"Rather let such poor souls as you and I Say that the holidays are drawing nigh."—Swift.

OBS. 16.—The doctrine above stated, of ellipses after than and as, proceeds on the supposition that these words are conjunctions, and that they connect, not particular words merely, but sentences, or clauses. It is the common doctrine of nearly all our grammarians, and is doubtless liable to fewer objections than any other theory that ever has been, or ever can be, devised in lieu of it. Yet as is not always a conjunction; nor, when it is a conjunction, does it always connect sentences; nor, when it connects sentences, is there always an ellipsis; nor, when there is an ellipsis, is it always quite certain what that ellipsis is. All these facts have been made plain, by observations that have already been bestowed on the word: and, according to some grammarians, the same things may severally be affirmed of the word than. But most authors consider than to be always a conjunction, and generally, if not always, to connect sentences. Johnson and Webster, in their dictionaries, mark it for an adverb; and the latter says of it, "This word signifies also then, both in English and Dutch."—Webster's Amer. Dict., 8vo, w. Than. But what he means by "also," I know not; and surely, in no English of this age, is than equivalent to then, or then to than. The ancient practice of putting then for than, is now entirely obsolete;[434] and, as we have no other term of the same import, most of our expositors merely explain than as "a particle used in comparison."—Johnson, Worcester, Maunder. Some absurdly define it thus: "THAN, adv. Placed in comparison."—Walker, (Rhym. Dict.,) Jones, Scott. According to this definition, than would be a participle! But, since an express comparison necessarily implies a connexion between different terms, it cannot well be denied that than is a connective word; wherefore, not to detain the reader with any profitless controversy, I shall take it for granted that this word is always a conjunction. That it always connects sentences, I do not affirm; because there are instances in which it is difficult to suppose it to connect anything more than particular words: as, "Less judgement than wit is more sail than ballast."—Penn's Maxims. "With no less eloquence than freedom. 'Pari eloquentia ac libertate.' Tacitus."—Walker's Particles, p. 200. "Any comparison between these two classes of writers, cannot be other than vague and loose."—Blair's Rhet., p. 347. "This far more than compensates all those little negligences."—Ib., p. 200.

"Remember Handel? Who that was not born Deaf as the dead to harmony, forgets, Or can, the more than Homer of his age?"—Cowper.

OBS. 17.—When any two declinable words are connected by than or as, they are almost always, according to the true idiom of our language, to be put in the same case, whether we suppose an ellipsis in the construction of the latter, or not; as, "My Father is greater than I."—Bible. "What do ye more than others?"—Matt., v, 47. "More men than women were there."—Murray's Gram., p. 114. "Entreat him as a father, and the younger men as brethren."—1 Tim., v, 1. "I would that all men were even as I myself."—1 Cor., vii, 7. "Simon, son of Jonas, lovest thou me more than these?"—John, xxi, 15. This last text is manifestly ambiguous; so that some readers will doubt whether it means—"more than thou lovest these," or—"more than these love me." Is not this because there is an ellipsis in the sentence, and such a one as may be variously conceived and supplied? The original too is ambiguous, but not for the same reason: "[Greek: Simon Iona, agapas me pleion touton];"—And so is the Latin of the Vulgate and of Montanus: "Simon Jona, diligis me plus his?" Wherefore Beza expressed it differently: "Simon fili Jonae, diligis me plus quam hi?" The French Bible has it: "Simon, fils de Jona, m'aimes-tu plus que ne font ceux-ci?" And the expression in English should rather have been, "Lovest thou me more than do these?"

OBS. 18.—The comparative degree, in Greek, is said to govern the genitive case; in Latin, the ablative: that is, the genitive or the ablative is sometimes put after this degree without any connecting particle corresponding to than, and without producing a compound sentence. We have examples in the phrases, "[Greek: pleion touton]" and "plus his," above. Of such a construction our language admits no real example; that is, no exact parallel. But we have an imitation of it in the phrase than whom, as in this hackneyed example from Milton:

"Which, when Beelzebub perceived, than whom, Satan except, none higher sat," &c.—Paradise Lost, B. ii, l. 300.

The objective, whom, is here preferred to the nominative, who, because the Latin ablative is commonly rendered by the former case, rather than by the latter: but this phrase is no more explicable according to the usual principles of English grammar, than the error of putting the objective case for a version of the ablative absolute. If the imitation is to be judged allowable, it is to us a figure of syntax—an obvious example of Enallage, and of that form of Enallage, which is commonly called Antiptosis, or the putting of one case for an other.

OBS. 19.—This use of whom after than has greatly puzzled and misled our grammarians; many of whom have thence concluded that than must needs be, at least in this instance, a preposition,[435] and some have extended the principle beyond this, so as to include than which, than whose with its following noun, and other nominatives which they will have to be objectives; as, "I should seem guilty of ingratitude, than which nothing is more shameful." See Russell's Gram., p. 104. "Washington, than whose fame naught earthly can be purer."—Peirce's Gram., p. 204. "You have given him more than I. You have sent her as much as he."—Buchanan's Eng. Syntax, p. 116. These last two sentences are erroneously called by their author, "false syntax;" not indeed with a notion that than and as are prepositions, but on the false supposition that the preposition to must necessarily be understood between them and the pronouns, as it is between the preceding verbs and the pronouns him and her. But, in fact, "You have given him more than I," is perfectly good English; the last clause of which plainly means—"more than I have given him." And, "You have sent her as much as he," will of course be understood to mean—"as much as he has sent her;" but here, because the auxiliary implied is different from the one expressed, it might have been as well to have inserted it: thus, "You have sent her as much as he has." "She reviles you as much as he," is also good English, though found, with the foregoing, among Buchanan's examples of "false syntax."

