OBS. 7—Since Dr. Blair published his emphatic caution against too frequent a use of parentheses, there has been, if not an abatement of the kind of error which he intended to censure, at least a diminution in the use of the curves, the sign of a parenthesis. These, too, some inconsiderate grammarians now pronounce to be out of vogue. "The parenthesis is now generally exploded as a deformity."—Churchill's Gram., p. 362. "The Parenthesis, () has become nearly obsolete, except in mere references, and the like; its place, by modern writers, being usually supplied by the use of the comma, and the dash."—Nutting's Practical Gram., p. 126; Frazee's Improved Grammar, p. 187. More use may have been made of the curves than was necessary, and more of the parenthesis itself than was agreeable to good taste; but, the sign being well adapted to the construction, and the construction being sometimes sprightly and elegant, there are no good reasons for wishing to discard either of them; nor is it true, that the former "has become nearly obsolete."

OBS. 8—The name parenthesis is, which literally means a putting-in-between, is usually applied both to the curves, and to the incidental clause which they enclose. This twofold application of the term involves some inconvenience, if not impropriety. According to Dr. Johnson, the enclosed "sentence" alone is the parenthesis; but Worcester, agreeably to common usage, defines the word as meaning also "the mark thus ()." But, as this sign consists of two distinct parts, two corresponding curves, it seems more natural to use a plural name: hence L. Murray, when he would designate the sign only, adopted a plural expression; as, "the parenthetical characters,"—"the parenthetical marks." So, in another case, which is similar: "the hooks in which words are included," are commonly called crotchets or brackets; though Bucke, in his Classical Grammar, I know not why, calls the two "[ ] a Crotchet;" (p. 23;) and Webster, in his octavo Dictionary, defines a "Bracket, in printing," as Johnson does a "Crotchet" by a plural noun: "hooks; thus, [ ]." Again, in his grammars, Dr. Webster rather confusedly says: "The parenthesis () and hooks [] include a remark or clause, not essential to the sentence in construction."—Philosophical Gram., p. 219; Improved Gram., p. 154. But, in his Dictionary, he forgets both the hooks and the parenthesis that are here spoken of; and, with still worse confusion or inaccuracy, says: "The parenthesis is usually included in hooks or curved lines, thus, ()." Here he either improperly calls these regular little curves "hooks," or erroneously suggests that both the hooks and the curves are usual and appropriate signs of "the parenthesis." In Garner's quarto Dictionary, the French word Crochet, as used by printers, is translated, "A brace, a crotchet, a parenthesis;" and the English word Crotchet is defined, "The mark of a parenthesis, in printing, thus [ ]." But Webster defines Crotchet, "In printing, a hook including words, a sentence or a passage distinguished from the rest, thus []." This again is both ambiguous and otherwise inaccurate. It conveys no clear idea of what a crotchet is. One hook includes nothing. Therefore Johnson said: "Hooks in which words are included [thus]." But if each of the hooks is a crotchet, as Webster suggests, and almost every body supposes, then both lexicographers are wrong in not making the whole expression plural: thus, "Crotchets, in printing, are angular hooks usually including some explanatory words." But is this all that Webster meant? I cannot tell. He may be understood as saying also, that a Crotchet is "a sentence or a passage distinguished from the rest, thus [];" and doubtless it would be much better to call a hint thus marked, a crotchet, than to call it a parenthesis, as some have done. In Parker and Fox's Grammar, and also in Parker's Aids to English Composition, the term Brackets only is applied to these angular hooks; and, contrary to all usage of other authors, so far as I know, the name of Crotchets is there given to the Curves. And then, as if this application of the word were general, and its propriety indisputable, the pupil is simply told: "The curved lines between which a parenthesis is enclosed are called Crotchets."—Gram., Part III, p. 30; Aids, p. 40. "Called Crotchets" by whom? That not even Mr. Parker himself knows them by that name, the following most inaccurate passage is a proof: "The note of admiration and interrogation, as also the parenthesis, the bracket, and the reference marks, [are noted in the margin] in the same manner as the apostrophe."—Aids, p. 314. In some late grammars, (for example, Hazen's and Day's,) the parenthetic curves are called "the Parentheses" From this the student must understand that it always takes two parentheses to make one parenthesis! If then it is objectionable, to call the two marks "a parenthesis," it is much more so, to call each of them by that name, or both "the parentheses." And since Murray's phrases are both entirely too long for common use, what better name can be given them than this very simple one, the Curves?

OBS. 9.—The words eroteme and ecphoneme, which, like aposteme and philosopheme, are orderly derivatives from Greek roots[460], I have ventured to suggest as fitter names for the two marks to which they are applied as above, than are any of the long catalogue which other grammarians, each choosing for himself have presented. These marks have not unfrequently been called "the interrogation and the exclamation;" which names are not very suitable, because they have other uses in grammar. According to Dr. Blair, as well as L. Murray and others, interrogation and exclamation are "passionate figures" of rhetoric, and oftentimes also plain "unfigured" expressions. The former however are frequently and more fitly called by their Greek names erotesis and ecphonesis, terms to which those above have a happy correspondence. By Dr. Webster and some others, all interjections are called "exclamations;" and, as each of these is usually followed by the mark of emotion, it cannot but be inconvenient to call both by the same name.

OBS. 10.—For things so common as the marks of asking and exclaiming, it is desirable to have simple and appropriate names, or at least some settled mode of denomination; but, it is remarkable, that Lindley Murray, in mentioning these characters six times, uses six different modes of expression, and all of them complex: (1.) "Notes of Interrogation and Exclamation." (2.) "The point of Interrogation,?"—"The point of Exclamation,!" (3.) "The Interrogatory Point."—"The Exclamatory Point." (4.) "A note of interrogation,"—"The note of exclamation." (5.) "The interrogation and exclamation points." (6.) "The points of Interrogation and Exclamation."—Murray, Flint, Ingersoll, Alden, Pond. With much better taste, some writers denote them uniformly thus: (7.) "The Note of Interrogation,"—"The Note of Exclamation."—Churchill, Hiley. In addition to these names, all of which are too long, there may be cited many others, though none that are unobjectionable: (8.) "The Interrogative sign,"—"The Exclamatory sign."—Peirce, Hazen. (9.) "The Mark of Interrogation,"—"The Mark of Exclamation."—Ward, Felton, Hendrick. (10.) "The Interrogative point,"—"The Exclamation point."—T. Smith, Alger. (11.) "The interrogation point,"—"The exclamation point."—Webster, St. Quentin, S. Putnam. (12.) "A Note of Interrogation,"—"A Note of Admiration."—Coar, Nutting. (13.) "The Interrogative point,"—"The Note of Admiration, or of vocation."—Bucke. (14.) "Interrogation (?),"—"Admiration (!) or Exclamation."—Lennie, Bullions. (15.) "A Point of Interrogation,"—"A Point of Admiration or Exclamation."—Buchanan. (16.) "The Interrogation Point (?),"—"The Admiration Point (!)."—Perley. (17.) "An interrogation (?),"—"An exclamation (!)."—Cutler. (18.) "The interrogator?"—"The exclaimor!"—Day's Gram., p. 112. [The putting of "exclaimor" for exclaimer, like this author's changing of quoters to "quotors," as a name for the guillemets, is probably a mere sample of ignorance.] (19.) "Question point,"—"Exclamation point."—Sanborn, p. 272.



SECTION I.—THE COMMA.

The Comma is used to separate those parts of a sentence, which are so nearly connected in sense, as to be only one degree removed from that close connexion which admits no point.

RULE I.—SIMPLE SENTENCES.

A simple sentence does not, in general, admit the comma; as, "The weakest reasoners are the most positive."—W. Allen's Gram., p. 202. "Theology has not hesitated to make or support a doctrine by the position of a comma."—Tract on Tone, p. 4.

"Then pain compels the impatient soul to seize On promis'd hopes of instantaneous ease."—Crabbe.

EXCEPTION.—LONG SIMPLE SENTENCES.

When the nominative in a long simple sentence is accompanied by inseparable adjuncts, or when several words together are used in stead of a nominative, a comma should be placed immediately before the verb; as, "Confession of sin without amendment, obtains no pardon."—Dillwyn's Reflections, p. 6. "To be totally indifferent to praise or censure, is a real defect in character."—Murray's Gram., p. 268.

"O that the tenor of my just complaint,[461] Were sculpt with steel in rocks of adamant!"—Sandys.

RULE II.—SIMPLE MEMBERS.

The simple members of a compound sentence, whether successive or involved, elliptical or complete, are generally divided by the comma; as,

1. "Here stand we both, and aim we at the best."—Shak.

2. "I, that did never weep, now melt in woe."—Id.

3. "Tide life, tide death, I come without delay."—Id.

4. "I am their mother, who shall bar me from them?"—Id.

5. "How wretched, were I mortal, were my state!"—Pope.

6. "Go; while thou mayst, avoid the dreadful fate."—Id.

7. "Grief aids disease, remember'd folly stings, And his last sighs reproach the faith of kings."—Johnson.

EXCEPTION I.—RESTRICTIVE RELATIVES.

When a relative immediately follows its antecedent, and is taken in a restrictive sense, the comma should not be introduced before it; as, "For the things which are seen, are temporal; but the things which are not seen, are eternal."—2 Cor., iv, 18. "A letter is a character that expresses a sound without any meaning."—St. Quentin's General Gram., p. 3.

EXCEPTION II.—SHORT TERMS CLOSELY CONNECTED.

When the simple members are short, and closely connected by a conjunction or a conjunctive adverb, the comma is generally omitted; as, "Honest poverty is better than wealthy fraud."—Dillwyn's Ref., p. 11. "Let him tell me whether the number of the stars be even or odd."—TAYLOR: Joh. Dict., w. Even. "It is impossible that our knowledge of words should outstrip our knowledge of things."—CAMPBELL: Murray's Gram., p 359.

EXCEPTION III.—ELLIPTICAL MEMBERS UNITED.

When two simple members are immediately united, through ellipsis of the relative, the antecedent, or the conjunction that, the comma is not inserted; as, "Make an experiment on the first man you meet."—Berkley's Alciphron, p. 125. "Our philosophers do infinitely despise and pity whoever shall propose or accept any other motive to virtue."—Ib., p. 126. "It is certain we imagine before we reflect."—Ib., p. 359.

"The same good sense that makes a man excel, Still makes him doubt he ne'er has written well."—Young.

RULE III.—MORE THAN TWO WORDS.

When more than two words or terms are connected in the same construction, or in a joint dependence on some other term, by conjunctions expressed or understood, the comma should be inserted after every one of them but the last; and, if they are nominatives before a verb, the comma should follow the last also:[462] as,

1. "Who, to the enraptur'd heart, and ear, and eye, Teach beauty, virtue, truth, and love, and melody."—Beattie.

