "the first word after a note of interrogation should begin with a capital."—Ib., p. 162. In some instances, however, he, like others, has not adhered to these exceptionable principles, as may be seen by the false grammar cited below.

OBS. 2.—Sometimes a series of questions may be severally complete in sense, so that each may require the interrogative sign, though some or all of them may be so united in construction, as not to admit either a long intermediate pause or an initial capital; as, "Is there no honor in generosity? nor in preferring the lessons of conscience to the impulses of passion? nor in maintaining the supremacy of moral principle, and in paying reverence to Christian truth?"—Gannett. "True honour is manifested in a steady, uniform train of actions, attended by justice, and directed by prudence. Is this the conduct of the duellist? will justice support him in robbing the community of an able and useful member? and in depriving the poor of a benefactor? will it support him in preparing affliction for the widow's heart? in filling the orphan's eyes with tears?"—Jerningham's Essay, p. 113. But, in this latter example, perhaps, commas might be substituted for the second and fourth erotemes; and the word will might, in both instances, begin with a capital.

OBS. 3.—When a question is mentioned in its due form, it commonly retains the sign of interrogation, though not actually asked by the writer; and, except perhaps when it consists of some little interrogative word or phrase, requires the initial capital: as, "To know when this point ought to be used, do not say:[,] 'Is a question asked?' but, 'Does the sentence ask a question?'"—Churchill's Gram., p. 368. "They put their huge inarticulate question, 'What do you mean to do with us?' in a manner audible to every reflective soul in the kingdom."—Carlyle's Past and Present, p. 16. "An adverb may be generally known, by its answering to the question, How? how much? when? or where? as, in the phrase, 'He reads correctly,' the answer to the question, How does he read? is correctly."—L. Murray's Gram., p. 28. This passage, which, without ever arriving at great accuracy, has been altered by Murray and others in ways innumerable, is everywhere exhibited with five interrogation points. But, as to capitals and commas, as well as the construction of words, it would seem no easy matter to determine what impression of it is nearest right. In Flint's Murray it stands thus: "An adverb may generally be known by its answering the question, How? How much? When? or Where? As in the phrase, 'He reads correctly. The answer to the question, 'How does he read?' is, 'correctly.'" Such questions, when the pause is slight, do not, however, in all cases, require capitals: as,

"Rosal. Which of the visors was it, that you wore? Biron. Where? when? what visor? why demand you this?" Shakspeare, Love's Labour Lost, Act V, Sc. 2.

OBS. 4.—A question is sometimes put in the form of a mere declaration; its interrogative character depending solely on the eroteme, and the tone, or inflection of voice, adopted in the utterance: as, "I suppose, Sir, you are his apothecary?"—SWIFT: Burgh's Speaker, p. 85. "I hope, you have, upon no account, promoted sternutation by hellebore?"—Id., ib. "This priest has no pride in him?"—SINGER'S SHAK., Henry VIII, ii, 2.

IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.

FALSE PUNCTUATION.—ERRORS CONCERNING THE EROTEME.

UNDER RULE I.—QUESTIONS DIRECT.

"When will his ear delight in the sound of arms."—O. B. Peirce's Gram., 12mo, p. 59.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because here is a finished question with a period set after it. But, according to Rule 1st for the Eroteme, "Questions expressed directly as such, if finished, should always be followed by the note of interrogation." Therefore, the eroteme, or note of interrogation, should here be substituted for the period.]

"When shall I, like Oscar, travel in the light of my steel."—Ib., p. 59. "Will Henry call on me while he shall be journeying South."—Peirce, ib., p. 133.

"An Interrogative Pronoun is one that is used in asking a question; as, 'who is he, and what does he want?'"—Day's School Gram., p. 21. "Who is generally used when we would inquire for some unknown person or persons; as, who is that man."—Ib., p. 24. "Our fathers, where are they, and the prophets, do they live forever?"—Ib., p. 109.

"It is true, that some of our best writers have used than whom; but it is also true, that they have used other phrases which we have rejected as ungrammatical: then why not reject this too.—The sentences in the Exercises [with than who] are correct as they stand."—Lennie's Gram., 5th Ed., 1819, p. 79.

"When the perfect participle of an active-intransitive verb is annexed to the neuter verb to be? What does the combination form?"—Hallock's Gram., p. 88. "Those adverbs which answer to the question where, whither or whence, are called adverbs of place."—Ib., p. 116.

"Canst thou, by searching, find out God; Canst thou find out the Almighty to perfection; It is high as heaven, what canst thou do? deeper than hell, what canst thou know?"—Blair's Rhet. p. 132.

"Where, where, for shelter shall the guilty fly, When consternation turns the good man pale."—Ib., p. 222.

UNDER RULE II.—QUESTIONS UNITED.

"Who knows what resources are in store? and what the power of God may do for thee?"

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because an eroteme is set after store, where a comma would be sufficient. But, according to Rule 2d for the Eroteme, "When two or more questions are united in one compound sentence, the comma, semicolon, or dash, is sometimes used to separate them, and the eroteme occurs after the last only." Therefore, the comma should here be preferred, as the author probably wrote the text. See Key.]

"The Lord is not a man that he should lie, neither the son of man that he should repent. Hath he said it? and shall he not do it? Hath he spoken it? and shall he not make it good?"—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 353; 12mo, 277; Hiley's, 139; Hart's, 181. "Hath the Lord said it? and shall he not do it? Hath he spoken it? and shall he not make it good?"—Lennie's Gram., p. 113; Bullions's, 176.

"Who calls the council, states the certain day? Who forms the phalanx, and who points the way." —Brit. Poets, vi, 376.

UNDER RULE III.—QUESTIONS INDIRECT.

"To be, or not to be?—that is the question."—Enfield's Sp., p. 367; Kirkham's Eloc., 123.[466]

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the note of interrogation is here set after an expression which has neither the form nor the nature of a direct question. But, according to Rule 3d for the Eroteme, "When a question is mentioned, but not put directly as a question, it loses both the quality and the sign of interrogation." Therefore, the semicolon, which seems adapted to the pause, should here be preferred.]

"If it be asked, why a pause should any more be necessary to emphasis than to an accent? or why an emphasis alone, will not sufficiently distinguish the members of sentences from each other, without pauses, as accent does words? the answer is obvious; that we are pre-acquainted with the sound of words, and cannot mistake them when distinctly pronounced, however rapidly; but we are not pre-acquainted with the meaning of sentences, which must be pointed out to us by the reader or speaker."—Sheridan's Rhet. Gram., p. lvi.

"Cry, By your Priesthood tell me what you are?" —POPE: British Poets, London, 1800, Vol. vi, p. 411.

MIXED EXAMPLES OF ERROR.

"Who else can he be. Where else can he go."—S. Barrett's Gram., 1845, p. 71. "In familiar language here, there and where are used for hither, thither and whither."—N. Butler's Gram., p. 183. "Take, for instance, this sentence, 'Indolence undermines the foundation of virtue.'"—Hart's Gram., p. 106. "Take, for instance, the sentence before quoted. 'Indolence undermines the foundation of virtue.'"—Ib., p. 110. "Under the same head are considered such sentences as these, 'he that heareth, let him hear,' 'Gad, a troop shall overcome him,' &c."—Ib., p. 108.