OBS. 20.—Murray's twentieth Rule of syntax avers, that, "When the qualities of different things are compared, the latter noun or pronoun is not governed by the conjunction than or as, but agrees with the verb," &c.—Octavo Gram., p. 214; Russell's Gram., 103; Bacon's, 51; Alger's, 71; Smith's, 179; Fisk's, 138. To this rule, the great Compiler and most of his followers say, that than whom "is an exception." or "seems to form an exception;" to which they add, that, "the phrase is, however, avoided by the best modern writers."—Murray, i, 215. This latter assertion Russell conceives to be untrue: the former he adopts; and, calling than whom "an exception to the general rule," says of it, (with no great consistency,) "Here the conjunction than has certainly the force of a preposition, and supplies its place by governing the relative."—Russell's Abridgement of Murray's Gram., p. 104. But this is hardly an instance to which one would apply the maxim elsewhere adopted by Murray: "Exceptio probat regulam."—Octavo Gram., p. 205. To ascribe to a conjunction the governing power of a preposition, is a very wide step, and quite too much like straddling the line which separates these parts of speech one from the other.

OBS. 21.—Churchill says, "If there be no ellipsis to supply, as sometimes happens when a pronoun relative occurs after than; the relative is to be put in the objective case absolute: as, 'Alfred, than whom a greater king never reigned, deserves to be held up as a model to all future sovereigns.'"—New Gram., p. 153. Among his Notes, he has one with reference to this "objective case absolute," as follows: "It is not governed by the conjunction, for on no other occasion does a conjunction govern any case; or by any word understood, for we can insert no word, or words, that will reconcile the phrase with any other rule of grammar: and if we employ a pronoun personal instead of the relative, as he, which will admit of being resolved elliptically, it must be put in the nominative case."—Ib., p. 352. Against this gentleman's doctrine, one may very well argue, as he himself does against that of Murray, Russell, and others; that on no other occasion do we speak of putting "the objective case absolute;" and if, agreeably to the analogy of our own tongue, our distinguished authors would condescend to say than who,[436] surely nobody would think of calling this an instance of the nominative case absolute,—except perhaps one swaggering new theorist, that most pedantic of all scoffers, Oliver B. Peirce.

OBS. 22.—The sum of the matter is this: the phrase, than who, is a more regular and more analogical expression than than whom; but both are of questionable propriety, and the former is seldom if ever found, except in some few grammars; while the latter, which is in some sort a Latinism, may be quoted from many of our most distinguished writers. And, since that which is irregular cannot be parsed by rule, if out of respect to authority we judge it allowable, it must be set down among the figures of grammar; which are, all of them, intentional deviations from the ordinary use of words. One late author treats the point pretty well, in this short hint: "After the conjunction than, contrary to analogy, whom is used in stead of who."—Nutting's Gram., p. 106. An other gives his opinion in the following note: "When who immediately follows than, it is used improperly in the objective case; as, 'Alfred, than whom a greater king never reigned;'—than whom is not grammatical. It ought to be, than who; because who is the nominative to was understood.—Than whom is as bad a phrase as 'he is taller than him.' It is true that some of our best writers have used than whom; but it is also true, that they have used other phrases which we have rejected as ungrammatical; then why not reject this too?"—Lennie's Grammar, Edition of 1830, p. 105.

OBS. 23.—On this point. Bullions and Brace, two American copyists and plagiarists of Lennie, adopt opposite notions. The latter copies the foregoing note, without the last sentence; that is, without admitting that "than whom" has ever been used by good writers. See Brace's Gram., p. 90. The former says, "The relative usually follows than in the objective case, even when the nominative goes before; as, 'Alfred, than whom a greater king never reigned.' This anomaly it is difficult to explain. Most probably, than, at first had the force of a preposition, which it now retains only when followed by the relative."—Bullions, E. Gram., of 1843, p. 112. Again: "A relative after than is put in the objective case; as, 'Satan, than whom none higher sat.' This anomaly has not been satisfactorily explained. In this case, some regard than as a preposition. It is probably only a case of simple enallage"—Bullions, Analyt. and Pract. Gram., of 1849, p. 191. Prof. Fowler, in his great publication, of 1850, says of this example, "The expression should be, Satan, than who None higher sat."—Fowler's E. Gram., Sec.482, Note 2. Thus, by one single form of antiptosis, have our grammarians been as much divided and perplexed, as were the Latin grammarians by a vast number of such changes; and, since there were some among the latter, who insisted on a total rejection of the figure, there is no great presumption in discarding, if we please, the very little that remains of it in English.