2. "Ah! what avails * * * * * * * * * All that art, fortune, enterprise, can bring, If envy, scorn, remorse, or pride, the bosom wring?"—Id..

3. "Women are soft, mild, pitiful, and flexible; Thou, stern, obdurate, flinty, rough, remorseless."—Shak.

4. "She plans, provides, expatiates, triumphs there."—Young.

5. ——"So eagerly the Fiend O'er bog, or steep, through strait, rough, dense, or rare, With head, hands, wings, or feet, pursues his way, And swims, or sinks, or wades, or creeps, or flies."—Milton.

RULE IV.—ONLY TWO WORDS.

When only two words or terms are connected by a conjunction, they should not be separated by the comma; as, "It is a stupid and barbarous way to extend dominion by arms; for true power is to be got by arts and industry"—Spectator, No. 2.

"Despair and anguish fled the struggling soul."—Goldsmith.

EXCEPTION I.—TWO WORDS WITH ADJUNCTS.

When the two words connected have several adjuncts, or when one of them has an adjunct that relates not to both, the comma is inserted; as, "I shall spare no pains to make their instruction agreeable, and their diversion useful."—Spectator, No. 10. "Who is applied to persons, or things personified."—Bullions.

"With listless eyes the dotard views the store, He views, and wonders that they please no more."—Johnson.

EXCEPTION II.—TWO TERMS CONTRASTED.

When two connected words or phrases are contrasted, or emphatically distinguished, the comma is inserted; as, "The vain are easily obliged, and easily disobliged."—Kames.

"Liberal, not lavish, is kind Nature's hand."—Beattie.

"'Tis certain he could write, and cipher too."—Goldsmith.

EXCEPTION III.—ALTERNATIVE OF WORDS.

When there is merely an alternative of names, or an explanatory change of terms, the comma is usually inserted; as, "We saw a large opening, or inlet."—W. Allen. "Have we not power to lead about a sister, a wife, as well as other apostles?"—Cor., ix, 5.

EXCEPTION IV.—CONJUNCTION UNDERSTOOD.

When the conjunction is understood, the comma is inserted; and, if two separated words or terms refer alike to a third term, the second requires a second comma: as, "Reason, virtue, answer one great aim."—L. Murray, Gram., p. 269.

"To him the church, the realm, their pow'rs consign."—Johnson.

"She thought the isle that gave her birth. The sweetest, wildest land on earth."—Hogg.

RULE V.—WORDS IN PAIRS.

When successive words are joined in pairs by conjunctions, they should be separated in pairs by the comma; as, "Interest and ambition, honour and shame, friendship and enmity, gratitude and revenge, are the prime movers in public transactions."—W. Allen. "But, whether ingenious or dull, learned or ignorant, clownish or polite, every innocent man, without exception, has as good a right to liberty as to life."—Beattie's Moral Science, p. 313.

"Then say how hope and fear, desire and hate, O'erspread with snares the crowded maze of fate."—Dr. Johnson.

RULE VI.—WORDS PUT ABSOLUTE.

Nouns or pronouns put absolute, should, with their adjuncts, be set off by the comma; as, "The prince, his father being dead, succeeded."—"This done, we parted."—"Zaccheus, make haste and come down."—"His proctorship in Sicily, what did it produce?"—Cicero.

"Wing'd with his fears, on foot he strove to fly, His steeds too distant, and the foe too nigh" —Pope, Iliad, xi, 440.

RULE VII.—WORDS IN APPOSITION.

Words in apposition, (especially if they have adjuncts,) are generally set off by the comma; as, "He that now calls upon thee, is Theodore, the hermit of Teneriffe."—Johnson. "LOWTH, Dr. Robert, bishop of London, born in 1710, died in 1787."—Biog. Dict. "HOME, Henry, lord Kames."—Ib.

"What next I bring shall please thee, be assur'd, Thy likeness, thy fit help, thy other self, Thy wish exactly to thy heart's desire."—Milton, P. L., viii, 450.

"And he, their prince, shall rank among my peers."—Byron.

EXCEPTION I.—COMPLEX NAMES.

When several words, in their common order, are used as one compound name, the comma is not inserted; as, "Dr. Samuel Johnson,"—"Publius Gavius Cosanus."

EXCEPTION II.—CLOSE APPOSITION.

When a common and a proper name are closely united, the comma is not inserted; as, "The brook Kidron,"—"The river Don,"—"The empress Catharine,"—"Paul the Apostle."

EXCEPTION III.—PRONOUN WITHOUT PAUSE.

When a pronoun is added to an other word merely for emphasis and distinction, the comma is not inserted; as, "Ye men of Athens,"—"I myself,"—"Thou flaming minister,"—"You princes."

EXCEPTION IV.—NAMES ACQUIRED.

When a name acquired by some action or relation, is put in apposition with a preceding noun or pronoun, the comma is not inserted; as, "I made the ground my bed;"—"To make him king;"—"Whom they revered as God;"—"With modesty thy guide."—Pope.

RULE VIII.—ADJECTIVES.

Adjectives, when something depends on them, or when they have the import of a dependent clause, should, with their adjuncts, be set off by the comma; as,

1. ——————————————"Among the roots Of hazel, pendent o'er the plaintive stream, They frame the first foundation of their domes."—Thomson.

2. ————————————-"Up springs the lark, Shrill-voic'd and loud, the messenger of morn."—Id.

EXCEPTION.—ADJECTIVES RESTRICTIVE.

When an adjective immediately follows its noun, and is taken in a restrictive sense, the comma should not be used before it; as,

——"And on the coast averse From entrance or cherubic watch."—Milton, P. L., B. ix, l. 68.

RULE IX.—FINITE VERBS.

Where a finite verb is understood, a comma is generally required; as, "From law arises security; from security, curiosity; from curiosity, knowledge."—Murray.

"Else all my prose and verse were much the same; This, prose on stilts; that, poetry fallen lame."—Pope.

EXCEPTION.—VERY SLIGHT PAUSE.

As the semicolon must separate the clauses when the comma is inserted by this rule, if the pause for the omitted verb be very slight, it may be left unmarked, and the comma be used for the clauses; as, "When the profligate speaks of piety, the miser of generosity, the coward of valour, and the corrupt of integrity, they are only the more despised by those who know them."—Comstock's Elocution, p. 132.

RULE X.—INFINITIVES.

The infinitive mood, when it follows a verb from which it must be separated, or when it depends on something remote or understood, is generally, with its adjuncts, set off by the comma; as, "One of the greatest secrets in composition is, to know when to be simple."—Jamieson's Rhet., p. 151. "To confess the truth, I was much in fault."—Murray's Gram., p. 271.

"The Governor of all—has interposed, Not seldom, his avenging arm, to smite The injurious trampler upon nature's law."—Cowper.

RULE XI.—PARTICIPLES.

Participles, when something depends on them, when they have the import of a dependent clause, or when they relate to something understood, should, with their adjuncts, he set off by the comma; as, 1. "Law is a rule of civil conduct, prescribed by the supreme power in a state, commanding what is right, and prohibiting what is wrong."—BLACKSTONE: Beattie's Moral Science, p. 346.

2. "Young Edwin, lighted by the evening star, Lingering and list'ning wander'd down the vale."—Beattie.

3. "United, we stand; divided, we fall."—Motto.

4. "Properly speaking, there is no such thing as chance."

EXCEPTION.—PARTICIPLES RESTRICTIVE.

When a participle immediately follows its noun, and is taken in a restrictive sense, the comma should not be used before it; as,

"A man renown'd for repartee, Will seldom scruple to make free With friendship's finest feeling."—Cowper.

RULE XII.—ADVERBS. Adverbs, when they break the connexion of a simple sentence, or when they have not a close dependence on some particular word in the context, should, with their adjuncts, be set off by the comma; as, "We must not, however, confound this gentleness with the artificial courtesy of the world."—"Besides, the mind must be employed."—Gilpin. "Most unquestionably, no fraud was equal to all this."—Lyttelton. "But, unfortunately for us, the tide was ebbing already."

"When buttress and buttress, alternately, Seem framed of ebon and ivory."—Scott's Lay, p. 33.

RULE XIII.—CONJUNCTIONS.

Conjunctions, when they are separated from the principal clauses that depend on them, or when they introduce examples, are generally set off by the comma; as, "But, by a timely call upon Religion, the force of Habit was eluded."—Johnson.

"They know the neck that joins the shore and sea, Or, ah! how chang'd that fearless laugh would be."—Crabbe.

RULE XIV.—PREPOSITIONS.

Prepositions and their objects, when they break the connexion of a simple sentence, or when they do not closely follow the words on which they depend, are generally set off by the comma; as, "Fashion is, for the most part, nothing but the ostentation of riches."—"By reading, we add the experience of others to our own."

"In vain the sage, with retrospective eye, Would from th' apparent What conclude the Why."—Pope.

RULE XV.—INTERJECTIONS.

Interjections that require a pause, though more commonly emphatic and followed by the ecphoneme, are sometimes set off by the comma; as, "For, lo, I will call all the families of the kingdoms of the north."—Jeremiah, i, 15. "O, 'twas about something you would not understand."—Columbian Orator, p. 221. "Ha, ha! you were finely taken in, then!"—Aikin. "Ha, ha, ha! A facetious gentleman, truly!"—Id.

"Oh, when shall Britain, conscious of her claim, Stand emulous of Greek and Roman fame?"—Pope.

RULE XVI.—WORDS REPEATED.

A word emphatically repeated, is generally set off by the comma; as, "Happy, happy, happy pair!"—Dryden. "Ay, ay, there is some comfort in that."—Shak. "Ah! no, no, no."—Dryden.

"The old oaken bucket, the iron-bound bucket, The moss-covered bucket, which hung in the well!"—Woodworth.

RULE XVII.—DEPENDENT QUOTATIONS.

A quotation, observation, or description, when it is introduced in close dependence on a verb, (as, say, reply, cry, or the like,) is generally separated from the rest of the sentence by the comma; as, "'The book of nature,' said he, 'is before thee.'"—Hawkesworth. "I say unto all, Watch."—Mark. "'The boy has become a man,' means, 'he has grown to be a man.' 'Such conduct becomes a man,' means, 'such conduct befits him.'"—Hart's Gram., p. 116.

"While man exclaims, 'See all things for my use!' 'See man for mine!' replies a pamper'd goose."—Pope.

IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.

FALSE PUNCTUATION.—ERRORS CONCERNING THE COMMA.

UNDER RULE I.—OF SIMPLE SENTENCES.

