LESSON XIX.—ADJECTIVES.

1. Does the adjective frequently relate to what is not uttered with it? 2. What is observed of those rules which suppose every adjective to relate to some noun? 3. To what does the adjective usually relate, when it stands alone after a finite verb? 4. Where is the noun or pronoun, when an adjective follows an infinitive or a participle? 5. What is observed of adjectives preceded by the and used elliptically? 6. What is said of the position of the adjective? 7. In what instances is the adjective placed after its noun? 8. In what instances may the adjective either precede or follow the noun? 9. What are the construction and import of the phrases, in particular, in general, and the like? 10. What is said of adjectives as agreeing or disagreeing with their nouns in number? 11. What is observed of this and that as referring to two nouns connected? 12. What is remarked of the use of adjectives for adverbs? 13. How can one determine whether an adjective or an adverb is required? 14. What is remarked of the placing of two or more adjectives before one noun? 15. How can one avoid the ambiguity which Dr. Priestley notices in the use of the adjective no?

LESSON XX.—PRONOUNS.

1. Can such pronouns as stand for things not named, be said to agree with the nouns for which they are substituted? 2. Is the pronoun we singular when it is used in lieu of I? 3. Is the pronoun you singular when used in lieu of thou or thee? 4. What is there remarkable in the construction of ourself and yourself? 5. Of what person, number, and gender, is the relative, when put after such terms of address as, your Majesty, your Highness, your Lordship, your Honour? 6. How does the English fashion of putting you for thou, compare with the usage of the French, and of other nations? 7. Do any imagine these fashionable substitutions to be morally objectionable? 8. What figures of rhetoric are liable to affect the agreement of pronouns with their antecedents? 9. How does the pronoun agree with its noun in cases of personification? 10. How does the pronoun agree with its noun in cases of metaphor? 11. How does the pronoun agree with its noun in cases of metonymy? 12. How does the pronoun agree with its noun in cases of synecdoche? 13. What is the usual position of pronouns, and what exceptions are there? 14. When a pronoun represents a phrase or sentence, of what person, number, and gender is it? 15. Under what circumstances can a pronoun agree with either of two antecedents? 16. With what does the relative agree when an other word is introduced by the pronoun it? 17. In the sentence, "It is useless to complain," what does it represent? 18. How are relative and interrogative pronouns placed? 19. What are the chief constructional peculiarities of the relative pronouns? 20. Why does the author discard the two special rules commonly given for the construction of relatives?

LESSON XXI.—PRONOUNS.

21. To what part of speech is the greatest number of rules applied in parsing? 22. Of the twenty-four rules in this work, how many are applicable to pronouns? 23. Of the seven rules for cases, how many are applicable to relatives and interrogatives? 24. What is remarked of the ellipsis or omission of the relative? 25. What is said of the suppression of the antecedent? 26. What is noted of the word which, as applied to persons? 27. What relative is applied to a proper noun taken merely as a name? 28. When do we employ the same relative in successive clauses? 29. What odd use is sometimes made of the pronoun your? 30. Under what figure of syntax did the old grammarians rank the plural construction of a noun of multitude? 31. Does a collective noun with a singular definitive before it ever admit of a plural verb or pronoun? 32. Do collective nouns generally admit of being made literally plural? 33. When joint antecedents are of different persons, with which person does the pronoun agree? 34. When joint antecedents differ in gender, of what gender is the pronoun? 35. Why is it wrong to say, "The first has a lenis, and the other an asper over them?" 36. Can nouns without and be taken jointly, as if they had it? 37. Can singular antecedents be so suggested as to require a plural pronoun, when only one of them is uttered? 38. Why do singular antecedents connected by or or nor appear to require a singular pronoun? 39. Can different antecedents connected by or be accurately represented by differing pronouns connected in the same way? 40. Why are we apt to use a plural pronoun after antecedents of different genders? 41. Do the Latin grammars teach the same doctrine as the English, concerning nominatives or antecedents connected disjunctively?

LESSON XXII.—VERBS.

1. What is necessary to every finite verb? 2. What is remarked of such examples as this: "The Pleasures of Memory was published in 1702?" 3. What is to be done with "Thinks I to myself," and the like? 4. Is it right to say with Smith, "Every hundred years constitutes a century?" 5. What needless ellipses both of nominatives and of verbs are commonly supposed by our grammarians? 6. What actual ellipsis usually occurs with the imperative mood? 7. What is observed concerning the place of the verb? 8. What besides a noun or a pronoun may be made the subject of a verb? 9. What is remarked of the faulty omission of the pronoun it before the verb? 10 When an infinitive phrase is made the subject of a verb, do the words remain adjuncts, or are they abstract? 11. How can we introduce a noun or pronoun before the infinitive, and still make the whole phrase the subject of a finite verb? 12. Can an objective before the infinitive become "the subject of the affirmation?" 13. In making a phrase the subject of a verb, do we produce an exception to Rule 14th? 14. Why is it wrong to say, with Dr. Ash, "The king and queen appearing in public was the cause of my going?" 15. What inconsistency is found in Murray, with reference to his "nominative sentences?" 16. What is Dr. Webster's ninth rule of syntax? 17. Why did Murray think all Webster's examples under this rule bad English? 18. Why are both parties wrong in this instance? 19. What strange error is taught by Cobbett, and by Wright, in regard to the relative and its verb? 20. Is it demonstrable that verbs often agree with relatives? 21. What is observed of the agreement of verbs in interrogative sentences? 22. Do we ever find the subjunctive mood put after a relative pronoun? 23. What is remarked of the difference between the indicative and the subjunctive mood, and of the limits of the latter?

LESSON XXIII.—VERBS.

24. In respect to collective nouns, how is it generally determined, whether they convey the idea of plurality or not? 25. What is stated of the rules of Adam, Lowth, Murray, and Kirkham, concerning collective nouns? 26. What is Nixon's notion of the construction of the verb and collective noun? 27. Does this author appear to have gained "a clear idea of the nature of a collective noun?" 28. What great difficulty does Murray acknowledge concerning "nouns of multitude?" 29. Does Murray's notion, that collective nouns are of different sorts, appear to be consistent or warrantable? 30. Can words that agree with the same collective noun, be of different numbers? 31. What is observed of collective nouns used partitively? 32. Which are the most apt to be taken plurally, collections of persons, or collections of things? 33. Can a collective noun, as such, take a plural adjective before it? 34. What is observed of the expressions, these people, these gentry, these folk? 35. What is observed of sentences like the following, in which there seems to be no nominative: "There are from eight to twelve professors?" 36. What rule does Dr. Webster give for such examples as the following: "There was more than a hundred and fifty thousand pounds?" 37. What grammarians teach, that two or more nouns connected by and, "always require the verb or pronoun to which they refer, to be in the plural number?" 38. Does Murray acknowledge or furnish any exceptions to this doctrine? 39. On what principle can one justify such an example as this: "All work and no play, makes Jack a dull boy?" 40. What is remarked of instances like the following: "Prior's Henry and Emma contains an other beautiful example?" 41. What is said of the suppression of the conjunction and? 42. When the speaker changes his nominative, to take a stronger one, what concord has the verb? 43. When two or more nominatives connected by and explain a preceding one, what agreement has the verb? 44. What grammarian approves of such expressions as, "Two and two is four?" 45. What is observed of verbs that agree with the nearest nominative, and are understood to the rest? 46. When the nominatives connected are of different persons, of what person is the verb?

LESSON XXIV.—VERBS.

47. What is the syntax of the verb, when one of its nominatives is expressed, and an other or others implied? 48. What is the syntax of the verb, when there are nominatives connected by as? 49. What is the construction when two nominatives are connected by as well as, but, or save? 50. Can words connected by with be properly used as joint nominatives? 51. Does the analogy of other languages with ours prove any thing on this point? 52. What does Cobbett say about with put for and? 53. What is the construction of such expressions as this: "A torch, snuff and all, goes out in a moment?" 54. Does our rule for the verb and disjunct nominatives derive confirmation from the Latin and Greek syntax? 55. Why do collective nouns singular, when connected by or or nor, admit of a plural verb? 56. In the expression, "I, thou, or he, may affirm," of what person and number is the verb? 57. Who says, "the verb agrees with the last nominative?" 58. What authors prefer "the nearest person," and "the plural number?" 59. What authors prefer "the nearest nominative, whether singular or plural?" 60. What author declares it improper ever to connect by or or nor any nominatives that require different forms of the verb? 61. What is Cobbett's "clear principle" on this head? 62. Can a zeugma of the verb be proved to be right, in spite of these authorities? 63. When a verb has nominatives of different persons or numbers, connected by or or nor, with which of them does it commonly agree? 64. When does it agree with the remoter nominative? 65. When a noun is implied in an adjective of a different number, which word is regarded in the formation of the verb? 66. What is remarked concerning the place of the pronoun of the first person singular? 67. When verbs are connected by and, or, or nor, do they necessarily agree with the same nominative? 68. Why is the thirteenth rule of the author's Institutes and First Lines not retained as a rule in this work? 69. Are verbs often connected without agreeing in mood, tense, and form?

LESSON XXV.—VERBS.

70. What particular convenience do we find in having most of our tenses composed of separable words? 71. Is the connecting of verbs elliptically, or by parts, anything peculiar to our language? 72. What faults appear in the teaching of our grammarians concerning do used as a "substitute for other verbs?" 73. What notions have been entertained concerning the word to as used before the infinitive verb? 74. How does Dr. Ash parse to before the infinitive? 75. What grammarians have taught that the preposition to governs the infinitive mood? 76. Does Lowth agree with Murray in the anomaly of supposing to a preposition that governs nothing? 77. Why do those teach just as inconsistently, who forbear to call the to a preposition? 78. What objections are there to the rule, with its exceptions, "One verb governs an other in the infinitive mood?" 79. What large exception to this rule has been recently discovered by Dr. Bullions? 80. Are the countless examples of this exception truly elliptical? 81. Is the infinitive ever governed by a preposition in French, Spanish, or Italian? 82. What whimsical account of the English infinitive is given by Nixon? 83. How was the infinitive expressed in the Anglo-Saxon of the eleventh century? 84. What does Richard Johnson infer from the fact that the Latin infinitive is sometimes governed by a preposition? 85. What reasons can be adduced to show that the infinitive is not a noun? 86. How can it be proved that to before the infinitive is a preposition? 87. What does Dr. Wilson say of the character and import of the infinitive? 88. To what other terms can the infinitive be connected? 89. What is the infinitive, and for what things may it stand? 90. Do these ten heads embrace all the uses of the infinitive? 91. What is observed of Murray's "infinitive made absolute?" 92. What is said of the position of the infinitive? 93. Is the infinitive ever liable to be misplaced?