OBS. 24.—Peirce's new theory of grammar rests mainly on the assumption, that no correct sentence ever is, or can be, in any wise, elliptical. This is one of the "Two GRAND PRINCIPLES" on which the author says his "work is based."—The Grammar, p. 10. The other is, that grammar cannot possibly be taught without a thorough reformation of its nomenclature, a reformation involving a change of most of the names and technical terms heretofore used for its elucidation. I do not give precisely his own words, for one half of this author's system is expressed in such language as needs to be translated into English in order to be generally understood; but this is precisely his meaning, and in words more intelligible. In what estimation he holds these two positions, may be judged from the following assertion: "Without these grand points, no work, whatever may be its pretensions, can be A GRAMMAR of the LANGUAGE."—Ib. It follows that no man who does not despise every other book that is called a grammar, can entertain any favourable opinion of Peirce's. The author however is tolerably consistent. He not only scorns to appeal, for the confirmation of his own assertions and rules, to the judgement or practice of any other writer, but counsels the learner to "spurn the idea of quoting, either as proof or for defence, the authority of any man." See p. 13. The notable results of these important premises are too numerous for detail even in this general pandect. But it is to be mentioned here, that, according to this theory, a nominative coming after than or as, is in general to be accounted a nominative absolute; that is, a nominative which is independent of any verb; or, (as the ingenious author himself expresses it,) "A word in the subjective case following another subjective, and immediately preceded by than, as, or not, may be used without an ASSERTER immediately depending on it for sense."—Peirce's Gram., p. 195. See also his "Grammatical Chart, Rule I, Part 2."

OBS. 25.—"Lowth, Priestley, Murray, and most grammarians say, that hypothetical, conditional, concessive, or exceptive conjunctions; as, if, lest, though, unless, except; require, or govern the subjunctive mood. But in this they are certainly wrong: for, as Dr. Crombie rightly observes, the verb is put in the subjunctive mood, because the mood expresses contingency, not because it follows the conjunction: for these writers themselves allow, that the same conjunctions are to be followed by the indicative mood, when the verb is not intended to express a contingency. In the following sentence: 'Though he be displeased at it, I will bolt my door; and let him break it open if he dare:' may we not as well affirm, that and governs the imperative mood, as that though and if govern the subjunctive?"—Churchill's Gram., p. 321.

OBS. 26.—In the list of correspondents contained in Note 7th below, there are some words which ought not to be called conjunctions, by the parser; for the relation of a word as the proper correspondent to an other word, does not necessarily determine its part of speech. Thus, such is to be parsed as an adjective; as, sometimes as a pronoun; so, as a conjunctive adverb. And only, merely, also, and even, are sometimes conjunctive adverbs; as, "Nor is this only a matter of convenience to the poet, it is also a source of gratification to the reader."— Campbell's Rhet., p. 166. Murray's, Gram., i, 362. Professor Bullions will have it, that these adverbs may relate to nouns—a doctrine which I disapprove. He says "Only, solely, chiefly, merely, too, also, and perhaps a few others, are sometimes joined to substantives; as, 'Not only the men, but the women also were present.'"—English Gram., p. 116. Only and also are here, I think, conjunctive adverbs; but it is not the office of adverbs to qualify nouns; and, that these words are adjuncts to the nouns men and women, rather than the verb were, which is once expressed and once understood, I see no sufficient reason to suppose. Some teachers imagine, that an adverb of this kind qualifies the whole clause in which it stands. But it would seem, that the relation of such words to verbs, participles, or adjectives, according to the common rule for adverbs, is in general sufficiently obvious: as, "The perfect tense not only refers to what is past, but also conveys an allusion to the present time."—Murray's Gram., p. 70. Is there any question about the true mode of parsing "only" and "also" here? and have they not in the other sentence, a relation similar to what is seen here?

NOTES TO RULE XXII.

NOTE I.—When two terms connected are each to be extended and completed in sense by a third, they must both be such as will make sense with it. Thus, in stead of saying, "He has made alterations and additions to the work," say, "He has made alterations in the work, and additions to it;" because the relation between alterations and work is not well expressed by to.

NOTE II.—In general, any two terms which we connect by a conjunction, should be the same in kind or quality, rather than different or heterogeneous. Example: "The assistance was welcome, and seasonably afforded."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 249. Better: "The assistance was welcome, and it was seasonably afforded." Or: "The assistance was both seasonable and welcome."

NOTE III.—The conjunctions, copulative or disjunctive, affirmative or negative, must be used with a due regard to their own import, and to the true idiom of the language. Thus, say, "The general bent or turn of the language is towards the other form;" and not, with Lowth and Churchill, "The general bent and turn of the language is towards the other form."—Short Introd., p. 60; New Gram., p. 113. So, say, "I cannot deny that there are perverse jades;" and not, with Addison, "I cannot deny but there are perverse jades."—Spect., No. 457. Again, say, "I feared that I should be deserted;" not, "lest I should be deserted."