"Short, simple sentences should not be separated by a comma."—Felton's Gram., 1st Ed., p. 135; 3d Ed., Stereotyped, p. 137.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because a needless comma is put after short, the sentence being simple. But, according to Rule 1st for the Comma, "A simple sentence does not, in general, admit the comma." Therefore, this comma should be omitted; thus, "Short simple sentences should not be separated by a comma." Or, much better: "A short simple sentence should rarely be divided by the comma." For such sentences, combined to form a period, should generally be separated; and even a single one may have some phrase that must be set off.]

"A regular and virtuous education, is an inestimable blessing."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 174. "Such equivocal expressions, mark an intention to deceive."—Ib., p. 256. "They are, This and that, with their plurals these and those."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 26; Practical Lessons, p. 3. "A nominative case and a verb, sometimes make a complete sentence; as, He sleeps."—Felton's Gram., p. 78. "Tense, expresses the action connected with certain relations of time; mood, represents it as farther modified by circumstances of contingency, conditionally, &c."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 37. "The word Noun, means name."—Ingersoll's Gram., p. 14. "The present, or active participle, I explained then."—Ib., p. 97. "Are some verbs used, both transitively and intransitively?"—Cooper's Pt. and Pract. Gram., p. 54. "Blank verse, is verse without rhyme."—Hallock's Gram., p. 242. "A distributive adjective, denotes each one of a number considered separately."—Ib., p. 51.

"And may at last my weary age, Find out the peaceful hermitage." —Murray's Gr., 12mo, p. 205; 8vo, 255.

UNDER THE EXCEPTION CONCERNING SIMPLE SENTENCES.

"A noun without an Article to limit it is taken in its widest sense."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 8; Practical Lessons, p. 10.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because no comma is here set before the verb is taken. But, according to the Exception to Rule 1st for the Comma, "When the nominative in a long simple sentence is accompanied by inseparable adjuncts, or when several words together are used in stead of a nominative, a comma should be placed immediately before the verb." Therefore, a comma should be here inserted; thus, "A noun without an article to limit it, is taken in its widest sense."—Lennie's Gram., p. 6.]

"To maintain a steady course amid all the adversities of life marks a great mind."—Day's District School Gram., p. 84. "To love our Maker supremely and our neighbor as ourselves comprehends the whole moral law."—Ibid. "To be afraid to do wrong is true courage."—Ib., p. 85. "A great fortune in the hands of a fool is a great misfortune."—Bullions, Practical Lessons, p. 89. "That he should make such a remark is indeed strange."—Farnum, Practical Gram., p. 30. "To walk in the fields and groves is delightful."—Id., ib. "That he committed the fault is most certain."—Id., ib. "Names common to all things of the same sort or class are called Common nouns; as, man, woman, day."—Bullions, Pract. Les., p. 12. "That it is our duty to be pious admits not of any doubt."—Id., E. Gram., p. 118. "To endure misfortune with resignation is the characteristic of a great mind,"—Id., ib., p. 81. "The assisting of a friend in such circumstances was certainly a duty."—Id., ib., 81. "That a life of virtue is the safest is certain."—Hallock's Gram., p. 169. "A collective noun denoting the idea of unity should be represented by a pronoun of the singular number."—Ib., p. 167.

UNDER RULE II.—OF SIMPLE MEMBERS.

"When the sun had arisen the enemy retreated."—Day's District School Gram., p. 85.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because no comma here separates the two simple members which compose the sentence. But, according to Rule 2d, "The simple members of a compound sentence, whether successive or involved, elliptical or complete, are generally divided by the comma." Therefore, a comma should be inserted after arisen; thus, "When the sun had arisen, the enemy retreated."]

"If he become rich he may be less industrious."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 118. "The more I study grammar the better I like it."—Id., ib., p. 127. "There is much truth in the old adage that fire is a better servant than master."—Id., ib., p. 128. "The verb do, when used as an auxiliary gives force or emphasis to the expression."—Day's Gram., p. 39. "Whatsoever it is incumbent upon a man to do it is surely expedient to do well."—J. Q. Adams's Rhetoric, Vol. i, p. 46. "The soul which our philosophy divides into various capacities, is still one essence."—Channing, on Self-Culture, p. 15. "Put the following words in the plural and give the rule for forming it."—Bullions, Practical Lessons, p. 19. "We will do it if you wish."—Id., ib., p. 29. "He who does well will be rewarded."—Id., ib., 29. "That which is always true is expressed in the present tense."—Id., ib., p. 119. "An observation which is always true must be expressed in the present tense."—Id., Prin. of E. Gram., p. 123. "That part of orthography which treats of combining letters to form syllables and words is called SPELLING."—Day's Gram., p. 8. "A noun can never be of the first person except it is in apposition with a pronoun of that person."—Ib., p. 14. "When two or more singular nouns or pronouns refer to the same object they require a singular verb and pronoun."—Ib., p. 80. "James has gone but he will return in a few days."—Ib., 89. "A pronoun should have the same person, number, and gender as the noun for which it stands."—Ib., 89 and 80. "Though he is out of danger he is still afraid."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 80. "She is his inferior in sense but his equal in prudence."—Ib., p. 81. "The man who has no sense of religion is little to be trusted."—Ib., 81. "He who does the most good has the most pleasure."—Ib., 81. "They were not in the most prosperous circumstances when we last saw them."—Ib., 81. "If the day continue pleasant I shall return."—Felton's Gram., 1st Ed., p. 22; Ster. Ed., 24. "The days that are past are gone for ever."—Ib., pp. 89 and 92. "As many as are friendly to the cause will sustain it."—Ib., 89 and 92. "Such as desire aid will receive it."—Ib., 89 and 92. "Who gave you that book which you prize so much?"—Bullions, Pract. Lessons, p. 32. "He who made it now preserves and governs it."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 83.

"Shall he alone, whom rational we call, Be pleased with nothing if not blessed with all?" —Felton's Gram., p. 126.

UNDER THE EXCEPTIONS CONCERNING SIMPLE MEMBERS.

"Newcastle is the town, in which Akenside was born."—Bucke's Classical Gram., p. 54.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because a needless comma here separates the restrictive relative which from its antecedent town. But, according to Exception 1st to Rule 2d, "When a relative immediately follows its antecedent, and is taken in a restrictive sense, the comma should not be introduced before it." Therefore, this comma Should be omitted; thus, "Newcastle is the town in which Akenside was born."]

"The remorse, which issues in reformation, is true repentance."—Campbell's Philos. of Rhet., p. 255. "Men, who are intemperate, are destructive members of community."—Alexander's Gram., p. 93. "An active-transitive verb expresses an action, which extends to an object."—Felton's Gram., pp. 16 and 22. "They, to whom much is given, will have much to answer for."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 188. "The prospect, which we have, is charming."—Cooper's Pl. and Pr. Gram., p. 143. "He is the person, who informed me of the matter."—Ib., p. 134; Cooper's Murray, 120. "These are the trees, that produce no fruit."—Ib., 134; and 120. "This is the book, which treats of the subject."—Ib., 134; and 120. "The proposal was such, as pleased me."—Cooper, Pl. and Pr. Gram., p. 134. "Those, that sow in tears, shall reap in joy."—Id., ib., pp. 118 and 124; and Cooper's Murray, p. 141. "The pen, with which I write, makes too large a mark."—Ingersoll's Gram., p. 71. "Modesty makes large amends for the pain, it gives the persons, who labour under it, by the prejudice, it affords every worthy person in their favour."—Ib., p. 80. "Irony is a figure, whereby we plainly intend something very different from what our words express."—Bucke's Gram., p. 108. "Catachresis is a figure, whereby an improper word is used instead of a proper one."—Ib., p. 109. "The man, whom you met at the party, is a Frenchman."—Frost's Practical Gram., p. 155.

UNDER RULE III.—OF MORE THAN TWO WORDS.

"John, James and Thomas are here: that is, John and James, &c."—Cooper's Plain and Practical Grammar, p. 153.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because no comma is here used after James, or after Thomas, or again after John, in the latter clause; the three nouns being supposed to be in the same construction, and all of them nominatives to the verb are. But, according to Rule 3d for the Comma, "When more than two words or terms are connected in the same construction, or in a joint dependence on some other term, by conjunctions expressed or understood, the comma should be inserted after every one of them but the last; and, if they are nominatives before a verb, the comma should follow the last also." Therefore, the comma should be inserted after each; thus, "John, James, and Thomas, are here: that is, John, and James, and Thomas, are here."][463]

"Adverbs modify verbs adjectives and other adverbs."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 97. "To Nouns belong Person, Gender, Number and Case."—Id., Practical Lessons, p. 12. "Wheat, corn, rye, and oats are extensively cultivated."—Id., ib., p. 13. "In many, the definitions, rules and leading facts are prolix, inaccurate and confused."—Finch's Report on Gram., p. 3. "Most people consider it mysterious, difficult and useless."—Ib., p. 3. "His father and mother, and uncle reside at Rome."—Farnum's Gram., p. 11. "The relative pronouns are who, which and that."—Bullions, Practical Lessons, p. 29. "That is sometimes a demonstrative, sometimes a relative and sometimes a conjunction."—Id., ib., p. 33. "Our reputation, virtue, and happiness greatly depend on the choice of our companions."—Day's Gram., p. 92. "The spirit of true religion is social, kind and cheerful."—Felton's Gram., p. 81. "Do, be, have and will are sometimes principal verbs."—Ib., p. 26. "John and Thomas and Peter reside at Oxford."—Webster, Philos. Gram., p. 142; Improved Gram., p. 96. "The most innocent pleasures are the most rational, the most delightful and the most durable."—Id., ib., pp. 215 and 151. "Love, joy, peace and blessedness are reserved for the good."—Id., ib., 215 and 151. "The husband, wife and children, suffered extremely."—Murray's Gram., 4th Am. Ed., 8vo, p. 269. "The husband, wife, and children suffer extremely."—Sanborn's Analytical Gram., p. 268. "He, you, and I have our parts assigned us."—Ibid.

"He moaned, lamented, tugged and tried, Repented, promised, wept and sighed."—Felton's Gr., p. 108.

UNDER RULE IV.—OF ONLY TWO WORDS.

"Disappointments derange, and overcome, vulgar minds."—Murray's Exercises, p. 15.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the two verbs here connected by and, are needlessly separated from each other, and from their object following. But, according to Rule 4th, "When only two words or terms are connected by a conjunction, they should not be separated by the comma." Therefore, these two commas should be omitted; thus, "Disappointments derange and overcome vulgar minds."]