LESSON XXVI.—VERBS.

94. What is observed of the frequent ellipses of the verb to be, supposed by Allen and others? 95. What is said of the suppression of to and the insertion of be; as, "To make himself be heard?" 96. Why is it necessary to use the sign to before an abstract infinitive, where it shows no relation? 97. What is observed concerning the distinction of voice in the simple infinitive and the first participle? 98. What do our grammarians teach concerning the omission of to before the infinitive, after bid, dare, feel, &c.? 99. How do Ingersoll, Kirkham, and Smith, agree with their master Murray, concerning such examples as, "Let me go?" 100. What is affirmed of the difficulties of parsing the infinitive according to the code of Murray? 101. How do Nutting, Kirkham, Nixon, Cooper, and Sanborn, agree with Murray, or with one an other, in pointing out what governs the infinitive? 102. What do Murray and others mean by "neuter verbs," when they tell us that the taking of the infinitive without to "extends only to active and neuter verbs?" 103. How is the infinitive used after bid? 104. How, after dare? 105. How, after feel? 106. How, after hear? 107. How, after let? 108. How, after make? 109. How, after need? 110. Is need ever an auxiliary? 111. What errors are taught by Greenleaf concerning dare and need or needs? 112. What is said of see, as governing the infinitive? 113. Do any other verbs, besides these eight, take the infinitive after them without to? 114. How is the infinitive used after have, help, and find? 115. When two or more infinitives occur in the same construction, must to be used with each? 116. What is said of the sign to after than or as?

LESSON XXVII.—PARTICIPLES.

1. What questionable uses of participles are commonly admitted by grammarians? 2. Why does the author incline to condemn these peculiarities? 3. What is observed of the multiplicity of uses to which the participle in ing may be turned? 4. What is said of the participles which some suppose to be put absolute? 5. How are participles placed? 6. What is said of the transitive use of such words as unbecoming? 7. What distinction, in respect to government, is to be observed between a participle and a participial noun? 8. What shall we do when of after the participial noun is objectionable? 9. What is said of the correction of those examples in which a needless article or possessive is put before the participle? 10. What is stated of the retaining of adverbs with participial nouns? 11. Can words having the form of the first participle be nouns, and clearly known to be such, when they have no adjuncts? 12. What strictures are made on Murray, Lennie, and Bullions, with reference to examples in which an infinitive follows the participial noun? 13. In what instances is the first participle equivalent to the infinitive? 14. What is said of certain infinitives supposed to be erroneously put for participles? 15. What verbs take the participle after them, and not the infinitive? 16. What is said of those examples in which participles seem to be made the objects of verbs? 17. What is said of the teaching of Murray and others, that, "The participle with its adjuncts may be considered as a substantive phrase?" 18. How does the English participle compare with the Latin gerund? 19. How do Dr. Adam and others suppose "the gerund in English" to become a "substantive," or noun? 20. How does the French construction of participles and infinitives compare with the English?

LESSON XXVIII.—PARTICIPLES.

21. What difference does it make, whether we use the possessive case before words in ing, or not? 22. What is said of the distinguishing or confounding of different parts of speech, such as verbs, participles, and nouns? 23. With how many other parts of speech does W. Allen confound the participle? 24. How is the distinguishing of the participle from the verbal noun inculcated by Allen, and their difference of meaning by Murray? 25. Is it pretended that the authorities and reasons which oppose the mixed construction of participles, are sufficient to prove such usage altogether inadmissible? 26. Is it proper to teach, in general terms, that the noun or pronoun which limits the meaning of a participle should be put in the possessive case? 27. What is remarked of different cases used indiscriminately before the participle or verbal noun? 28. What say Crombie and others about this disputable phraseology? 29. What says Brown of this their teaching? 30. How do Priestley and others pretend to distinguish between the participial and the substantive use of verbals in ing? 31. What does Brown say of this doctrine? 32. If when a participle becomes an adjective it drops its regimen, should it not also drop it on becoming a noun? 33. Where the sense admits of a choice of construction in respect to the participle, is not attention due to the analogy of general grammar? 34. Does it appear that nouns before participles are less frequently subjected to their government than pronouns? 35. Why must a grammarian discriminate between idioms, or peculiarities, and the common mode of expression? 36. Is the Latin gerund, like the verbal in ing, sometimes active, sometimes passive; and when the former governs the genitive, do we imitate the idiom in English? 37. Is it agreed among grammarians, that the Latin gerund may govern the genitive of the agent? 38. What distinction between the participial and the substantive use of verbals in ing do Crombie and others propose to make? 39. How does this accord with the views of Murray, Lowth, Adam, and Brown?. 40. How does Hiley treat the English participle? 41. What further is remarked concerning false teaching in relation to participles?

LESSON XXIX.—ADVERBS.

1. What is replied to Dr. Adam's suggestion, "Adverbs sometimes qualify substantives?" 2. Do not adverbs sometimes relate to participial nouns? 3. If an adverbial word relates directly to a noun or pronoun, does not that fact constitute it an adjective? 4. Are such expressions as, "the then ministry," "the above discourse," good English, or bad—well authorized, or not? 5. When words commonly used as adverbs assume the construction of nouns, how are they to be parsed? 6. Must not the parser be careful to distinguish adverbs used substantively or adjectively, from such as may be better resolved by the supposing of an ellipsis? 7. How is an adverb to be parsed, when it seems to be put for a verb? 8. How are adverbs to be parsed in such expressions as, "Away with him?" 9. What is observed of the relation of conjunctive adverbs, and of the misuse of when? 10. What is said in regard to the placing of adverbs? 11. What suggestions are made concerning the word no? 12. What is remarked of two or more negatives in the same sentence? 13. Is that a correct rule which says, "Two negatives, in English, destroy each other, or are equivalent to an affirmative?" 14. What is the dispute among grammarians concerning the adoption of or or nor after not or no? 15. What fault is found with the opinion of Priestley, Murray, Ingersoll, and Smith, that "either of them may be used with nearly equal propriety?" 16. How does John Burn propose to settle this dispute? 17. How does Churchill treat the matter? 18. What does he say of the manner in which "the use of nor after not has been introduced?" 19. What other common modes of expression are censured by this author under the same head? 20. How does Brown review these criticisms, and attempt to settle the question? 21. What critical remark is made on the misuse of ever and never? 22. How does Churchill differ from Lowth respecting the phrase, "ever so wisely," or "never so wisely?" 23. What is observed of never and ever as seeming to be adjectives, and being liable to contraction? 24. What strictures are made on the classification and placing of the word only? 25. What is observed of the term not but, and of the adverbial use of but? 26. What is noted of the ambiguous use of but or only? 27. What notions are inculcated by different grammarians about the introductory word there?

LESSON XXX.—CONJUNCTIONS.

1. When two declinable words are connected by a conjunction, why are they of the same case? 2. What is the power, and what the position, of a conjunction that connects sentences or clauses? 3. What further is added concerning the terms which conjunctions connect? 4. What is remarked of two or more conjunctions coming together? 5. What is said of and as supposed to be used to call attention? 6. What relation of case occurs between nouns connected by as? 7. Between what other related terms can as be employed? 8. What is as when it is made the subject or the object of a verb? 9. What questions are raised among grammarians, about the construction of as follow or as follows, and other similar phrases? 10. What is said of Murray's mode of treating this subject? 11. Has Murray written any thing which goes to show whether as follows can be right or not, when the preceding noun is plural? 12. What is the opinion of Nixon, and of Crombie? 13. What conjunction is frequently understood? 14. What is said of ellipsis after than or as? 15. What is suggested concerning the character and import of than and as? 16. Does than as well as as usually take the same case after it that occurs before it? 17. Is the Greek or Latin construction of the latter term in a comparison usually such as ours? 18. What inferences have our grammarians made from the phrase than whom? 19. Is than supposed by Murray to be capable of governing any other objective than whom? 20. What grammarian supposes whom after than to be "in the objective case absolute?" 21. How does the author of this work dispose of the example? 22. What notice is taken of O. B. Peirce's Grammar, with reference to his manner of parsing words after than or as? 23. What says Churchill about the notion that certain conjunctions govern the subjunctive mood? 24. What is said of the different parts of speech contained in the list of correspondents?

LESSON XXXI.—PREPOSITIONS.

1. What is said of the parsing of a preposition? 2. How can the terms of relation which pertain to the preposition be ascertained? 3. What is said of the transposition of the two terms? 4. Between what parts of speech, as terms of the relation, can a preposition be used? 5. What is said of the ellipsis of one or the other of the terms? 6. Is to before the infinitive to be parsed just as any other preposition? 7. What is said of Dr. Adam's "To taken absolutely?" 8. What is observed in relation to the exceptions to Rule 23d? 9. What is said of the placing of prepositions? 10. What is told of two prepositions coming together? 11. In how many and what ways does the relation of prepositions admit of complexity? 12. What is the difference between in and into? 13. What notice is taken of the application of between, betwixt, among, amongst, amid, amidst? 14. What erroneous remark have Priestley, Murray, and others, about two prepositions "in the same construction?" 15. What false doctrine have Lowth, Murray, and others, about the separating of the preposition from its noun? 16. What is said of the prepositions which follow averse and aversion, except and exception? 17. What is remarked concerning the use of of, to, on, and upon? 18. Can there be an inelegant use of prepositions which is not positively ungrammatical?

LESSON XXXII.—INTERJECTIONS.

1. Are all interjections to be parsed as being put absolute? 2. What is said of O and the vocative case? 3. What do Nixon and Kirkham erroneously teach about cases governed by interjections? 4. What say Murray, Ingersoll, and Lennie, about interjections and cases? 5. What is shown of the later teaching to which Murray's erroneous and unoriginal remark about "O, oh, and ah," has given rise? 6. What notice is taken of the application of the rule for "O, oh, and ah," to nouns of the second person? 7. What is observed concerning the further extension of this rule to nouns and pronouns of the third person? 8. What authors teach that interjections are put absolute, and have no government? 9. What is the construction of the pronoun in "Ah me!" "Ah him!" or any similar exclamation? 10. Is the common rule for interjections, as requiring certain cases after them, sustained by any analogy from the Latin syntax? 11. Can it be shown, on good authority, that O in Latin may be followed by the nominative of the first person or the accusative of the second? 12. What errors in the construction and punctuation of interjectional phrases are quoted from Fisk, Smith, and Kirkham? 13. What is said of those sentences in which an interjection is followed by a preposition or the conjunction that? 14. What is said of the place of the interjection? 15. What says O. B. Peirce about the name and place of the interjection? 16. What is offered in refutation of Peirce's doctrine?