NOTE IV.—After else, other,[437] otherwise, rather, and all English comparatives, the latter term of an exclusive comparison should be introduced by the conjunction than—a word which is appropriated to this use solely: as, "Style is nothing else than that sort of expression which our thoughts most readily assume."—Blair's Rhet., p. 92. "What we call fables or parables are no other than allegories."—Ib., p. 151; Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 243. "We judge otherwise of them than of ourselves."—R. Ainsworth. "The premeditation should be of things rather than of words."—Blair's Rhet., p. 262. "Is not the life more than meat?"—Com. Bible. "Is not life a greater gift than food?"—Campbell's Gospels.

NOTE V.—Relative pronouns, being themselves a species of connective words, necessarily exclude conjunctions; except there be two or more relative clauses to be connected together; that is, one to the other. Example of error: "The principal and distinguishing excellence of Virgil, and which, in my opinion, he possesses beyond all poets, is tenderness."—Blair's Rhet., p. 439. Better: "The principal and distinguishing excellence of Virgil, an excellence which, in my opinion, he possesses beyond all other poets, is tenderness."

NOTE VI.—The word that, (as was shown in the fifth chapter of Etymology,) is often made a pronoun in respect to what precedes it, and a conjunction in respect to what follows it—a construction which, for its anomaly, ought to be rejected. For example: "In the mean time THAT the Muscovites were complaining to St. Nicholas, Charles returned thanks to God, and prepared for new victories."—Life of Charles XII. Better thus: "While the Muscovites were thus complaining to St. Nicholas, Charles returned thanks to God, and prepared for new victories."

NOTE VII.—The words in each of the following pairs, are the proper correspondents to each other; and care should be taken, to give them their right place in the sentence:

1. To though, corresponds yet; as, "Though he were dead, yet shall he live."—John, xi, 25. 2. To whether, corresponds or; as, "Whether it be greater or less."—Butler's Analogy, p. 77.

3. To either, corresponds or; as, "The constant indulgence of a declamatory manner, is not favourable either to good composition, or [to] good delivery."—Blair's Rhet., p. 334.

4. To neither, corresponds nor; as, "John the Baptist came neither eating bread nor drinking wine."—Luke, vii, 33. "Thou shalt neither vex a stranger nor oppress him."—Exod., xxii, 21.

5. To both, corresponds and; as, "I am debtor both to the Greeks and to the Barbarians, both to the wise and to the unwise."—Rom., i, 14.

6. To such, corresponds as; (the former being a pronominal adjective, and the latter a relative pronoun;) as, "An assembly such as earth saw never."—Cowper.

7. To such, corresponds that; with, a finite verb following, to express a consequence: as, "The difference is such that all will perceive it."

8. To as, corresponds as; with an adjective or an adverb, to express equality of degree: as, "And he went out from his presence a leper as white as snow."—2 Kings. v. 27.

9. To as, corresponds so; with two verbs, to express proportion or sameness: as, "As two are to four, so are six to twelve."—"As the tree falls, so it must lie."

10. So is used before as; with an adjective or an adverb, to limit the degree by comparison: as, "How can you descend to a thing so base as falsehood?"

11. So is used before as; with a negative preceding, to deny equality of degree: as, "No lamb was e'er so mild as he."—Langhorne. "Relatives are not so useful in language as conjunctions."—BEATTIE: Murray's Gram., p. 126.

12. To so, corresponds as; with an infinitive following, to express a consequence: as, "We ought, certainly, to read blank verse so as to make every line sensible to the ear"—Blair's Rhet., p. 332.

13. To so, corresponds that; with a finite verb following, to express a consequence: as, "No man was so poor that he could not make restitution."—Milman's Jews, i, 113. "So run that ye may obtain."—1 Cor., ix, 24.

14. To not only, or not merely, corresponds but, but also, or but even; as, "In heroic times, smuggling and piracy were deemed not only not infamous, but [even] absolutely honourable."—Maunder's Gram., p. 15. "These are questions, not of prudence merely, but of morals also."—Dymond's Essay, p. 82.

NOTE VIII.—"When correspondent conjunctions are used, the verb, or phrase, that precedes the first, applies [also] to the second; but no word following the former, can [by virtue of this correspondence,] be understood after the latter."—Churchill's Gram., p. 353. Such ellipses as the following ought therefore in general to be avoided: "Tones are different both from emphasis and [from] pauses."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, i, 250. "Though both the intention and [the] purchase are now past."—Ib., ii, 24.

IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.

FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE XXII.

EXAMPLES UNDER NOTE I.—TWO TERMS WITH ONE.

"The first proposal was essentially different and inferior to the second."—Inst., p. 171.

[FORMULE,—Not proper, because the preposition to is used with joint reference to the two adjectives different and inferior, which require different prepositions. But, according to Note 1st under Rule 22d, "When two terms connected are each to be extended and completed in sense by a third, they must both be such as will make sense with it." The sentence may be corrected thus: "The first proposal was essentially different from the second, and inferior to it."]