"The hive of a city, or kingdom, is in the best condition, when there is the least noise or buzz in it."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 171. "When a direct address is made, the noun, or pronoun, is in the nominative case independent."—Ingersoll's Gram., p. 88. "The verbs love and teach, make loved, and taught, in the imperfect and participle."—Ib., p. 97. "Neither poverty, nor riches were injurious to him."—Cooper's Pl. and Pr. Gram., p. 133. "Thou, or I am in fault."—Wright's Gram., p. 136. "A verb is a word that expresses action, or being."—Day's District School Gram., pp. 11 and 61. "The Objective Case denotes the object of a verb, or a preposition."—Ib., pp. 17 and 19. "Verbs of the second conjugation may be either transitive, or intransitive."—Ib., p. 41. "Verbs of the fourth conjugation may be either transitive, or intransitive."—Ib., 41. "If a verb does not form its past indicative by adding d, or ed to the indicative present, it is said to be irregular."—Ib., 41. "The young lady is studying rhetoric, and logic."—Cooper's Pl. and Pr. Gram., p. 143. "He writes, and speaks the language very correctly."—Ib., p. 148. "Man's happiness, or misery, is, in a great measure, put into his own hands."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 183. "This accident, or characteristic of nouns, is called their Gender."—Bullions, E. Gram., 1843, p. 195.

"Grant that the powerful still the weak controul; Be Man the Wit, and Tyrant of the whole." —POPE: Brit. Poets, vi, 375.

UNDER EXCEPTION I.—TWO WORDS WITH ADJUNCTS.

"Franklin is justly considered the ornament of the new world and the pride of modern philosophy."—Day's District School Gram., p. 88.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the words ornament and pride, each of which has adjuncts, are here connected by and without a comma before it. But, according to Exception 1st to Rule 4th, "When the two words connected have several adjuncts, or when one of them has an adjunct that relates not to both, the comma is inserted." Therefore, a comma should be set before and; thus, "Franklin is justly considered the ornament of the New World, and the pride of modern philosophy."]

"Levity and attachment to worldly pleasures, destroy the sense of gratitude to him."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 183. "In the following Exercise, point out the adjectives and the substantives which they qualify."—Bullions, Practical Lessons, p. 100. "When a noun or pronoun is used to explain or give emphasis to a preceding noun or pronoun."—Day's Gram., p. 87. "Superior talents and briliancy of intellect do not always constitute a great man."—Ib., p. 92. "A word that makes sense after an article or the phrase speak of, is a noun."—Bullions, Practical Lessons, p. 12. "All feet used in poetry, are reducible to eight kinds; four of two syllables and four of three."—Hiley's Gram., p. 123. "He would not do it himself nor let me do it."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 113.[464] "The old writers give examples of the subjunctive mode and give other modes to explain what is meant by the words in the subjunctive."—O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 352.

UNDER EXCEPTION II.—TWO TERMS CONTRASTED.

"We often commend as well as censure imprudently."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 214. "It is as truly a violation of the right of property, to take little as to take much; to purloin a book, or a penknife, as to steal money; to steal fruit as to steal a horse; to defraud the revenue as to rob my neighbour; to overcharge the public as to overcharge my brother; to cheat the postoffice as to cheat my friend."—Wayland's Moral Science, 1st Edition, p. 254. "The classification of verbs has been and still is a vexed question."—Bullions, E. Grammar, Revised Edition, p. 200. "Names applied only to individuals of a sort or class and not common to all, are called Proper Nouns."—Id., Practical Lessons, p. 12. "A hero would desire to be loved as well as to be reverenced."—Day's Gram., p. 108. "Death or some worse misfortune now divides them."—Cooper's Pl. and Pr. Gram., p. 133. "Alexander replied, 'The world will not permit two suns nor two sovereigns.'"—Goldsmith's Greece, Vol. ii, p. 113.

"From nature's chain, whatever link you strike, Tenth or ten thousandth, breaks the chain alike." —Felton's Gram., p. 131.

UNDER EXCEPTION III.—ALTERNATIVE OF WORDS.

"Metre or Measure is the number of poetical feet which a verse contains."—Hiley's Gram., p. 123. "The Caesura or division, is the pause which takes place in a verse, and which divides it into two parts."—Ib., 123. "It is six feet or one fathom deep."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 113. "A BRACE is used in poetry at the end of a triplet or three lines which rhyme together."—Felton's Gram., p. 142. "There are four principal kinds of English verse or poetical feet."—Ib., p. 143. "The period or full stop denotes the end of a complete sentence."—Sanborn's Analytical Gram., p. 271. "The scholar is to receive as many jetons or counters as there are words in the sentence."—St. Quentin's Gram., p. 16. "That [thing] or the thing which purifies, fortifies also the heart."—Peirce's Gram., p. 74. "That thing or the thing which would induce a laxity in public or private morals, or indifference to guilt and wretchedness, should be regarded as the deadly Sirocco."—Ib., 74. "What is elliptically what thing or that thing which."—Sanborn's Gram., p. 99. "Demonstrate means show or point out precisely."—Ib., p. 139. "The man or that man, who endures to the end, shall be saved."—Hiley's Gram., p. 73. UNDER EXCEPTION IV.—A SECOND COMMA.

"Reason, passion answer one great end."—Bullions's E. Gram., p. 152; Hiley's, p. 112. "Reason, virtue answer one great aim."—Cooper's Pl. and Pract. Gram., p. 194; Butler's, 204. "Every good gift, and every perfect gift is from above."—Felton's Gram., p. 90. "Every plant, and every tree produces others after its kind."—Day's Gram., p. 91. "James, and not John was paid for his services."—Ib., 91. "The single dagger, or obelisk [Dagger] is the second."—Ib., p. 113. "It was I, not he that did it."—St. Quentin's Gram., p. 152. "Each aunt, (and) each cousin hath her speculation."—Sanborn's Gram., p. 139. "'I shall see you when you come,' is equivalent to 'I shall see you then, or at that time when you come.'"—Butler's Pract. Gram., p. 121.

"Let wealth, let honour wait the wedded dame, August her deed, and sacred be her fame."—Pope, p. 334.

UNDER RULE V.—OF WORDS IN PAIRS.

"My hopes and fears, joys and sorrows centre in you."—B. GREENLEAF: Sanborn's Gram., p. 268.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because no comma here separates the second pair of nominatives from the verb. But, according to Rule 5th, "When successive words are joined in pairs by conjunctions, they should be separated in pairs by the comma." Therefore, an other comma should be inserted after sorrows; thus, "My hopes and fears, joys and sorrows, centre in you."]

"This mood implies possibility, or liberty, will, or obligation."—Ingersoll's Gram., p. 113. "Substance is divided into Body, and Spirit into Extended and Thinking."—Brightland's Gram., p. 253. "These consonants, [d and t,] like p, and b, f, and v, k, and hard g, and s, and z, are letters of the same organ."—Walkers Dict., p. 41: Principles, No. 358. "Neither fig nor twist pigtail nor cavendish have passed my lips since, nor ever shall they again."—Boston Cultivator, Vol. vii, p. 36. "The words WHOEVER, or WHOSOEVER, WHICHEVER, or WHICHSOEVER, and WHATEVER, or WHATSOEVER are called COMPOUND RELATIVE PRONOUNS."—Day's Gram., p. 23. "Adjectives signifying profit or disprofit, likeness or unlikeness govern the dative."—Bullions, Lat. Gram., 12th Ed., 215.

UNDER RULE VI.—OF WORDS ABSOLUTE.

"Thy rod and thy staff they comfort me."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 135.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because no comma is here set after staff, which, with the noun rod, is put absolute by pleonasm. But, according to Rule 6th, "Nouns or pronouns put absolute, should, with their adjuncts, be set off by the comma." Therefore, a comma should be here inserted; thus, "Thy rod and thy staff, they comfort me."—Psalm xxiii, 4.]

"Depart ye wicked."—Wright's Gram., p. 70. "He saith to his mother, Woman behold thy son."—Gurney's Portable Evidences, p. 44. "Thou God seest me."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 9; Practical Lessons, p. 13. "Thou, God seest me."—Id., E. Gram., Revised Ed., p. 195. "John write me a letter. Henry go home."—O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 356. "John; write a letter. Henry; go home."—Ib., p. 317. "Now, G. Brown; let us reason together."—Ib., p. 326. "Smith: You say on page 11, the objective case denotes the object."—Ib., p. 344. "Gentlemen: will you always speak as you mean?"—Ib., p. 352. "John: I sold my books to William for his brothers."—Ib., p. 47. "Walter and Seth: I will take my things, and leave yours."—Ib., p. 69. "Henry: Julia and Jane left their umbrella, and took yours."—Ib., p. 73. "John; harness the horses and go to the mine for some coal. William; run to the store for a few pounds of tea."—Ib., p. 160. "The king being dead the parliament was dissolved."—Chandler's Gram., p. 119.

"Cease fond nature, cease thy strife, And let me languish into life."—Bullions's E. Gram., p. 173.

"Forbear great man, in arms renown'd, forbear."—Ib., p. 174.

"Eternal sunshine of the spotless mind, Each prayer accepted and each wish resign'd."—Hiley's Gr., p. 123.

UNDER RULE VII.—WORDS IN APPOSITION.

"We the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice," &c.—Hallock's Gram., p. 200.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because no comma is here set after the pronoun We, with which the word people, which has adjuncts, is in apposition. But, according to Rule 7th, "Words in apposition, (especially if they have adjuncts,) are generally set off by the comma." Therefore, an other comma should be here inserted; thus, "We, the people of the United States," &c.]

"The Lord, the covenant God of his people requires it."—Anti-Slavery Magazine, Vol. i, p. 73. "He as a patriot deserves praise."—Hallock's Gram., p. 124. "Thomson the watchmaker and jeweller from London, was of the party."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 128. "Every body knows that the person here spoken of by the name of the conqueror, is William duke of Normandy."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 33. "The words myself, thyself, himself, herself, and their plurals ourselves, yourselves, and themselves are called Compound Personal Pronouns."—Day's Gram., p. 22.

"For who to dumb forgetfulness a prey, This pleasing anxious being e'er resign'd, Left the warm precincts of the cheerful day, Nor cast one longing, ling'ring look behind?"—U. Poems, p. 68.

UNDER EXCEPTIONS CONCERNING APPOSITION.

"Smith and Williams' store; Nicholas, the emperor's army."—Day's Gram., p. 17. "He was named William, the conqueror."—Ib., p. 80. "John, the Baptist, was beheaded."—Ib., p. 87. "Alexander, the coppersmith, did me great harm."—Hart's Gram., p. 126. "A nominative in immediate apposition; as, 'The boy, Henry, speaks.'"—Smart's Accidence, p. 29. "A noun objective can be in apposition with some other; as, 'I teach the boy, Henry.'"—Ib., p. 30.

UNDER RULE VIII.—OF ADJECTIVES.