"TENSES are certain modifications of the verb which point out the distinctions of time."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 38; Pract. Les., p. 44. "Calm was the day and the scene delightful."—Id. E. Gr., p. 80. "The capital letters used by the Romans to denote numbers, were C. I. L. V. X. which are therefore called Numeral Letters. I, denotes one; V, five: X, ten; L, fifty; and C, a hundred."—Id., Lat. Gram., p. 56. "'I shall have written;' viz, at or before some future time or event."—Id., ib., p. 89. "In Latin words the liquids are l and r only. In Greek words l, r, m, n."—Id., ib., p. 277. "Each legion was divided into ten cohorts, each cohort into three maniples, and each maniple into two centuries."—Id., ib., p. 300. "Of the Roman literature previous to A. U. 514 scarcely a vestige remains."—Id., ib., p. 312.

"And that, which He delights in must be happy. But when!—or where!—This world was made for Caesar." —Burgh's Sp., p. 122.

"And that which he delights in must be happy. But when, or where? This world was made for Caesar." —Enfield's Sp., p. 321.

"Look next on greatness. Say, where greatness lies? Where but among the heroes and the wise." —Burgh's Sp., p. 91.

"Look next on greatness! say where greatness lies. Where, but among the heroes and the wise?" —Essay on Man, p. 51.

"Look next on Greatness; say where Greatness lies: Where, but among the Heroes and the Wise?" —Brit. Poets, vi, 380.

SECTION VII—THE ECPHONEME.

The Ecphoneme, or Note of Exclamation, is used to denote a pause with some strong emotion of admiration, joy, grief, or other feeling; and, as a sign of great wonder, it is sometimes, though not very elegantly, repeated: as, "Grammatical consistency!!! What a gem!"—Peirce's Gram., p. 352.

RULE I.—INTERJECTIONS, &c.

Emphatic interjections, and other expressions of great emotion, are generally followed by the note of exclamation; as, "Hold! hold! Is the devil in you? Oh! I am bruised all over."—MOLIERE: Burgh's Speaker, p. 250.

"And O! till earth, and seas, and heav'n decay, Ne'er may that fair creation fade away!"—Dr. Lowth.

RULE II.—INVOCATIONS.

After an earnest address or solemn invocation, the note of exclamation is now generally preferred to any other point; as, "Whereupon, O king Agrippa! I was not disobedient unto the heavenly vision."—Acts, xxvi, 19.

"Be witness thou, immortal Lord of all! Whose thunder shakes the dark aerial hall."—Pope.

RULE III.—EXCLAMATORY QUESTIONS.

Words uttered with vehemence in the form of a question, but without reference to an answer, should be followed by the note of exclamation; as, "How madly have I talked!"—Young.

"An Author! 'Tis a venerable name! How few deserve it, and what numbers claim!" —Id., Br. Po., viii, 401.

IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.

FALSE PUNCTUATION.—ERRORS CONCERNING THE ECPHONEME.

UNDER RULE I.—OF INTERJECTIONS, &c.

(1.) "O that he were wise."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 111.

[FORMULE. Not proper, because this strong wish, introduced by "O," is merely marked with a period. But, according to Rule 1st for the Ecphoneme, "Emphatic interjections, and other expressions of great emotion, are generally followed by the note of exclamation." Therefore, the pause after this sentence, should be marked with the latter sign; and, if the "O" be read with a pause, the same sign may be there also.]

(2.) "O that his heart was tender."—Exercises, ib., p. 111. (3.) "Oh, what a sight is here!"—Lennie's Gram., p. 48. (4.) "Oh! what a sight is here."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 71; (Obs. 2;) Pract. Les., p. 83. (5.) "O virtue! How amiable thou art."—Id.,, p. 71; Pract. Les., p. 82. (6.) "O virtue! how amiable thou art."—Day's Gram., p. 109. (7.) "O, virtue! how amiable thou art."—S. Putnam's Gram., p. 53. (8.) "Oh! virtue, how amiable thou art!"—Hallock's Gram., p. 191; O. B. Peirce's, 375. (9.) "O virtue! how amiable thou art!"—Hallock's Gram., p. 126. (10.) "Oh! that I had been more diligent."—Hart's Gram., p. 167; see Hiley's, 117. (11.) "O! the humiliation to which vice reduces us."—Farnum's Gram., p. 12; Murray's Ex., p. 5. (12.) "O! that he were more prudent."—Farnum's Gram., p. 81. (13.) "Ah! me."—P. Davis's Gram., p. 79. (14.) "Ah me!"—Ib., p. 122. (15.) "Lately alas I knew a gentle boy," &c.—The Dial, Vol. i, p. 71.

(16.) "Wo is me Alhama."—Wells's School Gram., 1st Ed., p. 190.

(17.) "Wo is me, Alhama."—Ibid., "113th Thousand," p. 206.

UNDER RULE II.—OF INVOCATIONS.

"Weep on the rocks of roaring winds, O maid of Inistore."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 131; Cooper's Plain and Practical Gram., p. 158.

[FORMULE—Not proper, because the emphatic address in this sentence, is marked with a period after it. But, according to Rule 2d for the Ecphoneme, "After an earnest address or solemn invocation, the note of exclamation is now generally preferred to any other point." Therefore, this period should be changed to the latter sign.]

"Cease a little while, O wind; stream, be thou silent a while; let my voice be heard around. Let my wanderer hear me. Salgar, it is Colma who calls. Here is the tree, and the rock. Salgar, my love, I am here. Why delayest thou thy coming? Lo, the calm moon comes forth. The flood is bright in the vale."—See Key.

"Ah, stay not, stay not, guardless and alone; Hector, my lov'd, my dearest, bravest son."—See Key.

UNDER RULE III.—EXCLAMATORY QUESTIONS.

"How much better is wisdom than gold."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 153; Hiley, p. 113.

[FORMULE—Not proper, because this exclamatory sentence is pointed with a period at the end. But, according to Rule 3d for the Ecphoneme, "Words uttered with vehemence in the form of a question, but without reference to an answer, should be followed by the note of exclamation." Therefore, this period should be changed to the latter sign.]

"O virtue! how amiable art thou."—Flint's Murray, p. 51. "At that hour, O how vain was all sublunary happiness."—Day's Gram., p. 74. "Alas! how few and transitory are the joys which this world affords to man."—Ib., p. 12. "Oh! how vain and transitory are all things here below."—Ib., p. 110.

"And oh! what change of state, what change of rank, In that assembly everywhere was seen."—Day's Gram., p. 12.

"And O! what change of state! what change of rank! In that assembly every where was seen!"—Pollok, B. ix, l. 781.

MIXED EXAMPLES OF ERROR.

"O shame! where is thy blush."—S. Barren's Principles of Language, p. 86. "O shame, where is thy blush; John, give me my hat."—Ib., p. 98. "What! is Moscow in flames."—Ib., p. 86. "Ah! what happiness awaits the virtuous."—Ib., 86.

"Ah, welladay,—do what we can for him, said Trim, maintaining his point,—the poor soul will die."—STERNE: Enfield's Speaker, p. 306. "A well o'day! do what we can for him, said Trim, maintaining his point: the poor soul will die"—Kirkham's Elocution, p. 340.