"A neuter verb implies the state a subject is in, without acting upon, or being acted upon, by another."—Alex. Murray's Gram., p. 30. "I answer, you may and ought to use stories and anecdotes."—Student's Manual, p. 220. "ORACLE, n. Any person or place where certain decisions are obtained."—Webster's Dict. "Forms of government may, and must be occasionally, changed."—Ld. Lyttelton. "I have, and pretend to be a tolerable judge."—Spect., No. 555. "Are we not lazy in our duties, or make a Christ of them?"—Baxter's Saints' Rest. "They may not express that idea which the author intends, but some other which only resembles, or is a-kin to it."—Blair's Rhet., p. 94. "We may, we ought therefore to read them with a distinguishing eye."—Ib., p. 352. "Compare their poverty, with what they might, and ought to possess."—Sedgwick's Econ., p. 95. "He is a much better grammarian than they are."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 211. "He was more beloved, but not so much admired as Cinthio."—ADDISON, ON MEDALS: in Priestly's Gram., p. 200. "Will it be urged, that the four gospels are as old, or even older than tradition?"—Bolingb. Phil. Es., iv, Sec.19. "The court of Chancery frequently mitigates, and breaks the teeth of the common law."—Spectator, No. 564; Ware's Gram., p. 16. "Antony, coming along side of her ship, entered it without seeing or being seen by her."—Goldsmith's Rome, p. 160. "In candid minds, truth finds an entrance, and a welcome too."—Murray's Key, ii, 168. "In many designs, we may succeed and be miserable."—lb., p. 169. "In many pursuits, we embark with pleasure, and land sorrowfully."—Ib., p. 170. "They are much greater gainers than I am by this unexpected event."—lb., p. 211.

UNDER NOTE II.—HETEROGENEOUS TERMS.

"Athens saw them entering her gates and fill her academies."—Chazotte's Essay, p. 30. "We have neither forgot his past, nor despair of his future success."—Duncan's Cicero, p. 121. "Her monuments and temples had long been shattered or crumbled into dust."—Lit. Conv., p. 15. "Competition is excellent, and the vital principle in all these things."—DR. LIEBER: ib., p. 64. "Whether provision should or not be made to meet this exigency."—Ib., p. 128. "That our Saviour was divinely inspired, and endued with supernatural powers, are positions that are here taken for granted."—Murray's Gram., i. 206. "It would be much more eligible, to contract or enlarge their extent, by explanatory notes and observations, than by sweeping away our ancient landmarks, and setting up others."—Ib., i. p. 30. "It is certainly much better, to supply the defects and abridge superfluities, by occasional notes and observations, than by disorganizing, or altering a system which has been so long established."—Ib., i, 59. "To have only one tune, or measure, is not much better than having none at all"—Blair's Rhet., p. 126. "Facts too well known and obvious to be insisted on."—Ib., p. 233. "In proportion as all these circumstances are happily chosen, and of a sublime kind."—Ib., p. 41. "If the description be too general, and divested of circumstances."—Ibid. "He gained nothing further than to be commended."—Murray's Key, ii, 210. "I cannot but think its application somewhat strained, and out of place."—VETHAKE: Lit. Conv., p. 29. "Two negatives in the same clause, or referring to the same thing, destroy each other, and leave the sense affirmative."—Maunders Gram., p. 15. "Slates are stone and used to cover roofs of houses."—Webster's El. Spelling-Book, p. 47. "Every man of taste, and possessing an elevated mind, ought to feel almost the necessity of apologizing for the power he possesses."—Influence of Literature. Vol. ii, p, 122. "They very seldom trouble themselves with Enquiries, or making useful observations of their own."—Locke, on Ed., p. 376.

"We've both the field and honour won; The foe is profligate, and run."—Hudibras, p. 93.

UNDER NOTE III.—IMPORT OF CONJUNCTIONS.

"The is sometimes used before adverbs in the comparative and superlative degree."—Lennie's Gram., p. 6; Bullions's, 8; Brace's, 9. "The definite article the is frequently applied to adverbs in the comparative and superlative degree."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 33; Ingersoll's, 33; Lowth's, 14; Fisk's, 53; Merchant's, 24; and others. "Conjunctions usually connect verbs in the same mode or tense."—Sanborn's Gram., p. 137. "Conjunctions connect verbs in the same style, and usually in the same mode, tense, or form."—Ib. "The ruins of Greece and Rome are but the monuments of her former greatness."—Day's Gram., p. 88. "In many of these cases, it is not improbable, but that the articles were used originally."—Priestley's Gram., p. 152. "I cannot doubt but that these objects are really what they appear to be."—Kames, El. of Crit., i, 85. "I question not but my reader will be as much pleased with it."—Spect., No. 535. "It is ten to one but my friend Peter is among them."—Ib., No. 457. "I doubt not but such objections as these will be made."—Locke, on Education, p. 169. "I doubt not but it will appear in the perusal of the following sheets."—Buchanan's Syntax, p. vi. "It is not improbable, but that, in time, these different constructions may be appropriated to different uses."—Priestley's Gram., p. 156. "But to forget or to remember at pleasure, are equally beyond the power of man."—Idler, No. 72. "The nominative case follows the verb, in interrogative and imperative sentences."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, Vol. ii, p. 290. "Can the fig-tree, my brethren, bear olive berries? either a vine, figs?"—James, iii, 12. "Whose characters are too profligate, that the managing of them should be of any consequence."—Swift, Examiner, No. 24. "You that are a step higher than a philosopher, a divine; yet have too much grace and wit than to be a bishop."—Pope, to Swift, Let. 80. "The terms rich or poor enter not into their language."—Robertson's America, Vol. i, p. 314. "This pause is but seldom or ever sufficiently dwelt upon."—Music of Nature, p. 181. "There would be no possibility of any such thing as human life and human happiness."—Butler's Anal., p. 110. "The multitude rebuked them, because they should hold their peace."—Matt., xx, 21.