[Now parse the six lessons of the Thirteenth Praxis; taking, if the teacher please, the Italic or difficult words only; and referring to the exceptions or observations under the rules, as often as there is occasion. Then proceed to the correction of the eighteen lessons of False Syntax contained in Chapter Twelfth, or the General Review.]

LESSON XXXIII.—GENERAL RULE.

1. Why were the general rule and the general or critical notes added to the foregoing code of syntax? 2. What is the general rule? 3. How many are there of the general or critical notes? 4. What says Critical Note 1st of the parts of speech? 5. What says Note 2d of the doubtful reference of words? 6. What says Note 3d of definitions? 7. What says Note 4th of comparisons? 8. What says Note 5th of falsities? 9. What says Note 6th of absurdities? 10. What says Note 7th of self-contradiction? 11. What says Note 8th of senseless jumbling? 12. What says Note 9th of words needless? 13. What says Note 10th of improper omissions? 14. What says Note 11th of literary blunders? 15. What says Note 12th of literary perversions? 16. What says Note 13th of literary awkwardness? 17. What says Note 14th of literary ignorance? 18. What says Note 15th of literary silliness? 19. What says Note 16th of errors incorrigible? 20. In what place are the rules, exceptions, notes, and observations, in the foregoing system of syntax, enumerated and described? 21. What suggestions are made in relation to the number of rules or notes, and the completeness of the system? 22. What is remarked on the place and character of the critical notes and the general rule? 23. What is noted in relation to the unamendable imperfections sometimes found in ancient writings?

[Now correct—(or at least read, and compare with the Key—) the sixteen lessons of False Syntax, arranged under appropriate heads, for the application of the General Rule; the sixteen others adapted to the Critical Notes; and the five concluding ones, for which the rules are various.]



CHAPTER XV.—FOR WRITING.

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX.

[Fist][When the pupil has been sufficiently exercised in syntactical parsing, and has corrected orally, according to the formulas given, all the examples of false syntax designed for oral exercises, or so many of them as may be deemed sufficient; he should write out the following exercises, correcting them according to the principles of syntax given in the rules, notes, and observations, contained in the preceding chapters; but omitting or varying the references, because his corrections cannot be ascribed to the books which contain these errors.]

EXERCISE I.—ARTICLES.

"They are institutions not merely of an useless, but of an hurtful nature."—Blair's Rhet., p. 344. "Quintilian prefers the full, the copious, and the amplifying style."—Ib., p. 247. "The proper application of rules respecting style, will always be best learned by the means of the illustration which examples afford."—Ib., p. 224. "He was even tempted to wish that he had such an one."—Infant School Gram., p. 41. "Every limb of the human body has an agreeable and disagreeable motion."—Kames, El. of Crit. i, 217. "To produce an uniformity of opinion in all men."—Ib., ii. 365. "A writer that is really an humourist in character, does this without design."—Ib., i. 303. "Addison was not an humourist in character."—Ib., i. 303. "It merits not indeed the title of an universal language."—Ib., i. 353. "It is unpleasant to find even a negative and affirmative proposition connected."—Ib., ii. 25. "The sense is left doubtful by wrong arrangement of members."—Ib., ii. 44. "As, for example, between the adjective and following substantive."—Ib., ii. 104. "Witness the following hyperbole, too bold even for an Hotspur."—Ib., 193. "It is disposed to carry along the good and bad properties of one to another."—Ib., ii. 197. "What a kind of a man such an one is likely to prove, is easy to foresee."—Locke, on Education, p. 47. "In propriety there cannot be such a thing as an universal grammar, unless there were such a thing as an universal language."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 47. "The very same process by which he gets at the meaning of any ancient author, carries him to a fair and a faithful rendering of the scriptures of the Old and New Testament."—Chalmers, Sermons, p. 16. "But still a predominancy of one or other quality in the minister is often visible."—Blair's Rhet., p. 19. "Among the ancient critics, Longinus possessed most delicacy; Aristotle, most correctness."—Ib., p. 20. "He then proceeded to describe an hexameter and pentameter verse."—Ward's Preface to Lily, p. vi. "And Alfred, who was no less able a negotiator than courageous a warrior, was unanimously chosen King."—Pinnock's Geog., p. 271. "An useless incident weakens the interest which we take in the action."—Blair's Rhet., p. 460. "This will lead into some detail; but I hope an useful one."—Ib., p. 234. "When they understand how to write English with due Connexion, Propriety, and Order, and are pretty well Masters of a tolerable Narrative Stile, they may be advanced to writing of Letters."—Locke, on Ed., p. 337. "The Senate is divided into the Select and Great Senate."—Hewitt's Student-Life in Germany, p. 28. "We see a remains of this ceremonial yet in the public solemnities of the universities."—Ib., p. 46.

"Where an huge pollard on the winter fire, At an huge distance made them all retire."—Crabbe, Borough, p. 209.

EXERCISE II.—NOUNS, OR CASES.

"Childrens Minds are narrow, and weak, and usually susceptible but of one Thought at once."—Locke, on Ed., p. 297. "Rather for Example sake, than that ther is any Great Matter in it."—Right of Tythes, p. xvii. "The more that any mans worth is, the greater envy shall he be liable to."—Walker's Particles, p. 461. "He who works only for the common welfare is the most noble, and no one, but him, deserves the name."— Spurzheim, on Ed., p. 182. "He then got into the carriage, to sit with the man, whom he had been told was Morgan."—Stone, on Masonry, p. 480. "But, for such footmen as thee and I are, let us never desire to meet with an enemy."—Bunyan's P. P., p. 153. "One of them finds out that she is Tibulluses Nemesis."—Philological Museum, Vol. i, p. 446. "He may be employed in reading such easy books as Corderius, and some of Erasmus' Colloques, with an English translation."—Burgh's Dignity, Vol. i, p. 150. "For my preface was to show the method of the priests of Aberdeen's procedure against the Quakers."—Barclay's Works, Vol. i, p. 235. "They signify no more against us, than Cochlaeus' lies against Luther."—Ib., i, 236. "To justify Moses his doing obeisance to his father in law."—Ib., i, 241. "Which sort of clauses are generally included between two comma's."—Johnson's Gram. Com., p. 306. "Between you and I, she is but a cutler's wife."—Goldsmith's Essays, p. 187. "In Edward the third, King of England's time."—Jaudon's Gram., p. 104. "The nominative case is the agent or doer."—Smith's New Gram., p. 11. "Dog is in the nominative case, because it is the agent, actor, or doer."—Ib. "The actor or doer is considered the naming or leading noun."—Ib. "The radical form of the principal verb is made use of."—Priestley's Gram., p. 24. "They would have the same right to be taken notice of by grammarians."—Ib., p. 30. "I shall not quarrel with the friend of twelve years standing."— Liberator, ix, 39. "If there were none living but him, John would be against Lilburne, and Lilburne against John."—Biog. Dict., w. Lilburne. "When a personal pronoun is made use of to relate to them."—Cobbett's Eng. Gram., 179. "The town was taken in a few hours time."—Goldsmith's Rome, p. 120. "You must not employ such considerations merely as those upon which the author here rests, taken from gratitude's being the law of my nature."—Blair's Rhet., p. 296. "Our author's second illustration, is taken from praise being the most disinterested act of homage."—Ib., p. 301. "The first subdivision concerning praise being the most pleasant part of devotion, is very just and well expressed."—Ib. "It was a cold thought to dwell upon its disburdening the mind of debt."—Ib. "The thought which runs through all this passage, of man's being the priest of nature, and of his existence being calculated chiefly for this end, that he might offer up the praises of the mute part of the creation, is an ingenious thought and well expressed."—Ib., p. 297. "The mayor of Newyork's portrait."—Ware's English Grammar, p. 9.

"Calm Temperance, whose blessings those partake Who hunger, and who thirst, for scribbling sake." —Pope, Dunciad, i, 50.

EXERCISE III.—ADJECTIVES.

"Plumb down he drops ten thousand fathom deep."—Milton, P. L., B. ii, 1, 933. "In his Night Thoughts, there is much energy of expression: in the three first, there are several pathetic passages."—Blair's Rhet., p. 403. "Learn to pray, to pray greatly and strong."—The Dial, Vol. ii, p. 215. "The good and the bad genius are struggling with one another."— Philological Museum, i, 490. "The definitions of the parts of speech, and application of syntax, should be given almost simultaneous."—Wilbur and Livingston's Gram., p. 6. "I had studied grammar previous to his instructing me."—Ib., p. 13. "So difficult it is to separate these two things from one another."—Blair's Rhet., p. 92. "New words should never be ventured upon, except by such whose established reputation gives them some degree of dictatorial power over language."—Ib., p. 94. "The verses necessarily succeed each other."—O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 142. "They saw that it would be practicable to express, in writing, the whole combinations of sounds which our words require."—Blair's Rhet., p. 68. "There are some Events, the Truth of which cannot appear to any, but such whose Minds are first qualify'd by some certain Knowledge."—Brightland's Gram., p. 242. "These Sort of Feet are in Latin called Iambics."—Fisher's Gram., p. 134. "And the Words are mostly so disposed, that the Accents may fall on every 2d, 4th, 6th, 8th, and 10th Syllables."—Ib., p. 135. "If the verse does not sound well and harmonious to the ear."—Ib., p. 136. "I gat me men-singers and women-singers, and the delights of the sons of men, as musical instruments, and that of all sorts."—Ecclesiastes, ii, 8. "No people have so studiously avoided the collision of consonants as the Italians."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 183. "And these two subjects must destroy one another."—Ib., p. 42. "Duration and space are two things in some respects the most like, and in some respects the most unlike to one another."—Ib., p. 103. "Nothing ever affected him so much, as this misconduct of his friend."—Sanborn's Gram., p. 155. "To see the bearing of the several parts of speech on each other."—Greenleaf's Gram., p. 2. "Two or more adjectives following each other, either with or without a conjunction, qualify the same word."—Bullion's E. Gram., p. 75. "The two chapters which now remain, are by far the most important of any."— Student's Manual, p. 293. "That has been the subject of no less than six negotiations."—Pres. Jackson's Message, 1830. "His gravity makes him work cautious."—Steele, Spect., No. 534. "Grandeur, being an extreme vivid emotion, is not readily produced in perfection but by reiterated impressions."—Kames, El. of Crit., i, 203. "Every object appears less than when viewed separately and independent of the series."—Ib., ii, 14. "An Organ is the best of all other musical instruments."—Dilworth's English Tongue, p. 94.