"But he found me, not singing at my work ruddy with health vivid with cheerfulness; but pale and dejected, sitting on the ground, and chewing opium."

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the phrases, "ruddy with health," and "vivid with cheerfulness," which begin with adjectives, are not here commaed. But, according to Rule 8th, "Adjectives, when something depends on them, or when they have the import of a dependent clause, should, with their adjuncts, be set off by the comma." Therefore, two other commas should be here inserted; thus, "But he found me, not singing at my work, ruddy with health, vivid with cheerfulness; but pale," &c.—Dr. Johnson.]

"I looked up, and beheld an inclosure beautiful as the gardens of paradise, but of a small extent."—See Key. "A is an article, indefinite and belongs to 'book.'"—Bullions, Practical Lessons, p. 10. "The first expresses the rapid movement of a troop of horse over the plain eager for the combat."—Id., Lat. Gram., p. 296. "He [, the Indian chieftain, King Philip,] was a patriot, attached to his native soil; a prince true to his subjects and indignant of their wrongs; a soldier daring in battle firm in adversity patient of fatigue, of hunger, of every variety of bodily suffering and ready to perish in the cause he had espoused."—See Key.

"For thee, who mindful of th' unhonour'd dead Dost in these lines their artless tale relate." —Union Poems, p. 68.

"Some mute inglorious Milton here may rest: Some Cromwell guiltless of his country's blood." —Day's Gram., p. 117.

"Idle after dinner in his chair Sat a farmer ruddy, fat, and fair." —Hiley's Gram., p. 125.

UNDER THE EXCEPTION CONCERNING ADJECTIVES.

"When an attribute becomes a title, or is emphatically applied to a name, it follows it; as Charles, the Great; Henry, the First; Lewis, the Gross."—Webster's Philos. Gram., p. 153; Improved Gram., p. 107. "Feed me with food, convenient for me."—Cooper's Practical Gram., p. 118. "The words and phrases, necessary to exemplify every principle progressively laid down, will be found strictly and exclusively adapted to the illustration of the principles to which they are referred."—Ingersoll's Gram., Pref., p. x. "The Infinitive Mode is that form of the verb which expresses action or being, unlimited by person, or number."—Day's Gram., p. 35. "A man, diligent in his business, prospers."—Frost's Practical Gram., p. 113.

"O wretched state! oh bosom, black as death!" —Hallock's Gram., p. 118.

"O, wretched state! O, bosom, black as death!" —Singer's Shak., Vol. ii, p. 494.

UNDER RULE IX.—OF FINITE VERBS.

"The Singular denotes one; the Plural more than one."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 12; Pract. Lessons, p. 16; Lennie's Gram., p. 7.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because no comma is here set after Plural, where the verb denotes is understood. But, according to Rule 9th, "Where a finite verb is understood, a comma is generally required." Therefore, a comma should be inserted at the place mentioned; thus, "The Singular denotes one; the Plural, more than one."]

"The comma represents the shortest pause; the semicolon a pause longer than the comma; the colon longer than the semicolon; and the period longer than the colon."—Hiley's Gram., p. 111. "The comma represents the shortest pause; the semicolon a pause double that of the comma; the colon, double that of the semicolon; and the period, double that of the colon."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 151; Pract. Lessons, p. 127. "Who is applied only to persons; which to animals and things; what to things only; and that to persons, animals, and things."—Day's Gram., p. 23. "A or an is used before the singular number only; the before either singular or plural."—Bullions, Practical Lessons, p. 10. "Homer was the greater genius; Virgil the better artist."—Day's Gram., p. 96. "Homer was the greater genius, Virgil the better artist."—POPE'S PREFACE: British Poets, Vol. vi, p. viii. "Words are formed of syllables; syllables of letters."—St. Quentin's General Gram., p. 2. "The Conjugation of an active verb is styled the ACTIVE VOICE; and that of a passive verb the PASSIVE VOICE."—Frost's El. of E. Gram., p. 19. "The CONJUGATION of an active verb is styled the ACTIVE VOICE, and that of a passive verb the PASSIVE VOICE."—Smith's New. Gram., p. 171. "The possessive is sometimes called the genitive case; and the objective the accusative."—L. Murray's Gram., 12mo, p. 44. "Benevolence is allied to few vices; selfishness to fewer virtues."—Kames, Art of Thinking, p. 40. "Orthography treats of Letters, Etymology of Words, Syntax of Sentences, and Prosody of Versification."—Hart's English Gram., p. 21.

"Earth praises conquerors for shedding blood; Heaven those that love their foes, and do them good."—See Key.

UNDER RULE X.—OF INFINITIVES.

"His business is to observe the agreement or disagreement of words."—Bullions, E. Grammar, Revised Edition, p. 189.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because no comma here divides to observe from the preceding verb. But, according to Rule 10th, "The infinitive mood, when it follows a verb from which it must be separated, or when it depends on something remote or understood, is generally, with its adjuncts, set off by the comma." Therefore, a comma should be inserted after is; thus, "His business is, to observe the agreement or disagreement of words."]

"It is a mark of distinction to be made a member of this society."— Farnum's Gram., 1st Ed., p. 25; 2d Ed., p. 23. "To distinguish the conjugations let the pupil observe the following rules."—Day's D. S. Gram., p. 40. "He was now sent for to preach before the Parliament."— Life of Dr. J. Owen, p. 18. "It is incumbent on the young to love and honour their parents."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 83. "It is the business of every man to prepare for death."—Id., ib., 83. "It argued the sincerest candor to make such an acknowledgement."—Id., ib., p. 115. "The proper way is to complete the construction of the first member, and leave that of the second understood."—Ib., ib., p. 125. "ENEMY is a name. It is a term of distinction given to a certain person to show the character in which he is represented."—O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 23. "The object of this is to preserve the soft sound of c and g."—Hart's Gram., p. 29. "The design of grammar is to facilitate the reading, writing, and speaking of a language."—Barrett's Gram., 10th Ed., Pref., p. iii. "Four kinds of type are used in the following pages to indicate the portions that are considered more or less elementary."—Hart's Gram., p. 3.

UNDER RULE XI.—OF PARTICIPLES.

"The chancellor being attached to the king secured his crown."—Wright's Gram., p. 114.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the phrase, "being attached to the king," is not commaed. But, according to Rule 11th, "Participles, when something depends on them, when they have the import of a dependent clause, or when they relate to something understood, should, with their adjuncts, be set off by the comma." Therefore, two commas should be here inserted; thus, "The chancellor, being attached to the king, secured his crown."—Murray's Gram., p. 66.]

"The officer having received his orders, proceeded to execute them."— Day's Gram., p. 108. "Thus used it is in the present tense."—Bullions, E. Gram., Revised Ed., p. 33. "The Imperfect tense has three distinct forms corresponding to those of the present tense."—Id., ib., p. 40. "Every possessive case is governed by some noun denoting the thing possessed."—Id., ib., p. 87. "The word that used as a conjunction is preceded by a comma."—Id., ib., p. 154. "His narrative being composed upon such good authority, deserves credit."—Cooper's Pl. and Pr. Gram., p. 97. "The hen being in her nest, was killed and eaten there by the eagle."—Murray's Key, 8vo. p. 252. "Pronouns being used instead of nouns are subject to the same modifications."—Sanborn's Gram., p. 92. "When placed at the beginning of words they are consonants."—Hallock's Gram., p. 14. "Man starting from his couch, shall sleep no more."—Ib., p. 222. "His and her followed by a noun are possessive pronouns: not followed by a noun they are personal pronouns."—Bullions, Practical Lessons, p. 33.

"He with viny crown advancing, First to the lively pipe his hand addressed."—Id., E. Gram., p. 83.

UNDER THE EXCEPTION CONCERNING PARTICIPLES.

"But when they convey the idea of many, acting individually, or separately, they are of the plural number."—Day's Gram., p. 15. "Two or more singular antecedents, connected by and require verbs and pronouns of the plural number."—Ib., pp. 80 and 91. "Words ending in y, preceded by a consonant, change y into i when a termination is added."—Butlers Gram., p. 11. "A noun, used without an article to limit it, is generally taken in its widest sense."—Ingersoll's Gram., p. 30. "Two nouns, meaning the same person or thing, frequently come together."—Bucke's Gram., p. 89. "Each one must give an account to God for the use, or the abuse of the talents, committed to him."—Coopers Pl. and Pract. Gram., p. 133. "Two vowels, united in one sound, form a diphthong."—Frost's El. of Gram., p. 6. "Three vowels, united in one sound, form a triphthong."—Ib. "Any word, joined to an adverb, is a secondary adverb."—Barrett's Revised Gram., p. 68. "The person, spoken to, is put in the Second person. The person, spoken of, in the Third person."—Cutler's Gram., p. 14. "A man, devoted to his business, prospers."—Frost's Pr. Gram., p. 113.

UNDER RULE XII.—OF ADVERBS.

"So in indirect questions; as, 'Tell me when he will come.'"—Butler's Gram., p. 121.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the adverb So is not set off by the comma. But according to Rule 12th, "Adverbs, when they break the connexion of a simple sentence, or when they have not a close dependence on some particular word in the context, should, with their adjuncts, be set off by the comma." Therefore, a comma should be inserted after So; thus, "So, in indirect questions; as," &c.]

"Now when the verb tells what one person or thing does to another, the verb is transitive."—Bullions, Pract. Les., p 37. "Agreeably to your request I send this letter."—Id., E. Gram., p. 141. "There seems therefore, to be no good reason for giving them a different classification."—Id., E. Gram., p. 199. "Again the kingdom of heaven is like unto a merchantman, seeking goodly pearls."—ALGER'S BIBLE: Matt., xiii, 45. "Again the kingdom of heaven is like unto a net, that was cast into the sea."—Ib, ib., verse 47. "Cease however, is used as a transitive verb by our best writers."—Webster's Philos. Gram., p. 171. "Time admits of three natural divisions, namely: Present, Past, and Future."—Day's Gram., p. 37. "There are three kinds of comparison, namely: regular, irregular, and adverbial."—Ib., p. 31. "There are five Personal Pronouns namely: I, thou, he, she, and it."—Ib., p. 22. "Nouns have three cases, viz. the Nominative, Possessive, and Objective."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 16; P. Lessons, p. 19. "Hence in studying Grammar, we have to study words."—Frazee's Gram., p. 18. "Participles like Verbs relate to Nouns and Pronouns."—Miller's Ready Grammarian, p. 23. "The time of the participle like that of the infinitive is estimated from the time of the leading verb."—Bullions, Lat. Gram., p. 97.

"The dumb shall sing the lame his crutch forego, And leap exulting like the bounding roe."—Hiley's Gram., p. 123.