"Will John return to-morrow."—S. Barrett's Gram., Tenth Ed., p. 55. "Will not John return to-morrow."—Ib., 55. "John! return to-morrow; Soldiers! stand firm."—Ib., 55. "If mea which means my is an adjective in Latin, why may not my be so called in English, and if my is an adjective, why not Barrett's"—Ib., p. 50.

"Oh? Absalom, my son."—O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 375. "Oh! STAR-EYED SCIENCE!! whither hast thou fled?"—Ib., p. 366. "Why do you tolerate your own inconsistency, by calling it the present tense!"—Ib., p. 360. "Thus the declarative mode may be used in asking a question; as, what man is frail."—Ib., p. 358. "What connexion has motive wish, or supposition, with the term subjunctive!"—Ib., p. 348. "A grand reason, truly! for calling it a golden key."—Ib., p. 347. "What 'suffering'! the man who can say this, must be 'enduring.'"—Ib., p. 345. "What is Brown's Rule! in relation to this matter?"—Ib., p. 334.

"Alas! how short is life." "Thomas, study your book."—Day's District School Gram., p. 109. "As, 'alas!' how short is life; Thomas, study your book.'"—Ib., p. 82. "Who can tell us who they are."—Sanborn's Gram., p. 178. "Lord have mercy on my son; for he is a lunatic, etc."—Felton's Gram., 1st Ed., p. 138; Ster. Ed., 140. "O, ye wild groves, O, where is now your bloom!"—Ib., p. 88; Ster. Ed., 91.

"O who of man the story will unfold!" —Farnum's Gr., 2d Ed., p. 104.

"Methought I heard Horatio say to-morrow. Go to I will not hear of it—to-morrow." —Hallock's Gr., 1st Ed., p. 221.

"How his eyes languish? how his thoughts adore That painted coat which Joseph never wore?" —Love of Fame, p. 66.



SECTION VIII.—THE CURVES.

The Curves, or Marks of Parenthesis, are used to distinguish a clause or hint that is hastily thrown in between the parts of a sentence to which it does not properly belong; as, "Their enemies (and enemies they will always have) would have a handle for exposing their measures."—Walpole.

"To others do (the law is not severe) What to thyself thou wishest to be done."—Beattie.

OBS.—The incidental clause should be uttered in a lower tone, and faster than the principal sentence. It always requires a pause as great as that of a comma, or greater.

RULE I.—THE PARENTHESIS.

A clause that breaks the unity of a sentence or passage too much to be incorporated with it, and only such, should be inclosed within curves, as a parenthesis; as, "For I know that in me, (that is, in my flesh,) dwelleth no good thing."—Rom., vii, 18.

"Know then this truth, (enough for man to know,) Virtue alone is happiness below."—Pope.

RULE II.—INCLUDED POINTS.

The curves do not supersede other stops; and, as the parenthesis terminates with a pause equal to that which precedes it, the same point should be included, except when the sentences differ in form: as, 1. "Now for a recompense in the same, (I speak as unto my children,) be ye also enlarged."—2 Cor., vi, 13.

2. "Man's thirst of happiness declares it is: (For nature never gravitates to nought:) That thirst unquench'd, declares it is not here."—Young.

3. "Night visions may befriend: (as sung above:) Our waking dreams are fatal. How I dreamt Of things impossible! (could sleep do more?) Of joys perpetual in perpetual change!"—Young.

IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.

FALSE PUNCTUATION.—ERRORS CONCERNING THE CURVES.

UNDER RULE I.—OF THE PARENTHESIS.

"Another is composed of the indefinite article an, which, etymologically means one and other, and denotes one other."—Hallock's Gram., p. 63.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the parenthetic expression, "which etymologically means one," is not sufficiently separated from the rest of the passage. But, according to Rule 1st for the Curves, "A clause that breaks the unity of a sentence or passage too much to be incorporated with it, and only such, should be enclosed within curves, as a parenthesis." Therefore, the curves should be here inserted; and also, by Rule 2d, a comma at the word one.]

"Each mood has its peculiar Tense, Tenses (or Times)."—Bucke's Gram., p. 58.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the expression, "or Times," which has not the nature of a parenthesis, is here marked with curves. But, according to Rule 1st for the Curves, "A clause that breaks the unity of a sentence or passage too much to be incorporated with it, and only such, should be enclosed within curves, as a parenthesis." Therefore, these marks should be omitted; and a comma should be set after the word "Tenses," by Rule 3d.]

"In some very ancient languages, as the Hebrew, which have been employed chiefly for expressing plain sentiments in the plainest manner, without aiming at any elaborate length or harmony of periods, this pronoun [the relative] occurs not so often."—L. Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 127.

"Before I shall say those Things, (O conscript Fathers) about the Public Affairs, which are to be spoken at this Time; I shall lay before you, in few Words, the Motives of the Journey, and the Return."—Brightland's Gram., p. 149.

"Of well-chose Words some take not care enough. And think they should be (like the Subject) rough." —Ib., p. 173.

"Then having shewed his wounds, he'd sit (him) down." —Bullions, E. Gram., p. 32.

UNDER RULE II.—OF INCLUDED POINTS.

"Then Jael smote the Nail into his Temples, and fastened it to the Ground: (for he was fast asleep and weary) so he died. OLD TEST."—Ward's Gram., p. 17.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because this parenthesis is not marked as terminating with a pause equal to that which precedes it. But, according to Rule 2d above, "The curves do not supersede other stops; and, as the parenthesis terminates with a pause equal to that which precedes it, the same point should be included, except when the sentences differ in form." Therefore, a colon should be inserted within the curve after weary.]

"Every thing in the Iliad has manners (as Aristotle expresses it) that is, every thing is acted or spoken."—Pope, Pref. to Homer, p. vi.

"Those nouns, that end in f. or fe (except some few I shall mention presently), form plurals by changing those letters into ves: as, thief, thieves; wife, wives."—Bucke's Gram., p. 35.

"As, requires as; (expressing equality) Mine is as good as yours. As,—so; (expressing equality) As the stars, so shall thy seed be. So,—as; (with a negative expressing inequality) He is not so wise as his brother. So.—that; (expressing consequence) I am so weak that I cannot walk."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 113; Pract. Les., p. 112.

"A captious question, sir (and yours is one,) Deserves an answer similar, or none."—Cowper, ii. 228.

MIXED EXAMPLES OF ERROR.

"Whatever words the verb TO BE serves to unite referring to the same thing, must be of the same case; Sec.61, as, Alexander is a student."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 75. "When the objective is a relative or interrogative, it comes before the verb that governs it. Sec.40, R. 9. (Murray's 6th rule is unnecessary.)"—Id., ib., p. 90. "It is generally improper (except in poetry,) to omit the antecedent to a relative; and always to omit a relative when of the nominative case."—Id., ib., p. 130. "In every sentence there must be a verb and a nominative (or subject) expressed or understood."—Id., ib., p. 87; Pract. Lessons, p. 91. "Nouns and pronouns, and especially words denoting time, are often governed by prepositions understood; or are used to restrict verbs or adjectives without a governing word, Sec.50. Rem. 6 and Rule; as, He gave (to) me a full account of the whole affair."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 80. "When should is used instead of ought, to express present duty, Sec.20, 4, it may be followed by the present; as, 'You should study that you may become learned.'"—Id., ib., p. 123. "The indicative present is frequently used after the words, when, till, before, as soon as, after, to express the relative time of a future action; (Sec.24, I, 4,) as, 'When he comes, he will be welcome.'"—Id., ib., p. 124. "The relative is parsed by stating its gender, number, case, and antecedent, (the gender and number being always the same as those of the antecedent) thus, 'The boy who.' 'Who' is a relative pronoun, masculine, singular, the nominative, and refers to 'boy' as its antecedent."—Bullions, Pract. Les., p. 31.