"Let such teach others who themselves excel, And censure freely who have written well."—Pope, on Crit., l. 15.

EXERCISE IV.—PRONOUNS.

"You had musty victuals, and he hath holp to eat it."—SHAK.: Joh. Dict., w. Victuals. "Sometime am I all wound with adders, who, with cloven tongues, do hiss me into madness."—Beauties of Shak., p. 68. "When a letter or syllable is transposed, it is called METATHESIS."—Adam's Lat. Gram., p. 275. "When a letter or syllable is added to the beginning of a word, it is called PROSTHESIS."—Ib. "If a letter or syllable be taken from the beginning of a word, it is called APHAERESIS."—Ib. "We can examine few, or rather no Substances, so far, as to assure ourselves that we have a certain Knowledge of most of its Properties."—Brightland's Gram., p. 244. "Who do you dine with?"—Fisher's Gram., p. 99. "Who do you speak to?"—Shakspeare. "All the objects of prayer are calculated to excite the most active and vivid sentiments, which can arise in the heart of man."—Adams's Rhet., i, 328. "It has been my endeavour to furnish you with the most useful materials, which contribute to the purposes of eloquence."—Ib., ii, 28. "All paraphrases are vicious: it is not translating, it is commenting."—Formey's Belles-Lettres, p. 163. "Did you never bear false witness against thy neighbour?"—SIR W. DRAPER: Junius, p. 40. "And they shall eat up thine harvest and thy bread: they shall eat up thy flocks and thine herds."—Jer., v, 17. "He was the spiritual rock who miraculously supplied the wants of the Israelites."— Gurney's Evidences, p. 53. "To cull from the mass of mankind those individuals upon which the attention ought to be most employed."— Rambler, No. 4. "His speech contains one of the grossest and most infamous calumnies which ever was uttered."—Merchant's Gram. Key, p. 198. "STROMBUS, i. m. A shell-fish of the sea, that has a leader whom they follow as their king. Plin."—Ainsworth's Dict., 4to. "Whomsoever will, let him come"—MORNING STAR: Lib., xi, 13. "Thy own words have convinced me (stand a little more out of the sun if you please) that thou hast not the least notion of true honour."—Fielding. "Whither art going, pretty Annette? Your little feet you'll surely wet."—L. M. Child. "Metellus, who conquered Macedon, was carried to the funeral pile by his four sons, one of which was the praetor."—Kennett's Roman Ant., p. 332. "That not a soldier which they did not know, should mingle himself among them."— Josephus, Vol. v, p. 170. "The Neuter Gender denotes objects which are neither males nor females."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 37. "And hence it is, that the most important precept, which a rhetorical teacher can inculcate respecting this part of discourse, is negative."—Adams's Rhet., ii, 97. "The meanest and most contemptible person whom we behold, is the offspring of heaven, one of the children of the Most High."— Scougal, p. 102. "He shall sit next to Darius, because of his wisdom, and shall be called Darius his cousin."—1 Esdras, iii, 7. "In 1757, he published his 'Fleece;' but he did not long survive it."—L. Murray, Seq., p. 252.

"The sun upon the calmest sea Appears not half so bright as thee."—Prior.

EXERCISE V.—VERBS.

"The want of connexion here, as well as in the description of the prodigies that accompanied the death of Caesar, are scarce pardonable."—Kames, El. of Crit., Vol. i, p. 38. "The causes of the original beauty of language, considered as significant, which is a branch of the present subject, will be explained in their order."—Ib., Vol. ii, p. 6. "Neither of these two Definitions do rightly adjust the Genuine signification of this Tense."—Johnson's Gram. Com., p. 280. "In the earnest hope that they may prove as beneficial to other teachers as they have to the author."—John Flint's Gram., p. 3. "And then an example is given showing the manner in which the pupil should be required to classify."—Ib., p. 3. "Qu in English words are equivalent to kw."—Sanborn's Gram., p. 258. "Qu has the power of kw, therefore quit doubles the final consonant in forming its preterite."—Ib., p. 103. "The word pronoun or substantive can be substituted, should any teacher prefer to do it"—Ib., p. 132. "The three angles of a right-angled triangle were equal to two right angles in the days of Moses, as well as now."—GOODELL: Liberator, Vol. xi, p. 4. "But now two paces of the vilest earth is room enough."—Beaut. of Shak., p. 126. "Latin and French, as the World now goes, is by every one acknowledged to be necessary."—Locke, on Ed., p. 351. "These things, that he will thus learn by sight, and have by roat in his Memory, is not all, I confess, that he is to learn upon the Globes."—Ib., p. 321. "Henry: if John shall meet me, I will hand him your note."—O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 261. "They pronounce the syllables in a different manner from what they do at other times."—Blair's Rhet., p. 329. "Cato reminded him of many warnings he had gave him."—Goldsmith's Rome, i, 114. "The Wages is small. The Compasses is broken."—Fisher's Gram., p. 95. "Prepare thy heart for prayer, lest thou temptest God."—Life of Luther, p. 83. "That a soldier should fly is a shameful thing."—Adam's Lat. Gram., p. 155. "When there is two verbs which are together."—Woodworth's Gram., p. 27. "Interjections are words used to express some passion of the mind; and is followed by a note of admiration!"—Infant School Gram., p. 126. "And the king said, If he be alone, there is tidings in his mouth."—2 Samuel, xviii, 25. "The opinions of the few must be overruled, and submit to the opinions of the many."—Webster's Essays, p. 56. "One of the principal difficulties which here occurs, has been already hinted."—Blair's Rhet., p. 391. "With milky blood the heart is overflown."—Thomson, Castle of Ind. "No man dare solicit for the votes of hiz nabors."—Webster's Essays, p. 344. "Yet they cannot, and they have no right to exercise it."—Ib., p. 56. "In order to make it be heard over their vast theatres."—Blair's Rhet., p. 471. "Sometimes, however, the relative and its clause is placed before the antecedent and its clause."—Bullions, Lat. Gram., p. 200.

"Here thou, great Anna! whom three realms obey, Does sometimes counsel take—and sometimes tea." —Kames, El. of Crit., i, 321.

EXERCISE VI.—PARTICIPLES.

"On the other hand, the degrading or vilifying an object, is done successfully by ranking it with one that is really low."—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 50. "The magnifying or diminishing objects by means of comparison, proceeds from the same cause."—Ib., i, 239. "Gratifying the affection will also contribute to my own happiness."—Ib., i, 53. "The pronouncing syllables in a high or a low tone."—Ib., ii, 77. "The crowding into one period or thought different figures of speech, is not less faulty than crowding metaphors in that manner."—Ib., ii, 234. "To approve is acknowledging we ought to do a thing; and to condemn is owning we ought not to do it."—Burlamaqui, on Law, p. 39. "To be provoked that God suffers men to act thus, is claiming to govern the word in his stead."—Secker. "Let every subject be well understood before passing on to another."—Infant School Gram., p. 18. "Doubling the t in bigotted is apt to lead to an erroneous accentuation of the word on the second syllable."—Churchill's Gram., p. 22. "Their compelling the man to serve was an act of tyranny."—Webster's Essays, p. 54. "One of the greatest misfortunes of the French tragedy is, its being always written in rhyme."—Blair's Rhet., p. 469. "Horace entitles his satire 'Sermones,' and seems not to have intended rising much higher than prose put into numbers."—Ib., p. 402. "Feeding the hungry, clothing the naked, comforting the afflicted, yield more pleasure than we receive from those actions which respect only ourselves."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 238. "But when we attempt to go a step beyond this, and inquire what is the cause of regularity and variety producing in our minds the sensation of beauty, any reason we can assign is extremely imperfect."—Blair's Rhet., p. 29. "In an author's writing with propriety, his being free of the two former faults seems implied."—Ib., p. 94. "To prevent our being carried away by that torrent of false and frivolous taste."—Ib., p. 12. "When we are unable to assign the reasons of our being pleased."—Ib., p. 15. "An adjective will not make good sense without joining it to a noun."—Sanborn's Gram., p. 12. "What is said respecting sentences being inverted?"—Ib., p. 71. "Though he admits of all the other cases, made use of by the Latins."—Bicknell's Gram., p. viii. "This indeed, is accounting but feebly for its use in this instance."—Wright's Gram., p. 148. "The knowledge of what passes in the mind is necessary for the understanding the Principles of Grammar."—Brightland's Gram., p. 73. "By than's being used instead of as, it is not asserted that the former has as much fruit as the latter."—O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 207. "Thus much for the Settling your Authority over your Children."—Locke, on Ed., p. 58.

EXERCISE VII.—ADVERBS.

"There can scarce be a greater Defect in a Gentleman, than not to express himself well either in Writing or Speaking."—Locke, on Ed., p. 335. "She seldom or ever wore a thing twice in the same way."—Castle Rackrent, p. 84. "So can I give no reason, nor I will not."—Beauties of Shak., p. 45. "Nor I know not where I did lodge last night."—Ib., p. 270. "It is to be presumed they would become soonest proficient in Latin."—Burn's Gram., p. xi. "The difficulty of which has not been a little increased by that variety."—Ward's Pref. to Lily's Gram., p. xi. "That full endeavours be used in every monthly meeting to seasonably end all business or cases that come before them."—N. E. Discipline, p. 44. "In minds where they had scarce any footing before."—Spectator, No. 566. "The negative form is when the adverb not is used."—Sanborn's Gram., p. 61. "The interrogative form is when a question is asked."—Ibid. "The finding out the Truth ought to be his whole Aim."—Brightland's Gram., p. 239. "Mention the first instance when that is used in preference to who, whom, or which."—Sanborn's Gram., p. 96. "The plot was always exceeding simple. It admitted of few incidents."—Blair's Rhet., p. 470. "Their best tragedies make not a deep enough impression on the heart."—Ib., p. 472. "The greatest genius on earth, not even a Bacon, can be a perfect master of every branch."—Webster's Essays, p. 13. "The verb OUGHT is only used in the indicative [and subjunctive moods]."—Dr. Ash's Gram., p. 70. "It is still a greater deviation from congruity, to affect not only variety in the words, but also in the construction."— Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 28. "It has besides been found that, generally, students attend those lectures more carefully for which they pay."—Dr. Lieber, Lit. Conv., p. 65. "This book I obtained through a friend, it being not exposed for sale."—Woolsey, ib., p. 76. "Here there is no manner of resemblance but in the word drown."—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 163. "We have had often occasion to inculcate, that the mind passeth easily and sweetly along a train of connected objects."—Ib., ii, 197. "Observe the periods when the most illustrious persons flourished."—Worcester's Hist., p. iv. "For every horse is not called Bucephalus, nor every dog Turk."—Buchanan's Gram., p. 15. "One can scarce avoid smiling at the blindness of a certain critic."—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 257. "Provided always, that we run not into the extreme of pruning so very close, so as to give a hardness and dryness to style."—Jamieson's Rhet., p. 92; Blair's, 111. "Agreement is when one word is like another in number, case, gender or person."—Frost's Gram., p. 43. "Government is when one word causes another to be in some particular number, person or case."—Ibid. "It seems to be nothing more than the simple form of the adjective, and to imply not either comparison or degree."—Murray's Gram., 2d Ed., p. 47.