UNDER RULE XIII.—OF CONJUNCTIONS.

"But he said, Nay; lest while ye gather up the tares, ye root up also the wheat with them."—FRIENDS' BIBLE, and SMITH'S: Matt., xiii, 29.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because no comma is inserted after lest. But, according to Rule 13th, "Conjunctions, when they are separated from the principal clauses that depend on them, or when they introduce examples, are generally set off by the comma." Therefore, a comma should be put after the word lest; thus, "But he said, Nay; lest, while ye gather up the tares, ye root up also the wheat with them."—SCOTT'S BIBLE, ALGER'S, BRUCE'S.]

"Their intentions were good; but wanting prudence, they missed the mark at which they aimed."—Murray's Key, 8vo, Vol. ii, p. 221. "The verb be often separates the name from its attribute; as war is expensive."— Webster's Philos. Gram., p. 153. "Either and or denote an alternative; as 'I will take either road at your pleasure.'"—Ib., p. 63; Imp. Gram., 45. "Either is also a substitute for a name; as 'Either of the roads is good.'"—Webster, both Grams., 63 and 45. "But alas! I fear the consequence."—Day's Gram., p. 74. "Or if he ask a fish, will he for a fish give him a serpent?"—Scott's Bible, and Smith's. "Or if he shall ask an egg, will he offer him a scorpion?"—Smiths Bible. "The infinitive sometimes performs the office of a nominative case, as 'To enjoy is to obey.'—POPE."—Cutler's Gram., p. 62. "The plural is commonly formed by adding s to the singular, as book, books."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 12. "As 'I were to blame, if I did it.'"—Smart's Accidence, p. 16.

"Or if it be thy will and pleasure Direct my plough to find a treasure."—Hiley's Gram., p. 124.

"Or if it be thy will and pleasure, Direct my plough to find a treasure."—Hart's Gram., p. 185.

UNDER RULE XIV.—OF PREPOSITIONS.

"Pronouns agree with the nouns for which they stand in gender, number, and person."—Butler's Practical Gram., pp. 141 and 148; Bullions's Analyt. and Pract. Gram., p. 150.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the preposition in has not the comma before it, as the text requires. But, according to Rule 14th, "Prepositions and their objects, when they break the connexion of a simple sentence, or when they do not closely follow the words on which they depend, are generally set off by the comma." Therefore, a comma should be here inserted; thus, "Pronouns agree with the nouns for which they stand, in gender, number, and person." Or the words may be transposed, and the comma set before with; thus, "Pronouns agree in gender, number, and person, with the nouns for which they stand."]

"In the first two examples the antecedent is person, or something equivalent; in the last it is thing."—Butler, ib., p. 53. "In what character he was admitted is unknown."—Ib., p. 55. "To what place he was going is not known."—Ib., p. 55. "In the preceding examples John, Caesar, and James are the subjects."—Ib., p. 59. "Yes is generally used to denote assent in the answer to a question."—Ib., p. 120. "That in its origin is the passive participle of the Anglo-Saxon verb thean, to take"—Ib., p. 127. "But in all these sentences as and so are adverbs."—Ib., p. 127. "After an interjection or exclamatory sentence is placed the mark of exclamation."—Blair's Gram., p. 116. "Intransitive verbs from their nature can have no distinction of voice."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 30. "To the inflection of verbs belong Voices, Moods, Tenses, Numbers, and Persons."—Id., ib., p. 33; Pract. Lessons, p. 41. "As and so in the antecedent member of a comparison are properly adverbs."—Id., E. Gram., p. 113. "In the following Exercise point out the words in apposition."—Id., P. Lessons, p. 103. "In the following Exercise point out the noun or pronoun denoting the possessor."— Id., ib., p. 105. "Its is not found in the Bible except by misprint."—Hallock's Gram., p. 68. "No one's interest is concerned except mine."—Ib., p. 70. "In most of the modern languages there are four concords."—St. Quentin's Gen. Gram., p. 143. "In illustration of these remarks let us suppose a case."—Hart's Gram., p. 104. "On the right management of the emphasis depends the life of pronunciation."— Ib., p. 172; Murray's, 8vo, p. 242.

UNDER RULE XV.—OF INTERJECTIONS.

"Behold he is in the desert."—SCOTT'S BIBLE: Matt., xxiv, 26.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the interjection Behold, which has usually a comma after it in Scripture, has here no point. But, according to Rule 15th, "Interjections that require a pause, though more commonly emphatic and followed by the ecphoneme, are sometimes set off by the comma." In this instance, a comma should be used; thus, "Behold, he is in the desert."—Common Bible.]

"And Lot said unto them, Oh not so my Lord."—SCOTT'S BIBLE: Gen., xix, 18. "Oh let me escape thither, (is it not a little one?) and my soul shall live."—SCOTT: Gen., xix, 20. "Behold! I come quickly.—BIBLE."—Day's Gram., p. 74. "Lo! I am with you always."—Day's Gram., pp. 10 and 73. "And lo! I am with you always."—Ib., pp. 78 and 110. "And lo, I am with you alway."—SCOTT'S BIBLE, and BRUCE'S: Matt., xxviii, 20. "Ha! ha! ha! how laughable that is."—Bullions, Pract. Les., p. 83. "Interjections of Laughter,—Ha! he! hi! ho!"—Wright's Gram., p. 121.

UNDER RULE XVI.—OF WORDS REPEATED.

"Lend lend your wings! I mount! I fly!"—Example varied.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the repeated word lend has here no comma. But, according to Rule 16th, "A word emphatically repeated, is generally set off by the comma." In this instance, a comma is required after the former lend, but not after the latter; thus,

"Lend, lend your wings! I mount! I fly!"—Pope's Poems, p. 317.

]

"To bed to bed to bed. There is a knocking at the gate. Come come come. What is done cannot be undone. To bed to bed to bed."—See Burgh's Speaker, p. 130. "I will roar, that the duke shall cry, Encore encore let him roar let him roar once more once more."—See ib., p. 136.

"Vital spark of heav'nly flame, Quit oh quit this mortal frame."—Hiley's Gram., p. 126.

"Vital spark of heav'nly flame, Quit, oh quit, this mortal frame!"—Bullions, E. Gr., p. 172.

"O the pleasing pleasing Anguish, When we love, and when we languish."—Ward's Gram., p. 161.

"Praise to God immortal praise For the love that crowns our days!"—Hiley's Gram., p. 124.

UNDER RULE XVII.—OF DEPENDENT QUOTATIONS.

"Thus, of an infant, we say 'It is a lovely creature.'"—Bullions, Prin. of E. Gram., p. 12.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because no comma is here inserted between say and the citation which follows. But, according to Rule 17th, "A quotation, observation, or description, when it is introduced in close dependence on a verb, (as, say, reply, cry, or the like.) is generally separated from the rest of the sentence by the comma." Therefore, a comma should be put after say; as, "Thus, of an infant, we say, 'It is a lovely creature.'"]

"No being can state a falsehood in saying I am; for no one can utter it, if it is not true."—Cardell's Gram., 18mo, p. 118. "I know they will cry out against this and say 'should he pay, means if he should pay.'"—O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 352. "For instance, when we say 'the house is building,' the advocates of the new theory ask, 'building what?' We might ask in turn, when you say 'the field ploughs well,' ploughs what? 'Wheat sells well,' sells what? If usage allows us to say 'wheat sells at a dollar' in a sense that is not active, why may it not also allow us to say 'wheat is selling at a dollar' in a sense that is not active?"—Hart's English Gram., p. 76. "Man is accountable, equals mankind are accountable."—S. Barrett's Revised Gram., p. 37. "Thus, when we say 'He may be reading,' may is the real verb; the other parts are verbs by name only."—Smart's English Accidence, p. 8. "Thus we say an apple, an hour, that two vowel sounds may not come together."—Ib., p. 27. "It would be as improper to say an unit, as to say an youth; to say an one, as to say an wonder."—Ib., p. 27. "When we say 'He died for the truth,' for is a preposition."—Ib., p. 28. "We do not say 'I might go yesterday,' but 'I might have gone yesterday.'"—Ib., p. 11. "By student, we understand one who has by matriculation acquired the rights of academical citizenship; but, by bursche, we understand one who has already spent a certain time at the university."—Howitt's Student-Life in Germany, p. 27.



SECTION II.—THE SEMICOLON.

The Semicolon is used to separate those parts of a compound sentence, which are neither so closely connected as those which are distinguished by the comma, nor so little dependent as those which require the colon.

RULE I.—COMPLEX MEMBERS.

When two or more complex members, or such clauses as require the comma in themselves, are constructed into a period, they are generally separated by the semicolon: as, "In the regions inhabited by angelic natures, unmingled felicity forever blooms; joy flows there with a perpetual and abundant stream, nor needs any mound to check its course."—Carter. "When the voice rises, the gesture naturally ascends; and when the voice makes the falling inflection, or lowers its pitch, the gesture follows it by a corresponding descent; and, in the level and monotonous pronunciation of the voice, the gesture seems to observe a similar limitation, by moving rather in the horizontal direction, without much varying its elevation."—Comstock's Elocution, p. 107.

"The wide, the unbounded prospect lies before me; But shadows, clouds, and darkness, rest upon it."—Addison.

RULE II.—SIMPLE MEMBERS.

When two or more simple members, or such clauses as complete their sense without subdivision, are constructed into a period; if they require a pause greater than that of the comma, they are usually separated by the semicolon: as, "Straws swim upon the surface; but pearls lie at the bottom."—Murray's Gram., p. 276. "Every thing grows old; every thing passes away; every thing disappears."—Hiley's Gram., p. 115. "Alexander asked them the distance of the Persian capital; what forces the king of Persia could bring into the field; what the Persian government was; what was the character of the king; how he treated his enemies; what were the most direct ways into Persia."—Whelpley's Lectures, p. 175.

"A longer care man's helpless kind demands; That longer care contracts more lasting bands."—Pope.

RULE III.—OF APPOSITION, &C.

Words in apposition, in disjunct pairs, or in any other construction, if they require a pause greater than that of the comma, and less than that of the colon, may be separated by the semicolon: as, "Pronouns have three cases; the nominative, the possessive, and the objective."—Murray's Gram., p. 51. "Judge, judgement; lodge, lodgement; acknowledge, acknowledgement."—Butler's Gram., p. 11. "Do not the eyes discover humility, pride; cruelty, compassion; reflection, dissipation; kindness, resentment?"—Sheridan's Elocution, p. 159. "This rule forbids parents to lie to children, and children to parents; instructors to pupils, and pupils to instructors; the old to the young, and the young to the old; attorneys to jurors, and jurors to attorneys; buyers to sellers, and sellers to buyers."—Wayland's Moral Science, p. 304.