UNDER NOTE IV.—OF THE CONJUNCTION THAN.

"A metaphor is nothing else but a short comparison."—Adam's Gram., p. 243; Gould's, 236. "There being no other dictator here but use."— Campbell's Rhet., p. 167. "This Construction is no otherwise known in English but by supplying the first or second Person Plural."—Buchanan's Syntax, p. xi. "Cyaxares was no sooner in the throne, but he was engaged in a terrible war."—Rollin's Hist., ii, 62. "Those classics contain little else but histories of murders."—Am. Museum, v, 526. "Ye shall not worship any other except God."—Sale's Koran, p. 15. "Their relation, therefore, is not otherwise to be ascertained but by their place."— Campbell's Rhet., p. 260. "For he no sooner accosted her, but he gained his point."—Burder's Hist., i, 6. "And all the modern writers on this subject have done little else but translate them."—Blair's Rhet., p. 336. "One who had no other aim, but to talk copiously and plausibly."— Ib., p. 317. "We can refer it to no other cause but the structure of the eye."—Ib., p. 46. "No more is required but singly an act of vision."— Kames, El. of Crit., i, 171. "We find no more in its composition, but the particulars now mentioned."— Ib., i, 48. "He pretends not to say, that it hath any other effect but to raise surprise."—Ib., ii, 61. "No sooner was the princess dead, but he freed himself."—Johnson's Sketch of Morin. "Ought is an imperfect verb, for it has no other modification besides this one."—Priestley's Gram., p. 113. "The verb is palpably nothing else but the tie."—Neef's Sketch, p. 66. "Does he mean that theism is capable of nothing else except being opposed to polytheism or atheism?"—Blair's Rhet., p. 104. "Is it meant that theism is capable of nothing else besides being opposed to polytheism, or atheism?"—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 307. "There is no other method of teaching that of which any one is ignorant, but by means of something already known"—DR. JOHNSON: Murray's Gram., i, 163; Ingersoll's, 214. "O fairest flower, no sooner blown but blasted!"— Milton's Poems, p, 132. "Architecture and gardening cannot otherwise entertain the mind, but by raising certain agreeable emotions or feelings."—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 318. "Or, rather, they are nothing else but nouns."—British Gram., p. 95.

"As if religion were intended For nothing else but to be mended."—Hudibras, p. 11.

UNDER NOTE V.—RELATIVES EXCLUDE CONJUNCTIONS.

"To prepare the Jews for the reception of a prophet mightier than him, and whose shoes he was not worthy to bear."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 214. "Has this word which represents an action an object after it, and on which it terminates?"—Osborn's Key, p. 3. "The stores of literature lie before him, and from which he may collect, for use, many lessons of wisdom."— Knapp's Lectures, p. 31. "Many and various great advantages of this Grammar, and which are wanting in others, might be enumerated."— Greenleaf's Gram., p. 6. "About the time of Solon, the Athenian legislator, the custom is said to have been introduced, and which still prevails, of writing in lines from left to right."—Jamieson's Rhet., p. 19. "The fundamental rule of the construction of sentences, and into which all others might be resolved, undoubtedly is, to communicate, in the clearest and most natural order, the ideas which we mean to transfuse into the minds of others."—Blair's Rhet., p. 120; Jamieson's, 102. "He left a son of a singular character, and who behaved so ill that he was put in prison."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 221. "He discovered some qualities in the youth, of a disagreeable nature, and which to him were wholly unaccountable."—Ib., p. 213. "An emphatical pause is made, after something has been said of peculiar moment, and on which we want ['desire' M.] to fix the hearer's attention."—Blair's Rhet., p. 331; Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 248. "But we have duplicates of each, agreeing in movement, though differing in measure, and which make different impressions on the ear."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 259.

UNDER NOTE VI.—OF THE WORD THAT.