EXERCISE VIII.—CONJUNCTIONS.

"The Indians had neither cows, horses, oxen, or sheep."—Olney's Introd. to Geog., p. 46. "Who have no other object in view, but, to make a show of their supposed talents."—Blair's Rhet., p. 344. "No other but these, could draw the attention of men in their rude uncivilized state."—Ib., p. 379. "That he shall stick at nothing, nor nothing stick with him."—Pope. "To enliven it into a passion, no more is required but the real or ideal presence of the object."—Kames, El. of Crit., i, 110. "I see no more to be made of it but to-rest upon the final cause first mentioned."—Ib., i, 175. "No quality nor circumstance contributes more to grandeur than force."—Ib., i, 215. "It being a quotation, not from a poet nor orator, but from a grave author, writing an institute of law."—Ib., i, 233. "And our sympathy cannot be otherwise gratified but by giving all the succour in our power."—Ib., i, 362. "And to no verse, as far as I know, is a greater variety of time necessary."—Ib., ii, 79. "English Heroic verse admits no more but four capital pauses."—Ib., ii, 105. "The former serves for no other purpose but to make harmony."—Ib., 231. "But the plan was not perhaps as new as some might think it."—Literary Conv., p. 85. "The impression received would probably be neither confirmed or corrected."—Ib., p. 183. "Right is nothing else but what reason acknowledges."—Burlamaqui, on Law, p. 32. "Though it should be of no other use but this."—BP. WILKINS: Tooke's D. P., ii, 27. "One hope no sooner dies in us but another rises up."—Spect., No. 535. "This rule implies nothing else but the agreement of an adjective with a substantive."—Adams Latin Gram., p. 156; Gould's, 129. "There can be no doubt but the plan of exercise pointed out at page 132, is the best that can be adopted."—Blair's Gram., p. viii. "The exertions of this gentleman have done more than any other writer on the subject."—DR. ABERCROMBIE: Rec. in Murray's Gram., Vol. ii, p. 306. "No accidental nor unaccountable event ought to be admitted."—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 273. "Wherever there was much fire and vivacity in the genius of nations."—Jamieson's Rhet., p. 5. "I aim at nothing else but your safety."—Walker's Particles, p. 90. "There are pains inflicted upon man for other purposes except warning."—Wayland's Moral Sci., p. 122. "Of whom we have no more but a single letter remaining."—Campbell's Pref. to Matthew. "The publisher meant no more but that W. Ames was the author."—Sewel's History, Preface, p. xii. "Be neether bashful, nor discuver uncommon solicitude."—Webster's Essays, p. 403. "They put Minos to death, by detaining him so long in a bath, till he fainted."— Lempriere's Dict. "For who could be so hard-hearted to be severe?"— Cowley. "He must neither be a panegyrist nor a satirist."—Blair's Rhet., p. 353. "No man unbiassed by philosophical opinions, thinks that life, air, or motion, are precisely the same things."—Dr. Murray's Hist. of Lang., i, 426. "Which I had no sooner drank, but I found a pimple rising in my forehead."—ADDISON: Sanborn's Gram., p. 182. "This I view very important, and ought to be well understood."—Osborn's Key, p. 5. "So that neither emphases, tones, or cadences should be the same."—Sheridan's Elocution, p. 5.

"You said no more but that yourselves must be The judges of the scripture sense, not we."—Dryden, p. 96.

EXERCISE IX.—PREPOSITIONS.

"To be entirely devoid of relish for eloquence, poetry, or any of the fine arts, is justly construed to be an unpromising symptom of youth."—Blair's Rhet., p. 14. "Well met, George, for I was looking of you."—Walker's Particles, p. 441. "There is another fact worthy attention."—Channing's Emancip., p. 49. "They did not gather of a Lord's-day, in costly temples."—The Dial, No. ii, p. 209. "But certain ideas have, by convention between those who speak the same language, been agreed to be represented by certain articulate sounds."—Adams's Rhet., ii, 271. "A careful study of the language is previously requisite, in all who aim at writing it properly."—Blair's Rhet., p. 91. "He received his reward in a small place, which he enjoyed to his death."—Notes to the Dunciad, B. ii, l. 283. "Gaddi, the pupil of Cimabue, was not unworthy his master."—Literary History, p. 268. "It is a new, and picturesque, and glowing image, altogether worthy the talents of the great poet who conceived it."—Kirkham's Elocution, p. 100. "If the right does exist, it is paramount his title."—Angell, on Tide Waters, p. 237. "The most appropriate adjective should be placed nearest the noun."—Sanborn's Gram., p. 194. "Is not Mr. Murray's octavo grammar more worthy the dignified title of a 'Philosophical Grammar?'"—Kirkham's Gram., p. 39. "If it shall be found unworthy the approbation and patronage of the literary public."—Perley's Gram., p. 3. "When the relative is preceded by two words referring to the same thing, its proper antecedent is the one next it."—Bullions's E. Gram., p. 101. "The magistrates commanded them to depart the city."—Sewel's Hist., p. 97. "Mankind act oftener from caprice than reason."—Murray's Gram., i, 272. "It can never view, clearly and distinctly, above one object at a time."—Jamieson's Rhet., p. 65. "The theory of speech, or systematic grammar, was never regularly treated as a science till under the Macedonian kings."—Knight, on Greek Alph., p. 106. "I have been at London a year, and I saw the king last summer."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 198. "This is a crucifying of Christ, and a rebelling of Christ."—Waldenfield. "There is another advantage worthy our observation."—Bolingbroke, on Hist., p. 26. "Certain conjunctions also require the subjunctive mood after them, independently on the sense."—Grant's Lat. Gram., p. 77. "If the critical reader will think proper to admit of it at all."—Priestley's Gram., p. 191. "It is the business of an epic poet to copy after nature."—Blair's Rhet., p. 427. "Good as the cause is, it is one from which numbers have deserted."— Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 222. "In respect of the images it will receive from matter."—Spectator, No. 413. "Instead of following on to whither morality would conduct it."—Dymond's Essays, p. 85. "A variety of questions upon subjects on which their feelings, and wishes, and interests, are involved."—Ib., p. 147. "In the Greek, Latin, Saxon, and German tongues, some of these situations are termed CASES, and are expressed by additions to the Noun instead of by separate words and phrases."—Booth's Introd., p. 33. "Every teacher is bound during three times each week, to deliver a public lecture, gratis."—Howitt's Student-Life in Germany, p. 35. "But the professors of every political as well as religious creed move amongst each other in manifold circles."—Ib., p. 113.

EXERCISE X.—PROMISCUOUS.

"The inseparable Prepositions making no Sense alone, they are used only in Composition."—Buchanan's Gram., p. 66. "The English Scholar learns little from the two last Rules."—Ib., Pref., p. xi. "To prevent the body being stolen by the disciples."—Watson's Apology, p. 123. "To prevent the Jews rejoicing at his death."—Wood's Dict., p. 584. "After he had wrote the chronicles of the priesthood of John Hyrcanus."—Whiston's Josephus, v, 195. "Such words are sometimes parsed as a direct address, than which, nothing could be farther from the truth."—Goodenow's Gram., p. 89. "The signs of the tenses in these modes are as follows."—C. Adams's Gram., p. 33. "The signs of the tenses in the Potential mode are as follows."—Ibid. "And, if more promiscuous examples be found necessary, they may be taken from Mr. Murray's English Exercises."— Nesbit's Parsing, p. xvi. "One is a numeral adjective, the same as ten."—Ib., p. 95. "Nothing so much distinguishes a little mind as to stop at words."—MONTAGUE: Letter-Writer, p. 129. "But I say, again, What signifies words?"—Id., ib. "Obedience to parents is a divine command, given in both the Old and the New Testaments."—Nesbit's Parsing, p. 207. "A Compound Subject is a union of several Subjects to all which belong the same Attribute."—Fosdick's De Sacy, on General Gram., p. 22. "There are other languages in which the Conjunctive does not prevent our expressing the subject of the Conjunctive Proposition by a Pronoun."—Ib., p. 58. "This distinction must necessarily be expressed by language, but there are several different modes of doing it."—Ib., p. 64. "This action may be considered with reference to the person or thing upon whom the action falls."—Ib., p. 97. "There is nothing in the nature of things to prevent our coining suitable words."—Barnard's Gram., p. 41. "What kind of a book is this?"—Ib., p. 43. "Whence all but him had fled."—Ib., p. 58. "Person is a distinction between individuals, as speaking, spoken to, or spoken of."—Ib., p. 114. "He repented his having neglected his studies at college."—Emmons's Gram., p. 19. "What avails the taking so much medicine, when you are so careless about taking cold?"—Ib., p. 29. "Active transitive verbs are those where the action passes from the agent to the object."—Ib., p. 33. "Active intransitive verbs, are those where the action is wholly confined to the agent or actor."—Ibid. "Passive verbs express the receiving, or suffering, the action."—Ib., p. 34. "The pluperfect tense expresses an action or event that passed prior or before some other period of time specified in the sentence."—Ib., p. 42. "There is no doubt of his being a great statesman."—Ib., p. 64. "Herschell is the fartherest from the sun of any of the planets."—Fuller's Gram., p. 66. "There has not been introduced into the foregoing pages any reasons for the classifications therein adopted."—Ib., p. 80. "There must be a comma before the verb, as well as between each nominative case."—Ib., p. 98. "Yon, with former and latter, are also adjectives."—Brace's Gram., p. 17. "You was."—Ib., p. 32. "If you was."—Ib., p. 39. "Two words which end in ly succeeding each other are indeed a little offensive to the ear."—Ib., p. 85; Lennie's Gram., p. 102.