"Make, made; have, had; pay, paid; say, said; leave, left; Dream, dreamt; mean, meant; reave and bereave have reft." —Ward's Gr., p. 66.

IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.

FALSE PUNCTUATION.—ERRORS CONCERNING THE SEMICOLON.

UNDER RULE I.—OF COMPLEX MEMBERS.

"The buds spread into leaves, and the blossoms swell to fruit, but they know not how they grow, nor who causes them to spring up from the bosom of the earth."—Day's E. Gr., p. 72.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the two chief members which compose this period, are separated only by the comma after "fruit." But, according to Rule 1st for the Semicolon, "When two or more complex members, or such clauses as require the comma in themselves, are constructed into a period, they are generally separated by the semicolon." Therefore, the pause after "fruit" should be marked by a semicolon.]

"But he used his eloquence chiefly against Philip, king of Macedon, and, in several orations, he stirred up the Athenians to make war against him."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 84. "For the sake of euphony, the n is dropped before a consonant, and because most words begin with a consonant, this of course is its more common form.'"—Ib., p. 192. "But if I say 'Will a man be able to carry this burden?' it is manifest the idea is entirely changed, the reference is not to number, but to the species, and the answer might be 'No; but a horse will.'"—Ib., p. 193. "In direct discourse, a noun used by a speaker or writer to designate himself, is said to be of the first person—used to designate the person addressed, it is said to be of the second person, and when used to designate a person or thing spoken of, it is said to be of the third person."—Ib., p. 195. "Vice stings us, even in our pleasures, but virtue consoles us, even in our pains."—Day's Gram., p. 84. "Vice is infamous though in a prince, and virtue honorable though in a peasant."—Ib., p. 72. "Every word that is the name of a person or thing, is a Noun, because 'A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing.'"—Bullions, Pract. Les., p. 83.

"This is the sword, with which he did the deed, And that the shield by which he was defended."—Bucke's Gram., p. 56.

UNDER RULE II.—OF SIMPLE MEMBERS.

"A deathlike paleness was diffused over his countenancee [sic—KTH], a chilling terror convulsed his frame; his voice burst out at intervals into broken accents."—Principles of Eloquence, p. 73.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the first pause in this sentence is not marked by a suitable point. But, according to Rule 2d for the Semicolon, "When two or more simple members, or such clauses as complete their sense without subdivision, are constructed into a period; if they require a pause greater than that of the comma, they are usually separated by the semicolon." Therefore, the comma after "countenance" should be changed to a semicolon.]

"The Lacedemonians never traded—they knew no luxury—they lived in houses built of rough materials—they lived at public tables—fed on black broth, and despised every thing effeminate or luxurious."—Whelpley's Lectures, p. 167. "Government is the agent. Society is the principal."—Wayland's Moral Science, 1st Ed., p. 377. "The essentials of speech were anciently supposed to be sufficiently designated by the Noun and the Verb, to which was subsequently added, the Conjunction"—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 191. "The first faint gleamings of thought in its mind are but the reflections from the parents' own intellect,—the first manifestations of temperament are from the contagious parental fountain,—the first aspirations of soul are but the warmings and promptings of the parental spirit."—Jocelyn's Prize Essay, p. 4. "Older and oldest refer to maturity of age, elder and eldest to priority of right by birth. Farther and farthest denote place or distance: Further and furthest, quantity or addition."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 148. "Let the divisions be natural, such as obviously suggest themselves to the mind, and as may aid your main design, and be easily remembered."—Goldsbury's Manual of Gram., p. 91.

"Gently make haste, of labour not afraid: A hundred times consider what you've said."—Dryden's Art of Poetry.

UNDER RULE III.—OF APPOSITION, &c.

(1.) "Adjectives are divided into two classes: Adjectives denoting quality, and Adjectives denoting number."—Frost's Practical Gram., p. 31.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the colon after the word "classes," is not the most suitable sign of the pause required. But according to Rule 3d for the Semicolon, "Words in apposition, in disjunct pairs, or in any other construction if they require a pause greater than that of the comma, and less than that of the colon, maybe separated by the semicolon." In this case, the semicolon should have been preferred to the colon.]

(2.) "There are two classes of adjectives—qualifying adjectives, and limiting adjectives."—Butler's Practical Gram., p. 33. (3.) "There are three Genders, the Masculine, the Feminine, and the Neuter."— Frost's Pract. Gram., p. 51; Hiley's Gram., p. 12; Alger's, 16; S. Putnam's, 14: Murray's, 8vo, 37; and others. (4.) "There are three genders: the MASCULINE, the FEMININE, and the NEUTER."—Murray's Gram., 12mo. p. 39; Jaudon's, 25. (5.) "There are three genders: The Masculine, the Feminine, and the Neuter."—Hendrick's Gram., p. 15. (6.) "The Singular denotes ONE, and the Plural MORE THAN ONE."—Hart's Gram., p. 40. (7.) "There are three Cases viz., the Nominative, the Possessive, and the Objective"—Hendrick's Gram., p. 7. (8.) "Nouns have three cases, the nominative, the possessive, and the objective."— Kirkham's Gram., p. 41. (9.) "In English, nouns have three cases—the nominative, the possessive, and the objective."—R. C. Smith's New Gram., p. 47. (10.) "Grammar is divided into four parts, namely, ORTHOGRAPHY, ETYMOLOGY, SYNTAX, PROSODY."—Ib., p. 41. (11) "It is divided into four parts, viz. ORTHOGRAPHY, ETYMOLOGY, SYNTAX, and PROSODY."—L. Murray's Grammars all; T. Smith's Gram., p. 5. (12.) "It is divided into four parts: viz. Orthography—Etymology—Syntax—Prosody."—Bucke's Gram., p. 3. (13.) "It is divided into four parts, namely, Orthography. Etymology, Syntax and Prosody."—Day's Gram., p. 5. (14.) "It is divided into four parts: viz. Orthography, Etymology, Syntax and Prosody."—Hendrick's Gram., p. 11. (15.) "Grammar is divided into four parts: viz. Orthography, Etymology. Syntax and Prosody."—Chandler's Gram., p, 13. (16.) "It is divided into four parts: Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody."—Cooper's Pl. and Pract. Gram., p. 1; Frost's Pract. Gram., 19. (17.) "English grammar has been usually divided into four parts, viz: Orthography, Etymology, Syntax and Prosody."—Nutting's Gram., p. 13. (18.) "Temperance leads to happiness, intemperance to misery."—Hiley's Gram., p. 137 Hart's, 180. (19.) "A friend exaggerates a man's virtues, an enemy his crimes."—Hiley's Gram., p. 137 (20.) "A friend exaggerates a man's virtues: an enemy his crimes."—Murray's Gram., 8vo., p. 325 (21.) "Many writers use a plural noun after the second of two numeral adjectives, thus, 'The first and second pages are torn.'"—Bullions, E. Gram., 5th Ed., p. 145 (22.) "Of these, the Latin has six, the Greek, five, the German, four, the Saxon, six, the French, three, &c."—Id., ib., p. 196.

"In (ing) it ends, when doing is express'd, In d, t, n, when suffering's confess'd." —Brightland's Gram., p. 93.

MIXED EXAMPLES OF ERROR.

"In old books i is often used for j, v for u, vv for w, and ii or ij for y."—Hart's E. Gram., p. 22. "The forming of letters into words and syllables is also called Spelling."—Ib., p. 21. "Labials are formed chiefly by the lips, dentals by the teeth, palatals by the palate, gutturals by the throat, nasals by the nose, and linguals by the tongue."—Ib., p. 25. "The labials are p, b, f, v; the dentals t, d, s, z; the palatals g soft and j; the gutturals k, q, and c and g hard; the nasals m and n; and the linguals l and r."—Ib., p. 25. "Thus, 'the man having finished his letter, will carry it to the post office.'"—Ib., p. 75. "Thus, in the sentence 'he had a dagger concealed under his cloak,' concealed is passive, signifying being concealed; but in the former combination, it goes to make up a form, the force of which is active."—Ib., p. 75. "Thus, in Latin, 'he had concealed the dagger' would be 'pugionem abdiderat;' but 'he had the dagger concealed' would be 'pugionem abditum habebat.'"— Ib., p. 75. "Here, for instance, means 'in this place,' now, 'at this time,' &c."—Ib., p. 90. "Here when both declares the time of the action, and so is an adverb, and also connects the two verbs, and so is a conjunction."—Ib., p. 91. "These words were all no doubt originally other parts of speech, viz.: verbs, nouns, and adjectives."—Ib., p. 92. "The principal parts of a sentence are the subject, the attribute, and the object, in other words the nominative, the verb, and the objective."— Ib., p. 104. "Thus, the adjective is connected with the noun, the adverb with the verb or adjective, pronouns with their antecedents, &c."—Ib., p. 104. "Between refers to two, among to more than two."—Ib., p. 120. "At is used after a verb of rest, to after a verb of motion."—Ib., p. 120. "Verbs are of three kinds, Active, Passive, and Neuter."—Lennie's Gram., p. 19; Bullions, Prin., 2d Ed., p. 29 "Verbs are divided into two classes: Transitive and Intransitive."—Hendrick's Gram., p. 28 "The Parts of Speech in the English language are nine, viz. The Article, Noun, Adjective, Pronoun, Verb, Adverb, Preposition. Interjection and Conjunction."—Bullions, Prin. of E. Gram., p. 7 "Of these the Noun, Pronoun, and Verb are declined, the rest are indeclinable."—Id., ib., p. 7; Practical Lessons, p. 9. "The first expression is called the 'Active form.' The second the 'Passive form.'"—Welds Gram., 2d Ed., p. 83; Abridged, p. 66.

"O 'tis a godlike privilege to save, And he that scorns it is himself a slave."—Cowper, Vol. i., p. 123



SECTION III.—THE COLON.

The Colon is used to separate those parts of a compound sentence, which are neither so closely connected as those which are distinguished by the semicolon, nor so little dependent as those which require the period.

RULE I.—ADDITIONAL REMARKS.

When the preceding clause is complete in itself, but is followed by some additional remark or illustration, especially if no conjunction is used, the colon is generally and properly inserted: as, "Avoid evil doers: in such society, an honest man may become ashamed of himself."—"See that moth fluttering incessantly round the candle: man of pleasure, behold thy image!"—Art of Thinking, p. 94. "Some things we can, and others we cannot do: we can walk, but we cannot fly."—Beanie's Moral Science, p. 112.

"Remember Heav'n has an avenging rod: To smite the poor, is treason against God."—Cowper.

RULE II.—GREATER PAUSES.