"Now, now, I seize, I clasp thy charms, And now you burst; ah! cruel from my arms."

Here is an unnecessary change from the second person singular to the second plural. It would have been better thus,

"Now, now I seize, I clasp your charms, And now you burst; ah! cruel from my arms." —J. Burn's Gram., p. 193.



SECTION IX.—THE OTHER MARKS.

There are also several other marks, which are occasionally used for various purposes, as follow:—

I. ['] The APOSTROPHE usually denotes either the possessive case of a noun, or the elision of one or more letters of a word: as, "The girl's regard to her parents' advice;"—'gan, lov'd, e'en, thro'; for began, loved, even, through. It is sometimes used in pluralizing a mere letter or sign; as, Two a's—three 6's.[467]

II. [-] The HYPHEN connects the parts of many compound words, especially such as have two accents; as, ever-living. It is also frequently inserted where a word is divided into syllables; as, con-tem-plate. Placed at the end of a line, it shows that one or more syllables of a word are can led forward to the next line.

III. ["] The DIAERESIS, or DIALYSIS, placed over either of two contiguous vowels, shows that they are not a diphthong; as, Danaee, aerial.

IV. ['] The ACUTE ACCENT marks the syllable which requires the principal stress in pronunciation; as, e'qual, equal'ity. It is sometimes used in opposition to the grave accent, to distinguish a close or short vowel; as, "Fancy:" (Murray:) or to denote the rising inflection of the voice; as, "Is it he?"

V. ['] The GRAVE ACCENT is used in opposition to the acute, to distinguish an open or long vowel; as, "Favour:" (Murray:) or to denote the falling inflection of the voice; as, "Yes; it is he" It is sometimes placed over a vowel to show that it is not to be suppressed in pronunciation; as,

"Let me, though in humble speech, Thy refined maxims teach."—Amer. Review, May, 1848.

VI. [^] The CIRCUMFLEX generally denotes either the broad sound of a or an unusual sound given to some other vowel; as in all, heir, machine. Some use it to mark a peculiar wave of the voice, and when occasion requires, reverse it; as, "If you said s=o, then I said so."

VII. [[~]] The BREVE, or STENOTONE, is used to denote either the close, short, shut sound of a vowel, or a syllable of short quantity; as, l~ive, to have life,—r~av'en, to devour,[468]—c~al~am~us, a reed.

VIII. [=] The MACRON, or MACROTONE,[469] is used to denote either the open, long, primal sound of a vowel, or a syllable of long quantity; as, l=ive, having life,—r=a'ven, a bird,—=e'qu=ine, of a horse.

IX. [——] or [* * * *] or [....] The ELLIPSIS, or SUPPRESSION, denotes the omission of some letters or words: as, K—g, for King; c****d, for coward; d....d, for damned.

X. [^] The CARET, used only in writing, shows where to insert words or letters that have been accidentally omitted. XI [{}] The BRACE serves to unite a triplet; or, more frequently, to connect several terms with something to which they are all related. XII. [Sec.] The SECTION marks the smaller divisions of a book or chapter; and, with the help of numbers, serves to abridge references.

XIII. [] The PARAGRAPH (chiefly used in the Bible) denotes the commencement of a new subject. The parts of discourse which are called paragraphs, are, in general, sufficiently distinguished by beginning a new line, and carrying the first word a little forwards or backwards. The paragraphs of books being in some instances numbered, this character may occasionally be used, in lieu of the word paragraph, to shorten references.

XIV. [""] The GUILLEMETS, or QUOTATION POINTS, distinguish words that are exhibited as those of an other author or speaker. A quotation within a quotation, is usually marked with single points; which, when both are employed, are placed within the others: as, "And again he saith, 'Rejoice, ye Gentiles, with his people.'"—Rom., xv, 10.

XV. [[]] The CROTCHETS, or BRACKETS, generally inclose some correction or explanation, but sometimes the sign or subject to be explained; as, "He [Mr. Maurice] was of a different opinion."—Allen's Gram., p. 213.

XVI. [Fist] The INDEX, or HAND, points out something remarkable, or what the reader should particularly observe.

XVII. [*] The ASTERISK, or STAR, [Dagger] the OBELISK, or DAGGER, [Double dagger] the DIESIS, or DOUBLE DAGGER, and [ ] the PARALLELS, refer to marginal notes. The SECTION also [Sec.], and the PARAGRAPH [], are often used for marks of reference, the former being usually applied to the fourth, and the latter to the sixth note on a page; for, by the usage of printers, these signs are commonly introduced in the following order: 1, *; 2, [Dagger]; 3, [Double dagger]; 4, Sec.; 5, ; 6, ; 7, **; 8, [Dagger][Dagger]; &c. Where many references are to be made, the small letters of the alphabet, or the numerical figures, in their order, may be conveniently used for the same purpose.

XVIII. [[Asterism]] The ASTERISM, or THREE STARS, a sign not very often used, is placed before a long or general note, to mark it as a note, without giving it a particular reference.

XIX. [,] The CEDILLA is a mark borrowed from the French, by whom it is placed under the letter c, to give it the sound of s, before a or o; as in the words, "facade," "Alencon." In Worcester's Dictionary, it is attached to three other letters, to denote their soft sounds: viz., "G as J; S as Z; x as gz."

[Fist][Oral exercises in punctuation should not be confined to the correction of errors. An application of its principles to points rightly inserted, is as easy a process as that of ordinary syntactical parsing, and perhaps as useful. For this purpose, the teacher may select a portion of this grammar, or of any well-pointed book, to which the foregoing rules and explanations may be applied by the pupil, as reasons for the points that occur.]

IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.

FALSE PUNCTUATION.—MIXED EXAMPLES OF ERROR.

"The principal stops are the following:—

The Comma (,) the semicolon (;) the colon (:) the period, or fall stop (.) the note of interrogation (?) the note of exclamation (!) the parenthesis () and the dash (—) [.]"—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 151; Pract. Les., p. 127. "The modern punctuation in Latin is the same as in English. The marks employed, are the Comma (,); Semicolon (;); Colon (:); Period (.); Interrogation (?); Exclamation (!)."—Bullions, Lat. Gram., p. 3.

"Plato reproving a young man for playing at some childish game; you chide me, says the youth, for a trifling fault. Custom, replied the philosopher, is no trifle. And, adds Montagnie, he was in the right; for our vices begin in infancy."—Home's Art of Thinking, (N. Y. 1818,) p. 54.

"A merchant at sea asked the skipper what death his father died? 'My father,' says the skipper, my grandfather, and my great-grandfather, were all drowned. 'Well,' replies the merchant, and are not you afraid of being drowned too?'"—Ib., p. 135.