"Is endless life and happiness despis'd? Or both wish'd here, where neither can be found?"—Young, p. 124.

EXERCISE XI.—PROMISCUOUS.

"Because any one of them is placed before a noun or pronoun, as you observe I have done in every sentence."—Rand's Gram., p. 74. "Might accompany is a transitive verb, because it expresses an action which effects the object me."—Gilbert's Gram., p. 94. "Intend is an intransitive verb because it expresses an action which does not effect any object."—Ib., p. 93. "Charles and Eliza were jealous of one another."—J. M. Putnam's Gram., p. 44. "Thus one another include both nouns."—Ibid. "When the antecedent is a child, that is elegantly used in preference to who, whom, or which."—Sanborn's Gram., p. 94. "He can do no more in words, but make out the expression of his will."—Bp. Wilkins. "The form of the first person plural of the imperative, love we, is grown obsolete."— Lowth's Gram., p. 38. "Excluding those verbs which are become obsolete."—Priestley's Gram., p. 47. "He who sighs for pleasure, the voice of wisdom can never reach, nor the power of virtue touch."—Wright's Athens, p. 64. "The other branch of wit in the thought, is that only which is taken notice of by Addison."—Kames, El. of Crit., i, 312. "When any measure of the Chancellor was found fault with."—Professors' Reasons, p. 14. "Whether was formerly made use of to signify interrogation."— Murray's Gram., p. 54. "Under the article of Pronouns the following words must be taken notice of."—Priestley's Gram., p. 95. "In a word, we are afforded much pleasure, to be enabled to bestow our most unqualified approbation on this excellent work."—Wright's Gram., Rec., p. 4. "For Recreation is not being Idle, as every one may observe."—Locke, on Ed., p. 365. "In the easier valuing and expressing that sum."—Dilworth's Arith., p. 3. "Addition is putting together of two or more numbers."— Alexander's Arith., p. 8. "The reigns of some of our British Queens may fairly be urged in proof of woman being capable of discharging the most arduous and complicated duties of government."—West's Letters to Y. L., p. 43. "What is the import of that command to love such an one as ourselves?"—Wayland's Moral Science, p. 206. "It should seem then the grand question was, What is good?"—Harris's Hermes, p. 297. "The rectifying bad habits depends upon our consciousness of them."—Sheridan's Elocution, p. 32. "To prevent our being misled by a mere name."— Campbell's Rhet., p. 168. "I was refused an opportunity of replying in the latter review."—Fowle's True English Gram., p. 10. "But how rare is such generosity and excellence as Howard displayed!"—M'Culloch's Gram., p. 39. "The noun is in the Nominative case when it is the name of the person or thing which acts or is spoken of."—Ib., p. 54. "The noun is in the Objective case when it is the name of the person or thing which is the object or end of an action or movement."—Ib., p. 54. "To prevent their being erased from your memory."—Mack's Gram., p. 17. "Pleonasm, is when a superfluous word is introduced abruptly."—Ib., p. 69.

"Man feels his weakness, and to numbers run, Himself to strengthen, or himself to shun."—Crabbe, Borough, p. 137.

EXERCISE XII.—TWO ERRORS.

"Independent on the conjunction, the sense requires the subjunctive mood."—Grant's Latin Gram., p. 77. "A Verb in past time without a sign is Imperfect tense."—C. Adams's Gram., p. 33. "New modelling your household and personal ornaments is, I grant, an indispensable duty."—West's Letters to Y. L., p. 58. "For grown ladies and gentlemen learning to dance, sing, draw, or even walk, is now too frequent to excite ridicule."—Ib., p. 123. "It is recorded that a physician let his horse bleed on one of the evil days, and it soon lay dead."—Constable's Miscellany, xxi. 99. "As to the apostrophe, it was seldom used to distinguish the genitive case till about the beginning of the present century, and then seems to have been introduced by mistake."—Dr. Ash's Gram., p. 23. "One of the relatives only varied to express the three cases."—Lowth's Gram., p. 24. "What! does every body take their morning draught of this liquor?"—Collier's Cebes. "Here, all things comes round, and bring the same appearances a long with them."—Collier's Antoninus, p. 103. "Most commonly both the relative and verb are elegantly left out in the second member."—Buchanan's Gram., p. ix. "A fair receipt of water, of some thirty or forty foot square."—Bacon's Essays, p. 127. "The old know more indirect ways of outwiting others, than the young."—Burgh's Dignity, i, 60. "The pronoun singular of the third person hath three genders."—Lowth's Gram., p. 21. "The preposition to is made use of before nouns of place, when they follow verbs and participles of motion."—Murray's Gram., p. 203. "It is called, understanding human nature, knowing the weak sides of men, &c."—Wayland's Moral Science, p. 284. "Neither of which are taken notice of by this Grammar."—Johnson's Gram. Com., p. 279. "But certainly no invention is entitled to such degree of admiration as that of language."—Blair's Rhet., p. 54. "The Indians, the Persians, and Arabians, were all famous for their tales."—Ib., p. 374. "Such a leading word is the preposition and the conjunction."— Felch's Comp. Gram., p. 21. "This, of all others, is the most encouraging circumstance in these times."—Sheridan's Elocution, p. 37. "The putting any constraint on the organs of speech, or urging them to a more rapid action than they can easily perform in their tender state, must be productive of indistinctness in utterance."—Ib., p. 35. "Good articulation is the foundation of a good delivery, in the same manner as the sounding the simple notes in music, is the foundation of good singing."—Ib., p. 33. "The offering praise and thanks to God, implies our having a lively and devout sense of his excellencies and of his benefits."—ATTERBURY: Blair's Rhet., p. 295. "The pause should not be made till the fourth or sixth syllable."—Blair, ib., p. 333. "Shenstone's pastoral ballad, in four parts, may justly be reckoned one of the most elegant poems of this kind, which we have in English."—Ib., p. 394. "What need Christ to have died, if heaven could have contained imperfect souls?"—Baxter. "Every person is not a man of genius, nor is it necessary that he should."—Seattle's Moral Science, i, 69. "They were alarmed from a quarter where they least expected."—Goldsmith's Greece, ii, 6.

"If thou more murmur'st, I will rend an oak, And peg thee in his knotty intrails."—SHAK.: White's Verb, p. 94.

EXERCISE XIII.—TWO ERRORS.

"In consequence of this, much time and labor are unprofitably expended, and a confusion of ideas introduced into the mind, which, by never so wise a method of subsequent instruction, it is very difficult completely to remove."—Grenville's Gram., p. 3. "So that the restoring a natural manner of delivery, would be bringing about an entire revolution, in its most essential parts."—Sheridan's Elocution, p. 170. "'Thou who loves us, will protect us still:' here who agrees with thou, and is nominative to the verb loves."—Alex. Murray's Gram., p. 67. "The Active voice signifies action; the Passive, suffering, or being the object of an action."—Adam's Latin Gram., p. 80; Gould's, 77. "They sudden set upon him, fearing no such thing."—Walker's Particles, p. 252. "That may be used as a pronoun, an adjective, and a conjunction, depending on the office which it performs in the sentence."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 110. "This is the distinguishing property of the church of Christ from all other antichristian assemblies or churches."—Barclay's Works, i, 533. "My lords, the course which the legislature formerly took with respect to the slave-trade, appears to me to be well deserving the attention both of the government and your lordships."—BROUGHAM: Antislavery Reporter, Vol. ii, p. 218. "We speak that we do know, and testify that we have seen."—John, iii, 11. "This is a consequence I deny, and remains for him to prove."—Barclay's Works, iii, 329. "To back this, He brings in the Authority of Accursius, and Consensius Romanus, to the latter of which he confesses himself beholding for this Doctrine."—Johnson's Gram. Com., p. 343. "The compound tenses of the second order, or those in which the participle present is made use of."—Priestley's Gram., p. 24. "To lay the accent always on the same syllable, and the same letter of the syllable, which they do in common discourse."—Sheridan's Elocution, p. 78. "Though the converting the w into a v is not so common as the changing the v into a w."—Ib., p. 46. "Nor is this all; for by means of accent, the times of pauses also are rendered quicker, and their proportions more easily to be adjusted and observed."—Ib., p. 72. "By mouthing, is meant, dwelling upon syllables that have no accent: or prolonging the sounds of the accented syllables, beyond their due proportion of time."—Ib., p. 76. "Taunt him with the license of ink; if thou thou'st him thrice, it shall not be amiss."—SHAK.: Joh. Dict., w. Thou. "The eye that mocketh at his father, and despiseth to obey his mother, the ravens of the valley shall pick it out, and the young eagles shall eat it."—Prov., xxx, 17. "Copying, or merely imitating others, is the death of arts and sciences."—Spurzheim, on Ed., p. 170. "He is arrived at that degree of perfection, as to surprise all his acquaintance."—Ensell's Gram., p. 296. "Neither the King nor Queen are gone."—Buchanan's E. Syntax, p. 155. "Many is pronounced as if it were wrote manny."—Dr. Johnson's Gram., with Dict., p. 2.

"And as the music on the waters float, Some bolder shore returns the soften'd note." —Crabbe, Borough, p. 118.

EXERCISE XIV.—THREE ERRORS.