"It will greatly facilitate the labours of the teacher, at the same time that it will relieve the pupil of many difficulties."—Frost's El. of E. Gram., p. 4. "At the same time that the pupil is engaged in the exercises just mentioned, it will be a proper time to study the whole Grammar in course."—Bullions, Prin. of E. Gram., Revised Ed., p. viii. "On the same ground that a participle and auxiliary are allowed to form a tense."—BEATTIE: Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 76. "On the same ground that the voices, moods, and tenses, are admitted into the English tongue."—Ib., p. 101. "The five examples last mentioned, are corrected on the same principle that the preceding examples are corrected."—Ib., p. 186; Ingersoll's Gram., 254. "The brazen age began at the death of Trajan, and lasted till the time that Rome was taken by the Goths."—Gould's Lat. Gram., p. 277. "The introduction to the Duodecimo Edition, is retained in this volume, for the same reason that the original introduction to the Grammar, is retained in the first volume."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, Vol. ii, p. iv. "The verb must also be of the same person that the nominative case is."—Ingersoll's Gram., p. 16. "The adjective pronoun their, is plural for the same reason that who is."—Ib., p. 84. "The Sabellians could not justly be called Patripassians, in the same sense that the Noetians were so called."—Religious World, Vol. ii, p. 122. "This is one reason that we pass over such smooth language, without suspecting that it contains little or no meaning."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 298. "The first place that both armies came in sight of each other was on the opposite banks of the river Apsus."—Goldsmith's Rome, p. 118. "At the very time that the author gave him the first book for his perusal."—Campbell's Rhetoric, Preface, p. iv. "Peter will sup at the time that Paul will dine."—Fosdick's De Sacy, p. 81. "Peter will be supping at the time that Paul will enter."—Ibid. "These, at the same time that they may serve as models to those who may wish to imitate them, will give me an opportunity to cast more light upon the principles of this book."—Ib., p. 115.

"Time was, like thee, they life possest, And time shall be, that thou shalt rest." —PARNELL; Mur. Seq., p. 241.

UNDER NOTE VII.—OF THE CORRESPONDENTS.

"Our manners should neither be gross, nor excessively refined."—Merchant's Gram., p. 11. "A neuter verb expresses neither action or passion, but being, or a state of being."—O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 342. "The old books are neither English grammars, or grammars, in any sense of the English Language."—Ib., p. 378. "The author is apprehensive that his work is not yet as accurate and as much simplified as it may be."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 7. "The writer could not treat some topicks as extensively as was desirable."—Ib., p. 10. "Which would be a matter of such nicety, as no degree of human wisdom could regulate."—Murray's Gram., i, 26. "No undertaking is so great or difficult which he cannot direct."—Duncan's Cic., p. 126. "It is a good which neither depends on the will of others, nor on the affluence of external fortune."—Harris's Hermes, 299; Murray's Gram., i, 289. "Not only his estate, his reputation too has suffered by his misconduct."—Murray's Gram., i, 150; Ingersoll's, 238. "Neither do they extend as far as might be imagined at first view."—Blair's Rhet., p. 350. "There is no language so poor, but it hath two or three past tenses."—Ib., p. 82. "As far as this system is founded in truth, language appears to be not altogether arbitrary in its origin."—Ib., p. 56. "I have not that command of these convulsions as is necessary."—Spect., No. 474. "Conversation with such who know no arts which polish life."—Ib., No. 480. "And which can be neither very lively or very forcible."—Jamieson's Rhet., p. 78. "To that degree as to give proper names to rivers."—Dr. Murray's Hist of Lang., i, 327. "In the utter overthrow of such who hate to be reformed."—Barclay's Works, i, 443. "But still so much of it is retained, as greatly injures the uniformity of the whole."—Priestley's Gram., Pref., p. vii. "Some of them have gone to that height of extravagance, as to assert," &c.—Ib., p. 91. "A teacher is confined—not more than a merchant, and probably not as much."—Abbott's Teacher, p. 27. "It shall not be forgiven him, neither in this world, neither in the world to come."—Matt., xii, 32. "Which no body presumes, or is so sanguine to hope."—Swift, Drap. Let. v. "For the torrent of the voice, left neither time or power in the organs, to shape the words properly."—Sheridan's Elocution, p. 118. "That he may neither unnecessarily waste his voice by throwing out too much, or diminish his power by using too little."—Ib., p. 123. "I have retained only such which appear most agreeable to the measures of Analogy."—Littleton's Dict., Pref. "He is both a prudent and industrious man."—Day's Gram., p. 70. "Conjunctions either connect words or sentences."—Ib., pp. 81 and 101.

"Such silly girls who love to chat and play, Deserve no care, their time is thrown away."—Tobitt's Gram., p. 20.

"Vice is a monster of so frightful mien, As to be hated needs but to be seen."—POPE: Mur. Gram., ii, 17.

"Justice must punish the rebellious deed: Yet punish so, as pity shall exceed."—DRYDEN: in Joh. Dict.

UNDER NOTE VIII.—IMPROPER ELLIPSES.