"The use of inverted comma's derives from France, where one Guillemet was the author of them; [and] as an acknowledgement for the improvement his countrymen call them after his name GUILLEMETS."—History of Printing, (London, 1770,) p. 266.

"This, however, is seldem [sic—KTH] if ever done unless the word following the possessive begins with s; thus we do not say, 'the prince' feather,' but, 'the prince's feather.'"—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 17. "And this phrase must mean the feather of the prince but princesfeather written as one word is the name of a plant: a species of amaranth."—See Key.

"Boeethius soon had the satisfaction of obtaining the highest honour his country could bestow."—Ingersoll's Gram. 12mo., p. 279. "Boethius soon had," &c.—Murray's Gram., 8vo, Vol. ii., p. 83.

"When an example, a quotation, or a speech is introduced, it is separated from the rest of the sentence either by a semicolon or a colon; as, 'The scriptures give us an amiable representation of the Deity, in these words; God is love.'"—Hiley's Gram., p. 116. "Either the colon or semicolon may be used when an example, a quotation, or a speech is introduced; as, 'Always remember this ancient maxim; Know thyself.' 'The scriptures give us an amiable representation of the Deity, in these words: God is love.'"—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 155.

"The first word of a quotation, introduced after a colon [, must begin with a capital]; as, always remember this ancient maxim: 'Know thyself.'"— Bullions, E. Gram., p. 159; Lennie's Gram., p. 106. [Lennie has "Always" with a capital.] "The first word of a quotation, introduced after a colon, or when it is in a direct form: as, 'Always remember this ancient maxim: Know thyself.' 'Our great lawgiver says, Take up thy cross daily, and follow me.'"—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 284. "8. The first word of a quotation, introduced after a colon, or when it is in a direct form. EXAMPLES.—'Always remember this ancient maxim, 'Know thyself.' 'Our great Lawgiver says, Take up thy cross daily, and follow me.'"—Weld's Gram., Abridged., p. 17

"Tell me in whose house do you live."—N. Butler's Gram., p. 55. "He, that acts wisely, deserves praise."—Ib., p. 50 "He, who steals my purse, steals trash."—Ib., p. 51. "The antecedent is sometimes omitted, as, 'Who steals my purse, steals trash;' that is, he who, or person who."—Ib., p. 51. "Thus, 'Whoever steals my purse steals trash;' 'Whoever does no good does harm.'"—Ib., p. 53 "Thus, 'Whoever sins will suffer.' This means that any one without exception who sins will suffer."—Ib., p. 53.

"Letters form syllables, syllables words, words sentences, and sentences, combined and connected form discourse."—Cooper's Plain and Practical Gram., p. 1. "A letter which forms a perfect sound, when uttered by itself, is called a vowel, as: a, e, i."—Ib., p. 1. "A proper noun is the name of an individual, as: John; Boston: Hudson; America."—Ib., p. 17.

"Many men have been capable of doing a wise thing, more a cunning thing, but very few a generous thing."—P. Davis's Gram., p. 96. "In the place of an ellipsis of the verb a comma must be inserted."—Ib., p. 121. "A common noun unlimited by an article is sometimes understood in its broadest acceptation: thus, 'Fishes swim' is understood to mean all fishes. 'Man is mortal,' all men."—Ib., p. 13.

"Thus those sounds formed principally by the throat are called gutturals. Those formed principally by the palate are called palatals. Those formed by the teeth, dentals—those by the lips, labials—those by the nose, nasals, &c."—P. Davis's Gram., p. 113.

"Some adjectives are compared irregularly; as, Good, better, best. Bad, worse, worst. Little, less, least."—Felton's Gram., 1st Ed., p. 63; Ster. Ed., p. 66.

"Under the fourth head of grammar, therefore, four topics will be considered, viz. PUNCTUATION, ORTHOEPY, FIGURES, and VERSIFICATION."— Hart's Gram., p. 161.

"Direct her onward to that peaceful shore, Where peril, pain and death are felt no more!" Falconer's Poems, p. 136; Barrett's New Gram., p. 94

BAD ENGLISH BADLY POINTED.

LESSON I.—UNDER VARIOUS RULES.

"Discoveries of such a character are sometimes made in grammar also, and such, too, is often their origin and their end."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 191.

"Traverse, (to cross.) To deny what the opposite party has alleged. To traverse an indictment, &c. is to deny it."—Id., ib., p. 216.

"The Ordinal [numerals] denote the order or succession in which any number of persons or things is mentioned, as first, second, third, fourth, &c."—Hiley's Gram., p. 22.

"Nouns have three persons, FIRST, SECOND, and THIRD. The First person is the speaker, the Second is the one spoken to, the Third is the one spoken of."—Hiley's Gram., p. 44.

"Nouns have three cases, NOMINATIVE, POSSESSIVE, and OBJECTIVE. The relation indicated by the case of a noun includes three ideas, viz: those of subject, object, and ownership."—Ib., p. 45.

"In speaking of animals that are of inferior size, or whose sex is not known or not regarded, they are often considered as without sex: thus, we say of a cat 'it is treacherous,' of an infant 'it is beautiful,' of a deer 'it was killed.'"—Ib., p. 39.

"When this or these, that or those, refers to a preceding sentence; this, or these, refers to the latter member or term; that, or those, to the former."—Churchill's Gram., p. 136; see Lowth's Gram., p. 102.

"The rearing of them [i. e. of plants] became his first care, their fruit his first food, and marking their kinds his first knowledge."—N. Butler's Gram., p. 44.

"After the period used with abbreviations we should employ other points, if the construction demands it; thus, after Esq. in the last example, there should be, besides a period, a comma."—Ib., p. 212.

"In the plural, the verb is the same in all the persons; and hence the principle in Rem. 5, under Rule iii. [that the first or second person takes precedence,] is not applicable to verbs."—Ib., p. 158.

"Rex and Tyrannus are of very different characters. The one rules his people by laws to which they consent; the other, by his absolute will and power: that is called freedom, this, tyranny."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 190.

"A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, which can be known, or mentioned, as: George; London; America; goodness; charity."—Cooper's Plain and Pract. Gram., p. 17.

"Etymology treats of the classification of words; their various modifications and derivations."—Day's School Gram., p. 9. "To punctuate correctly implies a thorough acquaintance with the meaning of words and phrases, as well as of all their corresponding connexions"—W. Day's Punctuation, p. 31.

"All objects which belong to neither the male nor female kind are called neuter."—Weld's Gram., 2d Ed., p. 57. "All objects, which belong to neither the male nor female kind, are said to be of the neuter gender."—Weld's Gram., Abridged, p. 51.

"The Analysis of the Sounds in the English language presented in the preceding statements are sufficiently exact for the purpose in hand. Those who wish to pursue it further can consult Dr. Rush's admirable work, 'The Philosophy of the Human Voice.'"—Fowlers E. Gram., 1850, Sec.65. "Nobody confounds the name of w or y with their sound or phonetic import."—Ib., Sec.74.

"Order is Heaven's first law; and this confest, Some are and must be, greater than the rest."—Ib., p. 96.

LESSON II.—UNDER VARIOUS RULES.