"It appears that the Temple was then a building, because these Tiles must be supposed to be for the covering it."—Johnson's Gram. Com., p. 281. "It was common for sheriffs to omit or excuse the not making returns for several of the boroughs within their counties."—Brown's Estimate, Vol. ii, p. 132. "The conjunction as when it is connected with the pronoun, such, many, or same, is sometimes called a relative pronoun."—Kirkham's Gram., the Compend. "Mr. Addison has also much harmony in his style; more easy and smooth, but less varied than Lord Shaftesbury."—Blair's Rhet., p. 127; Jamieson's, 129. "A number of uniform lines having all the same pause, are extremely fatiguing; which is remarkable in French versification."—Kames, El. of Crit., Vol. ii, p. 104. "Adjectives qualify or distinguish one noun from another."—Fowle's True Eng. Gram., p. 13. "The words one, other, and none, are used in both numbers."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 107. "A compound word is made up of two or more words, usually joined by an hyphen, as summer-house, spirit-less, school-master."—Blair's Gram., p. 7. "There is an inconvenience in introducing new words by composition which nearly resembles others in use before; as, disserve, which is too much like deserve."—Priestley's Gram., p. 145. "For even in that case, the trangressing the limits in the least, will scarce be pardoned."—Sheridan's Lect., p. 119. "What other are the foregoing instances but describing the passion another feels."—Kames, El. of Crit., i, 388. "'Two and three are five.' If each substantive is to be taken separately as a subject, then 'two is five,' and 'three is five.'"—Goodenow's Gram., p. 87. "The article a joined to the simple pronoun other makes it the compound another."— Priestley's Gram., p. 96. "The word another is composed of the indefinite article prefixed to the word other."—Murray's Gram., p. 57; et al. "In relating things that were formerly expressed by another person, we often meet with modes of expression similar to the following."—Ib., p. 191. "Dropping one l prevents the recurrence of three very near each other."—Churchill's Gram., p. 202. "Sometimes two or more genitive cases succeed each other; as, 'John's wife's father.'"—Dalton's Gram., p. 14. "Sometimes, though rarely, two nouns in the possessive case immediately succeed each other, in the following form: 'My friend's wife's sister.'"—Murray's Gram., p. 45.

EXERCISE XV.—MANY ERRORS.

"Number is of a two fold nature,—Singular and Plural: and comprehends, accordingly to its application, the distinction between them."—Wright's Gram., p. 37. "The former, Figures of Words, are commonly called Tropes, and consists in a word's being employed to signify something, which is different from its original and primitive meaning."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 337. "The former, figures of words, are commonly called tropes, and consist in a word's being employed to signify something that is different from its original and primitive meaning."—Blair's Rhet., p. 132. "A particular number of connected syllables are called feet, or measured paces."—Blair's Gram., p. 118. "Many poems, and especially songs, are written in the dactyl or anapaestic measure, some consisting of eleven or twelve syllables, and some of less."—Ib., p. 121. "A Diphthong makes always a long Syllable, unless one of the vowels be droped."— British Gram., p. 34. "An Adverb is generally employed as an attributive, to denote some peculiarity or manner of action, with respect to the time, place, or order, of the noun or circumstance to which it is connected."— Wright's Definitions, Philos. Gram., pp. 35 and 114. "A Verb expresses the action, the suffering or enduring, or the existence or condition of a noun."—Ib., pp. 35 and 64. "These three adjectives should be written our's, your's, their's."—Fowle's True Eng. Gram., p. 22. "Never was man so teized, or suffered half the uneasiness as I have done this evening."— Tattler, No. 160; Priestley's Gram., p. 200; Murray's, i, 223. "There may be reckoned in English four different cases, or relations of a substantive, called the subjective, the possessive, the objective, and the absolute cases."—Goodenow's Gram., p. 31. "To avoid the too often repeating the Names of other Persons or Things of which we discourse, the words he, she, it, who, what, were invented."—Brightland's Gram., p. 85. "Names which denote a number of the same things, are called nouns of multitude."—Infant School Gram., p. 21. "But lest he should think, this were too slightly a passing over his matter, I will propose to him to be considered these things following."—Barclay's Works, Vol. iii, p. 472. "In the pronunciation of the letters of the Hebrew proper names, we find nearly the same rules prevail as in those of Greek and Latin."—Walker's Key, p. 223. "The distributive pronominal adjectives each, every, either, agree with the nouns, pronouns, and verbs of the singular number only."—Lowth's Gram., p. 89. "Having treated of the different sorts of words, and their various modifications, which is the first part of Etymology, it is now proper to explain the methods by which one word is derived from another."—L. Murray's Gram., p. 130.

EXERCISE XVI.—MANY ERRORS.

"A Noun with its Adjectives (or any governing Word with its Attendants) is one compound Word, whence the Noun and Adjective so joined, do often admit another Adjective, and sometimes a third, and so on; as, a Man, an old Man, a very good old Man, a very learned, judicious, sober Man."—British Gram., p. 195; Buchanan's, 79. "A substantive with its adjective is reckoned as one compounded word; whence they often take another adjective, and sometimes a third, and so on: as, 'An old man; a good old man; a very learned, judicious, good old man.'"—L. Murray's Gram., p. 169; Ingersoll's, 195; and others. "But though this elliptical style be intelligible, and is allowable in conversation and epistolary writing, yet in all writings of a serious or dignified kind, is ungraceful."—Blair's Rhet., p. 112. "There is no talent so useful towards rising in the world, or which puts men more out of the reach of fortune, than that quality generally possessed by the dullest sort of people, and is, in common language, called discretion."—SWIFT: Blair's Rhet., p. 113. "Which to allow, is just as reasonable as to own, that 'tis the greatest ill of a body to be in the utmost manner maimed or distorted; but that to lose the use only of one limb, or to be impaired in some single organ or member, is no ill worthy the least notice."— SHAFTESBURY: ib., p. 115; Murray's Gram., p. 322. "If the singular nouns and pronouns, which are joined together by a copulative conjunction, be of several persons, in making the plural pronoun agree with them in person, the second person takes place of the third, and the first of both."—Murray's Gram., p. 151; et al. "'The painter * * * cannot exhibit various stages of the same action.' In this sentence we see that the painter governs, or agrees with, the verb can, as its nominative case."—Ib., p. 195. "It expresses also facts which exist generally, at all times, general truths, attributes which are permanent, habits, customary actions, and the like, without the reference to a specific time."—Ib., p. 73; Webster's Philos. Gram., p. 71. "The different species of animals may therefore be considered, as so many different nations speaking different languages, that have no commerce with each other; each of which consequently understands none but their own."—Sheridan's Elocution, p. 142. "It is also important to understand and apply the principles of grammar in our common conversation; not only because it enables us to make our language understood by educated persons, but because it furnishes the readiest evidence of our having received a good education ourselves."—Frost's Practical Gram., p. 16.

EXERCISE XVII.—MANY ERRORS.

"This faulty Tumour in Stile is like an huge unpleasant Rock in a Champion Country, that's difficult to be transcended."—Holmes's Rhet., Book ii, p. 16. "For there are no Pelops's, nor Cadmus's, nor Danaus's dwell among us."—Ib., p. 51. "None of these, except will, is ever used as a principal verb, but as an auxiliary to some principal, either expressed or understood."—Ingersoll's Gram., p. 134. "Nouns which signify either the male or female are common gender."—Perley's Gram., p. 11. "An Adjective expresses the kind, number, or quality of a noun."—Parker and Fox's Gram., Part I, p. 9. "There are six tenses; the Present, the Imperfect, the Perfect, the Pluperfect, the Future, and the Future Perfect tenses."—Ib., p. 18. "My refers to the first person singular, either gender. Our refers to the first person plural, either gender. Thy refers to the second person singular, either gender. Your refers to the second person plural, either gender. Their refers to the third person plural, either gender."—Parker and Fox's Gram., Part II, p. 14. "Good use, which for brevity's sake, shall hereafter include reputable, national, and present use, is not always uniform in her decisions."—Jamieson's Rhet., p. 44. "Nouns which denote but one object are considered in the singular number."—Edward's First Lessons in Gram., p. 35. "If, therefore, the example of Jesus should be plead to authorize accepting an invitation to dine on the sabbath, it should be plead just as it was."—Barnes's Notes: on Luke, xiv, 1. "The teacher will readily dictate what part may be omitted, the first time going through it."—Ainsworth's Gram., p. 4. "The contents of the following pages have been drawn chiefly, with various modifications, from the same source which has supplied most modern writers on this subject, viz. LINDLEY MURRAY'S GRAMMAR."—Felton's Gram., p. 3. "The term person in grammar distinguishes between the speaker, the person or thing spoken to, and the person or thing spoken of."—Ib., p. 9. "In my father's garden grow the Maiden's Blush and the Prince' Feather."—Felton, ib., p. 15. "A preposition is a word used to connect words with one another, and show the relation between them. They generally stand before nouns and pronouns."—Ib., p. 60. "Nouns or pronouns addressed are always either in the second person, singular or plural."—Hallock's Gram., p. 54. "The plural MEN not ending in s, is the reason for adding the apostrophie's."—T. Smith's Gram., p. 19. "Pennies denote real coin; pence, their value in computation."— Hazen's Gram., p. 24. "We commence, first, with letters, which is termed Orthography; secondly, with words, denominated Etymology; thirdly, with sentences, styled Syntax; fourthly, with orations and poems, called Prosody."—Barrett's Gram., p. 22. "Care must be taken, that sentences of proper construction and obvious import be not rendered obscure by the too free use of the ellipsis."—Felton's Grammar, Stereotype Edition, p. 80.

EXERCISE XVIII.—PROMISCUOUS.

"Tropes and metaphors so closely resemble each other that it is not always easy, nor is it important to be able to distinguish the one from the other."—Parker and Fox, Part III, p. 66. "With regard to relatives, it may be further observed, that obscurity often arises from the too frequent repetition of them, particularly of the pronouns WHO, and THEY, and THEM, and THEIRS. When we find these personal pronouns crowding too fast upon us, we have often no method left, but to throw the whole sentence into some other form."—Ib., p. 90; Murray's Gram., p. 311; Blair's Rhet., p. 106. "Do scholars acquire any valuable knowledge, by learning to repeat long strings of words, without any definite ideas, or several jumbled together like rubbish in a corner, and apparently with no application, either for the improvement of mind or of language?"— Cutler's Gram., Pref., p. 5. "The being officiously good natured and civil are things so uncommon in the world, that one cannot hear a man make professions of them without being surprised, or at least, suspecting the disinterestedness of his intentions."—FABLES: Cutler's Gram., p. 135. "Irony is the intentional use of words to express a sense contrary to that which the speaker or writer means to convey."—Parker and Fox's Gram., Part III, p. 68. "The term Substantive is derived from substare, to stand, to distinguish it from an adjective, which cannot, like the noun, stand alone."—Hiley's Gram., p. 11. "They have two numbers, like nouns, the singular and plural; and three persons in each number, namely, I, the first person, represents the speaker. Thou, the second person, represents the person spoken to. He, she, it, the third person, represents the person or thing spoken of."—Ib., p. 23. "He, She, It, is the Third Person singular; but he with others, she with others, or it with others, make each of them they, which is the Third Person plural."—White, on the English Verb, p. 97. "The words had I been, that is, the Third Past Tense of the Verb, marks the Supposition, as referring itself, not to the Present, but to some former period of time."—Ib., p. 88. "A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun, to avoid a too frequent repetition of the same word."—Frazee's Improved Gram., p. 122.