When the semicolon has been introduced, or when it must be used in a subsequent member, and a still greater pause is required within the period, the colon should be employed: as, "Princes have courtiers, and merchants have partners; the voluptuous have companions, and the wicked have accomplices: none but the virtuous can have friends."—"Unless the truth of our religion be granted, a Christian must be the greatest monster in nature: he must at the same time be eminently wise, and notoriously foolish; a wise man in his practice, and a fool in his belief: his reasoning powers must be deranged by a constant delirium, while his conduct never swerves from the path of propriety."—Principles of Eloquence, p. 80.

"A decent competence we fully taste; It strikes our sense, and gives a constant feast: More we perceive by dint of thought alone; The rich must labour to possess their own."—Young.

RULE III.—INDEPENDENT QUOTATIONS.

A quotation introduced without a close dependence on a verb or a conjunction, is generally preceded by the colon; as, "In his last moments, he uttered these words: 'I fall a sacrifice to sloth and luxury.'"—"At this the king hastily retorted: 'No put-offs, my lord; answer me presently.'"—Churchill's Gram., p. 367. "The father addressed himself to them to this effect: 'O my sons, behold the power of unity!'"— Rippingham's Art of Speaking, p. 85.

IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.

FALSE PUNCTUATION.—ERRORS CONCERNING THE COLON.

UNDER RULE I.—ADDITIONAL REMARKS.

"Of is a preposition, it expresses the relation between fear and Lord."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 133.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the additional remark in this sentence is not sufficiently separated from the main clause, by the comma after the word preposition. But, according to Rule 1st for the Colon, "When the preceding clause is complete in itself, but is followed by some additional remark or illustration, especially if no conjunction is used, the colon is generally and properly inserted." Therefore, the colon should here be substituted for the comma.]

"Wealth and poverty are both temptations to man; that tends to excite pride, this discontentment."—Id., ib., p. 93; see also Lennie's Gram., p. 81; Murray's, 56; Ingersoll's 61; Alger's, 25; Merchant's, 44; Hart's, 137; et al. "Religion raises men above themselves, irreligion sinks them beneath the brutes; this binds them down to a poor pitiable speck of perishable earth, that opens for them a prospect in the skies."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 98; Lennie's Gram., p. 81. "Love not idleness, it destroys many."—Ingersoll's Gram., p. 71. "Children, obey your parents; honour thy father and mother, is the first commandment with promise."—Bullions, Pract. Lessons, p. 88. "Thou art my hiding place, and my shield, I hope in thy promises."—O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 56. "The sun shall not smite me by day nor the moon by night. The Lord will preserve from evil. He will save my soul.—BIBLE."—Ib., p. 57. "Here Greece is assigned the highest place in the class of objects among which she is numbered—the nations of antiquity—she is one of them."—Lennie's Gram., p. 79.

"From short (as usual) and disturb'd repose I wake; how happy they who wake no more!"—Hallock's Gram., p. 216.

UNDER RULE II.—GREATER PAUSES.

"A taste of a thing, implies actual enjoyment of it; but a taste for it, implies only capacity for enjoyment; as, 'When we have had a true taste of the pleasures of virtue, we can have no relish for those of vice.'"—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 147.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the pause after enjoyment is marked only by a semicolon. But, according to Rule 2d for the Colon, "When the semicolon has been introduced, or when it must be used in a subsequent member, and a still greater pause is required within the period, the colon should be employed." Therefore, the second semicolon here should be changed to a colon.]

"The Indicative mood simply declares a thing; as, He loves; He is loved; Or, it asks a question; as, Lovest thou me?"—Id., ib., p. 35; Pract. Lessons, p. 43; Lennie's Gr., p. 20. "The Indicative Mood simply indicates or declares a thing: as, 'He loves, he is loved:' or it asks a question: as, 'Does he love?' 'Is he loved?'"—L. Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 63; 12mo, p. 63. "The Imperfect (or Past) tense represents an action or event indefinitely as past; as, Caesar came, and saw, and conquered; or it represents the action definitely as unfinished and continuing at a certain time, now entirely past; as, My father was coming home when I met him."—Bullions, P. L., p. 45; E. Gr., 39. "Some nouns have no plural; as, gold, silver, wisdom, health; others have no singular; as, ashes, shears, tongs; others are alike in both numbers; as, sheep, deer, means, news"—Day's School Gram., p. 15. "The same verb may be transitive in one sense, and intransitive in another; thus, in the sentence, 'He believes my story,' believes is transitive; but in this phrase, 'He believes in God,' it is intransitive."—Butler's Gram., p. 61. "Let the divisions be distinct; one part should not include another, but each should have its proper place, and be of importance in that place, and all the parts well fitted together and united, should present a whole."—Goldsbury's C. S. Gram., p. 91. "In the use of the transitive verb there are always three things implied,—the actor, the act, and the object acted upon. In the use of the intransitive there are only two—the subject or thing spoken of, and the state, or action attributed to it."—Bullions, E. Gram.

"Why labours reason? instinct were as well; Instinct far better; what can choose, can err." —Brit. Poets, Vol. viii.

UNDER RULE III.—INDEPENDENT QUOTATIONS.

"The sentence may run thus; 'He is related to the same person, and is governed by him.'"—Hart's Gram.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the semicolon is here inserted, in an unusual manner, before a quotation not closely dependent. But, according to Rule 3d for the Colon, "A quotation introduced without a close dependence on a verb or a conjunction, is generally preceded by the colon." Therefore, the colon should be here preferred.]

"Always remember this ancient proverb, 'Know thyself.'"—Hallock's Gram. "Consider this sentence. The boy runs swiftly."—Frazee's Gram., Stereotype Ed. 1st Ed. "The comparative is used thus; 'Greece was more polished than any other nation of antiquity.' The same idea is expressed by the superlative when the word other is left out. Thus, 'Greece was the most polished nation of antiquity'"—Bullions, E. Gram. see Lennie's Gram. "Burke, in his speech on the Carnatic war, makes the following allusion to the well known fable of Cadmus's sowing dragon's teeth;—'Every day you are fatigued and disgusted with this cant, the Carnatic is a country that will soon recover, and become instantly as prosperous as ever. They think they are talking to innocents, who believe that by the sowing of dragon's teeth, men may come up ready grown and ready made.'"—Hiley's Gram., see also Hart's.

"For sects he car'd not, 'they are not of us, Nor need we, brethren, their concerns discuss.'"—Crabbe.

"Habit with him was all the test of truth, 'It must be right: I've done it from my youth.' Questions he answered in as brief a way, 'It must be wrong—it was of yesterday.'"—Id., Borough.

MIXED EXAMPLES OF ERROR.

"This would seem to say, 'I doubt nothing save one thing, namely, that he will fulfil his promise;' whereas, that is the very thing not doubted."—Bullions, E. Gram.. "The common use of language requires that a distinction be made between morals and manners, the former depend upon internal dispositions, the latter on outward and visible accomplishments."—Beattie's Moral Science. "Though I detest war in each particular fibre of my heart yet I honor the Heroes among our fathers who fought with bloody hand: Peacemakers in a savage way they were faithful to their light; the most inspired can be no more, and we, with greater light, do, it may be, far less."—Parker's Idea of a Church. "The Article the, like a, must have a substantive joined with it, whereas that, like one, may have it understood; thus, speaking of books, I may select one, and say, 'give me that;' but not, 'give me the;' 'give me one;' but not 'give me a.'"—Bullions's E. Gram.. "The Present tense has three distinct forms—the simple; as, I read; the emphatic; as, I do read; and the progressive; as, I am reading'."—Ib.. "The tenses in English are usually reckoned six. The Present, the Imperfect, the Perfect, the Pluperfect, the Future, and the Future Perfect."—Ib.. "There are three participles, the Present or Active, the Perfect or Passive, and the Compound Perfect; as, loving, loved, having loved."—L. Murray's Gram., 2d Edition; Alger's; Fisk's; Bacon's. "The Participles are three, the Present, the Perfect, and the Compound Perfect; as, loving, loved, having loved."—Hart's Gram.. "Will is conjugated regularly, when it is a principal verb, as, present, I will, past, I willed, &c."—Frazee's Gram., Ster. Ed.; Old Ed. "And both sounds of x are compound, one is that of gz, and the other, that of ks"—Ib., Ster. Ed. "The man is happy: he is benevolent: he is useful."—Cooper's Murray; Pl. and Pract. Gr. "The Pronoun stands instead of the noun; as, The man is happy; he is benevolent; he is useful.'"—L. Murray's Gram., 2d Ed. "A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun, to avoid the too frequent repetition of the same word: as, 'The man is happy,' 'he is benevolent,' 'he is useful.'"—Ib.. "A pronoun is a word, used in the room of a noun, or as a substitute for one or more words, as: the man is happy; he is benevolent; he is useful."—Cooper's Pl. and Pr. Gram., his Abridg. of Mur. "A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class of beings, or things, as: animal; tree; insect; fish; fowl"—Cooper's Pl. and Pr. Gram. "Nouns have three persons: the first; the second; and the third."—Ib.

"(Eve) so saying, her rash hand in evil hour Forth reaching to the fruit; she pluck'd, she ate Earth felt the wound: and nature from her seat, Sighing through all her works, gave signs of wo, That all was lost."—Cooper's Pl. and Pr. Gram.



SECTION IV.—THE PERIOD.

The Period, or Full Stop, is used to mark an entire and independent sentence, whether simple or compound.

RULE I.—DISTINCT SENTENCES.

When a sentence, whether long or short, is complete in respect to sense, and independent in respect to construction, it should be marked with the period: as, "Every deviation from truth is criminal. Abhor a falsehood. Let your words be ingenuous. Sincerity possesses the most powerful charm."—"The force of a true individual is felt through every clause and part of a right book; the commas and dashes are alive with it."—R. W. Emerson.

"By frequent trying, TROY was won. All things, by trying, may be done."—Lloyd, p. 184.

RULE II.—ALLIED SENTENCES.

The period is often employed between two sentences which have a general connexion, expressed by a personal pronoun, a conjunction, or a conjunctive adverb: as, "The selfish man languishes in his narrow circle of pleasures. They are confined to what affects his own interests. He is obliged to repeat the same gratifications, till they become insipid. But the man of virtuous sensibility moves in a wider sphere of felicity."—Blair.

"And whether we shall meet again, I know not. Therefore our everlasting farewell take."—Shak., J. C.

RULE III.—ABBREVIATIONS.

The period is generally used after abbreviations, and very often to the exclusion of other points; but, as in this case it is not a constant sign of pause, other points may properly follow it, if the words written in full would demand them: as, A. D. for Anno Domini;—Pro tem. for pro tempore;—Ult. for ultimo;—i.e. for id est, that is;—Add., Spect, No. 285; i.e., Addison, in the Spectator, Number 285th.