"In adjectives of one syllable, the Comparative is formed by adding -er to the positive; and the Superlative by adding -est; as, sweet, sweeter, sweetest."—Bullions, Prin. of E. Gram., p. 19.

"In monosyllables the comparative is formed by adding er or r to the positive, and the superlative by adding est or st; as, tall, taller, tallest; wise, wiser, wisest."—Id., Pract. Les., p. 24.

"By this method the confusion and unnecessary labor occasioned by studying grammars in these languages, constructed on different principles is avoided, the study of one is rendered a profitable introduction to the study of another, and an opportunity is furnished to the enquiring student of comparing the languages in their grammatical structure, and seeing at once wherein they agree, and wherein they differ."—Bullions, Prin. of E. Gram., Pref. to 5th Ed., p. vii.

"No larger portion should be assigned for each recitation than the class can easily master, and till this is done, a new portion should not be given out."—Id., ib., p. viii. "The acquisitions made in every new lesson should be rivetted and secured by repeated revisals."—Id., ib., p. viii.

"The personal pronouns may be parsed briefly thus; I, the first personal pronoun, masculine (or feminine), singular, the nominative. His, the third personal pronoun, masculine, singular, the possessive, &c."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 23: Pract. Les., p. 28.

"When the male and female are expressed by distinct terms; as, shepherd, shepherdess, the masculine term has also a general meaning, expressing both male and female, and is always to be used when the office, occupation, profession, &c., and not the sex of the individual, is chiefly to be expressed. The feminine term is used only when the discrimination, of sex is indispensably necessary. Thus, when it is said 'the Poets of this country are distinguished by correctness of taste,' the term 'Poet' clearly includes both male and female writers of poetry."—Id., E. Gram., p. 12; his Analyt. and Pract. Gram., 24.

"Nouns and pronouns, connected by conjunctions, must be in the same cases."—Ingersoll's Gram., p. 78. "Verbs, connected by conjunctions, must be in the same moods and tenses, and, when in the subjunctive present, they must be in the same form."—Ib., p. 112.

"This will habituate him to reflection—exercise his judgment on the meaning of the author, and without any great effort on his part, impress indelibly on his memory, the rules which he is required to give. After the exercises under the rule have been gone through as directed in the note page 96, they may be read over again in a corrected state the pupil making an emphasis on the correction made, or they may be presented in writing at the next recitation."—Bullions, Prin. of E. Gram., 2d Ed. Revised and Cor., p. viii.

"Man, but for that, no action could attend And but for this, be thoughtful to no end." —O. B. Peirce's Gram., Pref. p. 5.

LESSON III.—UNDER VARIOUS RULES.

"'Johnson the bookseller and stationer,' indicates that the bookseller and the stationer are epithets belonging to the same person; 'the bookseller and the stationer' would indicate that they belong to different persons."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 127.

"Past is an adjective; passed, the past tense or perfect participle of the verb, and they ought not, as is frequently done, to be confounded with each other."—Id., ib., p. 148.

"Not only the nature of the thoughts and sentiments, but the very selection and arrangement of the words, gives English poetry a character, which separates it widely from common prose."—Id., ib., p. 178.

"Men of sound, discriminating, and philosophical minds—men prepared for the work by long study, patient investigation, and extensive acquirements, have labored for ages to improve and perfect it, and nothing is hazarded in asserting, that should it be unwisely abandoned, it will be long before another equal in beauty, stability and usefulness, be produced in its stead."—Id., ib., p. 191.

"The Article The, on the other hand, is used to restrict, and is therefore termed Definite. Its proper office is to call the attention to a particular individual or class, or to any number of such, and is used with nouns in either the singular or plural number."—Id., ib., p. 193.

"Hence also the infinitive mood, a participle, a member of a sentence, or a proposition, forming together the subject of discourse, or the object of a verb or preposition, and being the name of an act or circumstance, are in construction, regarded as nouns, and are usually called 'substantive phrases;' as 'To play is pleasant,' 'His being an expert dancer is no recommendation,' 'Let your motto be Honesty is the best policy.'"—Id., ib., p. 194.

"In accordance with his definition, Murray has divided verbs into three classes, Active, Passive, and Neuter, and includes in the first class transitive verbs only, and in the last all verbs used intransitively"—Id., ib., p. 200.

"Moreover, as the name of the speaker or the person spoken to is seldom expressed, (the pronouns I and thou being used in its stead,) a noun is very seldom in the first person, not often in the second, and almost never in either, unless it be a proper noun, or a common noun personified."—Bullions, Pract. Les., p. 13.

"In using the above exercises it will save much time, which is all important, if the pupil be taught to say every thing belonging to the nouns in the fewest words possible, and to say them always in the same order as above."—Id., ib., p. 21.

"In any phrase or sentence the adjectives qualifying a noun may generally be found by prefixing the phrase 'What kind of,' to the noun in the form of a question; as, What kind of a horse? What kind of a stone? What kind of a way? The word containing the answer to the question is an adjective."—Id., ib., p. 22.

"In the following exercise let the pupil first point out the nouns, and then the adjectives; and tell how he knows them to be so."—Id., ib., p. 23.

"In the following sentences point out the improper ellipsis. Show why it is improper, and correct it."—Id., ib., p. 124.

"SINGULAR PRONOUNS. PLURAL PRONOUNS.

1. I—am being smitten. 1. We—are being smitten. 2. Thou—art being smitten. 2. Ye or you—are being smitten. 3. He—is being smitten. 3. They—are being smitten."

Wright's Philos. Gram., p. 98.



CHAPTER II—UTTERANCE.

Utterance Is the art or act of vocal expression. It includes the principles of articulation, of pronunciation, and of elocution.

SECTION I.—OF ARTICULATION.

Articulation is the forming of words; by the voice, with reference to their component letters and sounds.

ARTICLE I.—OF THE DEFINITION.

Articulation differs from pronunciation, in having more particular regard to the elements of words, and in not embracing accent[470]. A recent author defines it thus: "ARTICULATION is the act of forming, with the organs of speech, the elements of vocal language."—Comstock's Elocution, p. 16. And again: "A good articulation is the perfect utterance of the elements of vocal language."—Ibid.

An other describes it more elaborately thus: "ARTICULATION, in language, is the forming of the human voice, accompanied by the breath, in some few consonants, into the simple and compound sounds, called vowels, consonants, and diphthongs, by the assistance of the organs of speech; and the uniting of those vowels, consonants, and diphthongs, together, so as to form syllables and words, and constitute spoken language."—Bolles's Dict., Introd., p. 7.

ARTICLE II—OF GOOD ARTICULATION.

Correctness in articulation is of such importance, that without it speech or reading becomes not only inelegant, but often absolutely unintelligible. The opposite faults are mumbling, muttering, mincing, lisping, slurring, mouthing, drawling, hesitating, stammering, misreading, and the like. "A good articulation consists in giving every letter in a syllable its due proportion of sound, according to the most approved custom of pronouncing it; and in making such a distinction between the syllables of which words are composed, that the ear shall without difficulty acknowledge their number; and perceive, at once, to which syllable each letter belongs. Where these points are not observed, the articulation is proportionably defective."—Sheridan's Rhetorical Grammar, p. 50.