"That which he cannot use, and dare not show, And would not give—why longer should he owe?"—Crabbe.



PART IV.

PROSODY.

Prosody treats of punctuation, utterance, figures, and versification.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—The word prosody, (from the Greek—[Greek: pros], to, and [Greek: dae], song,) is, with regard to its derivation, exactly equivalent to accent, or the Latin accentus, which is formed from ad, to, and cantus, song: both terms, perhaps, originally signifying a singing with, or sounding to, some instrument or voice. PROSODIA, as a Latin word, is defined by Littleton, "Pars Grammaticae quae docet accentus, h. e. rationem atollendi et depremendi syllabas, tum quantitatem carundem." And in English, "The art of ACCENTING, or the rule of pronouncing syllables truly, LONG or SHORT."—Litt. Dict., 4to. This is a little varied by Ainsworth thus: "The rule of ACCENTING, or pronouncing syllables truly, whether LONG or SHORT."—Ains. Dict., 4to. Accent, in English, belongs as much to prose as to poetry; but some deny that in Latin it belongs to either. There is also much difficulty about the import of the word; since some prosodists identify accent with tone; some take it for the inflections of voice; some call it the pitch of vocal sounds; and some, like the authors just cited, seem to confound it with quantity,—"LONG or SHORT." [459]

OBS. 2.—"Prosody," says a late writer, "strictly denotes only that musical tone or melody which accompanies speech. But the usage of modern grammarians justifies an extremely general application of the term."—Frost's Practical Grammar, p. 160. This remark is a note upon the following definition: "PROSODY is that part of grammar which treats of the structure of Poetical Composition."—Ibid. Agreeably to this definition, Frost's Prosody, with all the generality the author claims for it, embraces only a brief account of Versification, with a few remarks on "Poetical License." Of Pronunciation and the Figures of Speech, he takes no notice; and Punctuation, which some place with Orthography, and others distinguish as one of the chief parts of grammar, he exhibits as a portion of Syntax. Not more comprehensive is this part of grammar, as exhibited in the works of several other authors; but, by Lindley Murray, R. C. Smith, and some others, both Punctuation and Pronunciation are placed here; though no mention is made of the former in their subdivision of Prosody, which, they not very aptly say, "consists of two parts, Pronunciation and Versification." Dr. Bullions, no less deficient in method, begins with saying, "PROSODY consists of two parts; Elocution and Versification;" (Principles of E. Gram., p. 163;) and then absurdly proceeds to treat of it under the following six principal heads: viz., Elocution, Versification, Figures of Speech, Poetic License, Hints for Correct and Elegant Writing, and Composition.

OBS. 3.—If, in regard to the subjects which may be treated under the name of Prosody, "the usage of modern grammarians justifies an extremely general application of the term," such an application is certainly not less warranted by the usage of old authors. But, by the practice of neither, can it be easily determined how many and what things ought to be embraced under this head. Of the different kinds of verse, or "the structure of Poetical Compostion," some of the old prosodists took little or no notice; because they thought it their chief business, to treat of syllables, and determine the orthoepy of words. The Prosody of Smetius, dated 1509, (my edition of which was published in Germany in 1691,) is in fact a pronouncing dictionary of the Latin language. After a brief abstract of the old rules of George Fabricius concerning quantity and accent, it exhibits, in alphabetic order, and with all their syllables marked, about twenty-eight thousand words, with a poetic line quoted against each, to prove the pronunciation just. The Prosody of John Genuensis, an other immense work, concluded by its author in 1286, improved by Badius in 1506, and printed at Lyons in 1514, is also mainly a Latin dictionary, with derivations and definitions as in other dictionaries. It is a folio volume of seven hundred and thirty closely-printed pages; six hundred of which are devoted to the vocabulary, the rest to orthography, accent, etymology, syntax, figures, points—almost everything but versification. Yet this vast sum of grammar has been entitled Prosody—"Prosodia seu Catholicon"—"Catholicon seu Universale Vocabularium ac Summa Grammatices."—See pp. 1 and 5.



CHAPTER I—PUNCTUATION.

Punctuation is the art of dividing literary composition, by points, or stops, for the purpose of showing more clearly the sense and relation of the words; and of noting the different pauses and inflections required in reading.

The following are the principal points, or marks; namely, the Comma [,], the Semicolon [;], the Colon [:], the Period [.], the Dash [—], the Eroteme, or Note of Interrogation [?], the Ecphoneme, or Note of Exclamation [!], and the Curves, or Marks of Parenthesis, [()].

The Comma denotes the shortest pause; the Semicolon, a pause double that of the comma; the Colon, a pause double that of the semicolon; and the Period, or Full Stop, a pause double that of the colon. The pauses required by the other four, vary according to the structure of the sentence, and their place in it. They may be equal to any of the foregoing.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—The pauses that are made in the natural flow of speech, have, in reality, no definite and invariable proportions. Children are often told to pause at a comma while they might count one; at a semicolon, one, two; at a colon, one, two, three; at a period, one, two, three, four. This may be of some use, as teaching them to observe the necessary stops, that they may catch the sense; but the standard itself is variable, and so are the times which good sense gives to the points. As a final stop, the period is immeasurable; and so may be the pause after a question or an exclamation.

OBS. 2.—The first four points take their names from the parts of discourse, or of a sentence, which are distinguished by them. The Period, or circuit, is a complete round of words, often consisting of several clauses or members, and always bringing out full sense at the close. The Colon, or member, is the greatest division or limb of a period, and is the chief constructive part of a compound sentence. The Semicolon, half member, or half limb, is the greatest division of a colon, and is properly a smaller constructive part of a compound sentence. The Comma, or segment, is a small part of a clause cut off, and is properly the least constructive part of a compound sentence. A simple sentence is sometimes a whole period, sometimes a chief member, sometimes a half member, sometimes a segment, and sometimes perhaps even less. Hence it may require the period, the colon, the semicolon, the comma, or even no point, according to the manner in which it is used. A sentence whose relatives and adjuncts are all taken in a restrictive sense, may be considerably complex, and yet require no division by points; as,

"Thank him who puts me loath to this revenge On you who wrong me not for him who wrong'd."—Milton.

OBS. 3.—The system of punctuation now used in English, is, in its main features, common to very many languages. It is used in Latin, French, Spanish, Italian, Portuguese, Dutch, German, and perhaps most of the tongues in which books are now written or printed. The Germans, however, make less frequent use of the comma than we; and the Spaniards usually mark a question or an exclamation doubly, inverting the point at the beginning of the sentence. In Greek, the difference is greater: the colon, expressed by the upper dot alone, is the only point between the comma and the period; the ecphoneme, or note of exclamation, is hardly recognized, though some printers of the classics have occasionally introduced it; and the eroteme, or note of interrogation, retains in that language its pristine form, which is that of our semicolon. In Hebrew, a full stop is denoted by a heavy colon, or something like it; and this is the only pointing adopted, when the vowel points and the accents are not used.

OBS. 4.—Though the points in use, and the principles on which they ought to be applied, are in general well fixed, and common to almost all sorts of books; yet, through the negligence of editors, the imperfections of copy, the carelessness of printers, or some other means, it happens, that different editions and different versions of the same work are often found pointed very variously. This circumstance, provided the sense is still preserved, is commonly thought to be of little moment. But all writers will do well to remember, that they owe it to their readers, to show them at once how they mean to be read; and since the punctuation of the early printers was unquestionably very defective, the republishers of ancient books should not be over scrupulous about an exact imitation of it; they may, with proper caution, correct obvious faults.

OBS. 5.—The precise origin of the points, it is not easy to trace in the depth of antiquity. It appears probable, from ancient manuscripts and inscriptions, that the period is the oldest of them; and it is said by some, that the first system of punctuation consisted in the different positions of this dot alone. But after the adoption of the small letters, which improvement is referred to the ninth century, both the comma and the colon came into use, and also the Greek note of interrogation. In old books, however, the comma is often found, not in its present form, but in that of a straight stroke, drawn up and down obliquely between the words. Though the colon is of Greek origin, the practice of writing it with two dots we owe to the Latin authors, or perhaps to the early printers of Latin books. The semicolon was first used in Italy, and was not adopted in England till about the year 1600. Our marks for questions and exclamations were also derived from the same source, probably at a date somewhat earlier. The curves of the parenthesis have likewise been in use for several centuries. But the clash is a more recent invention: Lowth, Ash, and Ward,—Buchanan, Bicknell, and Burn,—though they name all the rest, make no mention of this mark; but it appears by their books, that they all occasionally used it.

OBS. 6—Of the colon it may be observed, that it is now much less frequently used than it was formerly; its place being usurped, sometimes by the semicolon, and sometimes by the period. For this ill reason, some late grammarians have discarded it altogether. Thus Felton: "The COLON is now so seldom used by good writers, that rules for its use are unnecessary."—Concise Manual of English Gram., p. 140. So Nutting: "It will be noticed, that the colon is omitted in this system; because it is omitted by the majority of the writers of the present age; three points, with the dash, being considered sufficient to mark the different lengths of the pauses."—Practical Grammar, p. 120. These critics, whenever they have occasion to copy such authors as Milton and Pope, do not scruple to mutilate their punctuation by putting semicolons or periods for all the colons they find. But who cannot perceive, that without the colon, the semicolon becomes an absurdity? It can no longer be a semicolon, unless the half can remain when the whole is taken away! The colon, being the older point of the two, and once very fashionable, is doubtless on record in more instances than the semicolon; and, if now, after both have been in common use for some hundreds of years, it be found out that only one is needed, perhaps it would be more reasonable to prefer the former. Should public opinion ever be found to coincide with the suggestions of the two authors last quoted, there will be reason to regret that Caxton, the old English typographer of the fifteenth century, who for a while successfully withstood, in his own country, the introduction of the semicolon, had not the power to prevent it forever. In short, to leave no literary extravagance unbroached, the latter point also has not lacked a modern impugner. "One of the greatest improvements in punctuation," says Justin Brenan, "is the rejection of the eternal semicolons of our ancestors. In latter times, the semicolon has been gradually disappearing, not only from the newspapers, but from books."—Brenan's "Composition and Punctuation familiarly Explained", p. 100; London, 1830. The colon and the semicolon are both useful, and, not unfrequently, necessary; and all correct writers will, I doubt not, continue to use both.