Distinctness of articulation depends, primarily, upon the ability to form the simple elements, or sounds of letters, by the organs of speech, in the manner which the custom of the language demands; and, in the next place, upon the avoidance of that precipitancy of utterance, which is greater than the full and accurate play of the organs will allow. If time be not given for the full enunciation of any word which we attempt to speak, some of the syllables will of course be either lost by elision or sounded confusedly.

Just articulation gives even to a feeble voice greater power and reach than the loudest vociferation can attain without it. It delivers words from the lips, not mutilated, distorted, or corrupted, but as the acknowledged sterling currency of thought;—"as beautiful coins newly issued from the mint, deeply and accurately impressed, perfectly finished, neatly struck by the proper organs, distinct, sharp, in due succession, and of due weight."—Austin's Chironomia, p. 38.

OBS.—The principles of articulation constitute the chief exercise of all those who are learning either to speak or to read. So far as they are specifically taught in this work, they will be found in those sections which treat of the powers of the letters.



SECTION II.—OF PRONUNCIATION.

Pronunciation, as distinguished from elocution, or delivery, is the utterance of words taken separately. The correct pronunciation of words, or that part of grammar which teaches it, is frequently called Orthoepy.

Pronunciation, or orthoepy, requires a knowledge of the just powers of the letters in all their combinations; of the distinction of quantity in vowels and syllables; and of the force and seat of the accent.

ARTICLE I—OF THE POWERS OF LETTERS.

The JUST POWERS of the letters, are those sounds which are given to them by the best readers. These are to be learned, as reading is learned, partly from example, and partly from such books as show or aid the pronunciation of words.

It is to be observed, however, that considerable variety, even in the powers of the letters, is produced by the character and occasion of what is uttered. It is noticed by Walker, that, "Some of the vowels, when neither under the accent, nor closed by a consonant, have a longer or a shorter, an opener or a closer sound, according to the solemnity or familiarity, the deliberation or rapidity of our delivery."—Pronouncing Dict., Preface, p. 4. In cursory speech, or in such reading as imitates it, even the best scholars utter many letters with quicker and obscurer sounds than ought ever to be given them in solemn discourse. "In public speaking," says Rippingham, "every word should be uttered, as though it were spoken singly. The solemnity of an oration justifies and demands such scrupulous distinctness. That careful pronunciation which would be ridiculously pedantic in colloquial intercourse, is an essential requisite of good elocution."—Art of Public Speaking, p. xxxvii.

ARTICLE II—OF QUANTITY.

QUANTITY, or TIME in pronunciation, is the measure of sounds or syllables in regard to their duration; and, by way of distinction, is supposed ever to determine them to be either long or short.[471]

The absolute time in which syllables are uttered, is very variable, and must be different to suit different subjects, passions, and occasions; but their relative length or shortness may nevertheless be preserved, and generally must be, especially in reciting poetry.

Our long syllables are chiefly those which, having sounds naturally capable of being lengthened at pleasure, are made long by falling under some stress either of accent or of emphasis. Our short syllables are the weaker sounds, which, being the less significant words, or parts of words, are uttered without peculiar stress.

OBS.—As quantity is chiefly to be regarded in the utterance of poetical compositions, this subject will be farther considered under the head of Versification.

ARTICLE III.—OF ACCENT.

ACCENT, as commonly understood, is the peculiar stress which we lay upon some particular syllable of a word, whereby that syllable is distinguished from and above the rest; as, gram'-mar, gram-ma'-ri-an.

Every word of more than one syllable, has one of its syllables accented; and sometimes a compound word has two accents, nearly equal in force; as, e'ven-hand'ed, home'-depart'ment.[472]

Besides the chief or primary accent, when the word is long, for the sake of harmony or distinctness, we often give a secondary or less forcible accent to an other syllable; as, to the last of tem'-per-a-ture', and to the second of in dem'-ni-fi-ca'-tion.

"Accent seems to be regulated, in a great measure, by etymology. In words from the Saxon, the accent is generally on the root; in words from the learned languages, it is generally on the termination; and if to these we add the different accent we lay on some words, to distinguish them from others, we seem to have the three great principles of accentuation; namely, the radical, the terminational, and the distinctive."—Walker's Principles, No. 491; L. Murray's Grammar, 8vo, p. 236.

A full and open pronunciation of the long vowel sounds, a clear articulation of the consonants, a forcible and well-placed accent, and a distinct utterance of the unaccented syllables, distinguish the elegant speaker.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—The pronunciation of the English language is confessedly very difficult to be mastered. Its rules and their exceptions are so numerous, that few become thoroughly acquainted with any general system of them. Nor, among the different systems which have been published, is there any which is worthy in all respects to be accounted a STANDARD. And, if we appeal to custom, the custom even of the best speakers is far from an entire uniformity. Perhaps the most popular directory on this subject is Walker's Critical Pronouncing Dictionary. The "Principles of English Pronunciation," which this author has furnished, occupy fifty-six closely-printed octavo pages, and are still insufficient for the purpose of teaching our orthoepy by rule. They are, however, highly valuable, and ought to be consulted by every one who wishes to be master of this subject. In its vocabulary, or stock of words, this Dictionary is likewise deficient. Other lexicographers have produced several later works, of high value to the student; and, though no one has treated the subject of pronunciation so elaborately as did Walker, some may have given the results of their diligence in a form more useful to the generality of their consulters. Among the good ones, is the Universal and Critical Dictionary of Joseph E. Worcester.

OBS. 2.—Our modern accentuation of Greek or Latin words is regulated almost wholly by the noted rule of Sanctius, which Walker has copied and Englished in the Introduction to his Key, and of which the following is a new version or paraphrase, never before printed:

RULE FOR THE ACCENTING OF LATIN.

One syllable has stress of course, And words of two the first enforce; In longer words the penult guides, Its quantity the point decides; If long, 'tis there the accent's due, If short, accent the last but two; For accent, in a Latin word, Should ne'er go higher than the third.

This rule, or the substance of it, has become very important by long and extensive use; but it should be observed, that stress on monosyllables is more properly emphasis than accent; and that, in English, the accent governs quantity, rather than quantity the accent.



SECTION III.—OF ELOCUTION.

Elocution is the graceful utterance of words that are arranged into sentences, and that form discourse.

Elocution requires a knowledge, and right application, of emphasis, pauses, inflections, and tones.

ARTICLE I—OF EMPHASIS.

EMPHASIS is the peculiar stress of voice which we lay upon some particular word or words in a sentence, which are thereby distinguished from the rest as being more especially significant.[473]

As accent enforces a syllable, and gives character to a word; so emphasis distinguishes a word, and often determines the import of a sentence. The right placing of accent, in the utterance of words, is therefore not more important, than the right placing of emphasis, in the utterance of sentences. If no emphasis be used, discourse becomes vapid and inane; if no accent, words can hardly be recognized as English.

"Emphasis, besides its other offices, is the great regulator of quantity. Though the quantity of our syllable is fixed, in words separately pronounced, yet it is mutable, when [the] words are [ar]ranged in[to] sentences; the long being changed into short, the short into long, according to the importance of the words with regard to meaning: and, as it is by emphasis only, that the meaning can be pointed out, emphasis must be the regulator of the quantity."—L. Murray's Gram., p. 246.[474] "Emphasis changes, not only the quantity of words and syllables, but also, in particular cases, the sent of the accent. This is demonstrable from the following examples: 'He shall increase, but I shall decrease.' 'There is a difference between giving and forgiving.' 'In this species of composition, plausibility is much more essential than probability.' In these examples, the emphasis requires the accent to be placed on syllables to which it does not commonly belong."—Ib., p. 247.

In order to know what words are to be made emphatic, the speaker or reader must give constant heed to the sense of what he utters; his only sure guide, in this matter, being a just conception of the force and spirit of the sentiment which he is about to pronounce. He must also guard against the error of multiplying emphatic words too much; for, to overdo in this way, defeats the very purpose for which emphasis is used. To manage this stress with exact propriety, is therefore one of the surest evidences both of a quick understanding, and of a delicate and just taste.

ARTICLE II.—OF PAUSES.

Pauses are cessations in utterance, which serve equally to relieve the speaker, and to render language intelligible and pleasing.

Pauses are of three kinds: first, distinctive or sentential pauses,—such as form the divisions required by the sense; secondly, emphatic or rhetorical pauses,—such as particularly call the hearer's attention to something which has been, or is about to be, uttered; and lastly, poetical or harmonic pauses,—such as are peculiar to the utterance of metrical compositions.

The duration of the distinctive pauses should be proportionate to the degree of connexion between the parts of the discourse. The shortest are long enough for the taking of some breath; and it is proper, thus to relieve the voice at every stop, if needful. This we may do, slightly at a comma, more leisurely at a semicolon, still more so at a colon, and completely at a period.

Pauses, whether in reading or in public discourse, ought always to be formed after the manner in which we naturally form them in ordinary, sensible conversation; and not after the stiff, artificial manner which many acquire at school, by a mere mechanical attention to the common punctuation.

Forced, unintentional pauses, which accidentally divide words that ought to be spoken in close connexion, are always disagreeable; and, whether they arise from exhaustion of breath, from a habit of faltering, or from unacquaintance with the text, they are errors of a kind utterly incompatible with graceful elocution.

Emphatic or rhetorical pauses, the kind least frequently used, may be made immediately before, or immediately after, something which the speaker thinks particularly important, and on which he would fix the attention of his audience. Their effect is similar to that of a strong emphasis; and, like this, they must not be employed too often.

The harmonic pauses, or those which are peculiar to poetry, are of three kinds: the final pause, which marks the end of each line; the caesural or divisional pause, which commonly divides the line near the middle; and the minor rests, or demi-caesuras, which often divide it still further.

In the reading of poetry, these pauses ought to be observed, as well as those which have reference to the sense; for, to read verse exactly as if it were prose, will often rob it of what chiefly distinguishes it from prose. Yet, at the same time, all appearance of singsong, or affected tone, ought to be carefully guarded against.

ARTICLE III.—OF INFLECTIONS.

INFLECTIONS are those peculiar variations of the human voice, by which a continuous sound is made to pass from one note, key, or pitch, into an other. The passage of the voice from a lower to a higher or shriller note, is called the rising or upward inflection. The passage of the voice from a higher to a lower or graver note, is called tbe falling or downward inflection. These two opposite inflections may be heard in the following examples: 1. The rising, "Do you mean to go?" 2. The falling, "When will you go?"

In general, questions that may be answered by yes or no, require the rising inflection; while those which demand any other answer, must be uttered with the falling inflection. These slides of the voice are not commonly marked in writing, or in our printed books; but, when there is occasion to note them, we apply the acute accent to the former, and the grave accent to the latter.[475]

A union of these two inflections upon the same syllable, is called a circumflex, a wave, or a "circumflex inflection." When the slide is first downward and then upward, it is called the rising circumflex, or "the gravo-acute circumflex;" when first upward and then downward, it is denominated the falling circumflex, or "the acuto-grave circumflex." Of these complex inflections of the voice, the emphatic words in the following sentences may be uttered as examples: "And it shall go h~ard but I will use the information."—"O! but he pa~used upon the brink."

When a passage is read without any inflection, the words are uttered in what is called a monotone; the voice being commonly pitched at a grum note, and made to move for the time, slowly and gravely, on a perfect level.

"Rising inflections are far more numerous than falling inflections; the former constitute the main body of oral language, while the latter are employed for the purposes of emphasis, and in the formation of cadences. Rising inflections are often emphatic; but their emphasis is weaker than that of falling inflections."—Comstock's Elocution, p. 50.

"Writers on Elocution have given numerous rules for the regulation of inflections; but most of these rules are better calculated to make bad readers than good ones. Those founded on the construction of sentences might, perhaps, do credit to a mechanic, but they certainly do none to an elocutionist."—Ib., p. 51.

"The reader should bear in mind that a falling inflection gives more importance to a word than a rising inflection. Hence it should never be employed merely for the sake of variety; but for emphasis and cadences. Neither should a rising inflection be used for the sake of mere 'harmony,' where a falling inflection would better express the meaning of the author. The sense should, in all cases, determine the direction of inflections."—Ib.

Cadence is a fall of the voice, which has reference not so much to pitch as to force, though it may depress both; for it seems to be generally contrasted with emphasis,[476] and by some is reprehended as a fault. "Support your voice steadily and firmly," says Rippingham, "and pronounce the concluding words of the sentence with force and vivacity, rather than with a languid cadence."—Art of Speaking, p. 17. The pauses which L. Murray denominates the suspending and the closing pause, he seems to have discriminated chiefly by the inflections preceding them, if he can be said to have distinguished them at all. For he not only teaches that the former may sometimes be used at the close of a sentence, and the latter sometimes where "the sense is not completed;" but, treating cadence merely as a defect, adds the following caution: "The closing pause must not be confounded with that fall of the voice, or cadence, with which many readers uniformly finish a sentence. Nothing is more destructive of propriety and energy than this habit. The tones and inflections of the voice at the close of a sentence, ought to be diversified, according to the general nature of the discourse, and the particular construction and meaning of the sentence."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 250; 12mo, p. 200.

ARTICLE IV.—OF TONES.

Tones are those modulations of the voice which depend upon the feelings of the speaker. They are what Sheridan denominates "the language of emotions." And it is of the utmost importance, that they be natural, unaffected, and rightly adapted to the subject and to the occasion; for upon them, in a great measure, depends all that is pleasing or interesting in elocution.

"How much of the propriety, the force, and [the] grace of discourse, must depend on these, will appear from this single consideration; that to almost every sentiment we utter, more especially to every strong emotion, nature has adapted some peculiar tone of voice; insomuch, that he who should tell another that he was angry, or much grieved, in a tone that did not suit such emotions, instead of being believed, would be laughed at."—Blair's Rhet., p. 333.

"The different passions of the mind must be expressed by different tones of the voice. Love, by a soft, smooth, languishing voice; anger, by a strong, vehement, and elevated voice; joy, by a quick, sweet, and clear voice; sorrow, by a low, flexible, interrupted voice; fear, by a dejected, tremulous, hesitating voice; courage, by a full, bold, and loud voice; and perplexity, by a grave and earnest voice. In exordiums, the voice should be low, yet clear; in narrations, distinct; in reasoning, slow; in persuasions, strong: it should thunder in anger, soften in sorrow, tremble in fear, and melt in love."—Hiley's Gram., p. 121.