"That, whose, and as relate to either persons or things."—Sanborn's Gram., p. 93. "Which and what, as adjectives, relate either to persons or things."—Ib., p. 70. "Whether of a public or private nature."— Adam's Rhet., i, 43. "Which are included both among the public and private wrongs."—Ib., i, 308. "I might extract both from the old and new testament numberless examples of induction."—Ib., ii, 66. "Many verbs are used both in an active and neuter signification."—Lowth's Gram., p. 30; Alger's, 26; Guy's, 21; Murray's, 60. "Its influence is likely to be considerable, both on the morals, and taste of a nation."—Blair's Rhet., p. 373. "The subject afforded a variety of scenes, both of the awful and tender kind."—Ib., p. 439. "Restlessness of mind disqualifies us, both for the enjoyment of peace, and the performance of our duty."—Murray's Key, ii, 166; Ingersoll's Gram., p. 10. "Adjective Pronouns are of a mixed nature, participating the properties both of pronouns and adjectives."—Murray's Gram., i, 55; Merchant's, 43; Flint's, 22. "Adjective Pronouns have the nature both of the adjective and the pronoun."—Frost's El. of Gram., p. 15. "Pronominal adjectives are a kind of compound part of speech, partaking the nature both of pronouns and adjectives."—Nutting's Gram., p. 36. "Nouns are used either in the singular or plural number."—Blair's Gram., p. 11. "The question is not, whether the nominative or accusative ought to follow the particles than and as; but, whether these particles are, in such particular cases, to be regarded as conjunctions or prepositions."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 204. "In English many verbs are used both as transitives and intransitives."—Churchill's Gram., p. 83. "He sendeth rain both on the just and unjust."—Guy's Gram., p. 56. "A foot consists either of two or three syllables."—Blair's Gram., p. 118. "Because they participate the nature both of adverbs and conjunctions."—Murray's Gram., i, 116. "Surely, Romans, what I am now about to say, ought neither to be omitted nor pass without notice."—Duncan's Cicero, p. 196. "Their language frequently amounts, not only to bad sense, but non-sense."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 14. "Hence arises the necessity of a social state to man both for the unfolding, and exerting of his nobler faculties."—Sheridan's Elocution, p. 147. "Whether the subject be of the real or feigned kind."—Blair's Rhet., p. 454. "Not only was liberty entirely extinguished, but arbitrary power felt in its heaviest and most oppressive weight."—Ib., p. 249. "This rule is applicable also both to verbal Critics and Grammarians."—Hiley's Gram., p. 144. "Both the rules and exceptions of a language must have obtained the sanction of good usage."—Ib., p. 143.



CHAPTER X.—PREPOSITIONS.

The syntax of Prepositions consists, not solely or mainly in their power of governing the objective case, (though this alone is the scope which most grammarians have given it,) but in their adaptation to the other terms between which they express certain relations, such as appear by the sense of the words uttered.

RULE XXIII.—PREPOSITIONS.

Prepositions show the relations of words, and of the things or thoughts expressed by them: as; "He came from Rome to Paris, in the company of many eminent men, and passed with them through many cities"—Analectic Magazine.

"Ah! who can tell the triumphs of the mind, By truth illumin'd, and by taste refin'd?"—Rogers.

EXCEPTION FIRST.

The preposition to, before an abstract infinitive, and at the head of a phrase which is made the subject of a verb, has no proper antecedent term of relation; as, "To learn to die, is the great business of life."—Dillwyn. "Nevertheless, to abide in the flesh, is more needful for you."—ST. PAUL: Phil., i, 24. "To be reduced to poverty, is a great affliction."

"Too much to know, is, to know nought but fame; And every godfather can give a name."—Shakspeare.

EXCEPTION SECOND.

The preposition for, when it introduces its object before an infinitive, and the whole phrase is made the subject of a verb, has properly no antecedent term of relation; as, "For us to learn to die, is the great business of life."—"Nevertheless, for me to abide in the flesh, is more needful for you."—"For an old man to be reduced to poverty is a very great affliction."

"For man to tell how human life began, Is hard; for who himself beginning knew?"—Milton.

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XXIII.

OBS. 1.—In parsing any ordinary preposition, the learner should name the two terms of the relation, and apply the foregoing rule, after the manner prescribed in Praxis 12th of this work. The principle is simple and etymological, being implied in the very definition of a preposition, yet not the less necessary to be given as a rule of syntax. Among tolerable writers, the prepositions exhibit more errors than any other equal number of words. This is probably owing to the careless manner in which they are usually slurred over in parsing. But the parsers, in general, have at least this excuse, that their text-books have taught them no better; they therefore call the preposition a preposition, and leave its use and meaning unexplained.

OBS. 2.—If the learner be at any loss to discover the true terms of relation, let him ask and answer two questions: first, with the interrogative what before the preposition, to find the antecedent; and then, with the same pronoun after the preposition, to find the subsequent term. These questions answered according to the sense, will always give the true terms. For example: "They dashed that rapid torrent through."—Scott. Ques. What through? Ans. "Dashed through." Ques. Through what? Ans. "Through that torrent." For the meaning is—"They dashed through that rapid torrent." If one term is perfectly obvious, (as it almost always is,) find the other in this way; as, "Day unto day uttereth speech, and night unto night showeth knowledge."—Psal., xix, 2. Ques. What unto day? Ans. "Uttereth unto day." Ques. What unto night? Ans. "Showeth unto night" For the meaning is—"Day uttereth speech unto day, and night showeth knowledge unto night." To parse rightly, is, to understand rightly; and what is well expressed, it is a shame to misunderstand or misinterpret. But sometimes the position of the two nouns is such, that it may require some reflection to find either; as,

"Or that choice plant, so grateful to the nose, Which in I know not what far country grows."—Churchill, p. 18.

OBS. 3.—When a preposition begins or ends a sentence or clause, the terms of relation, if both are given, are transposed; as, "To a studious man, action is a relief."—Burgh. That is, "Action is a relief to a studious man." "Science they [the ladies] do not pretend TO."—Id. That is, "They do not pretend to science." "Until I have done that which I have spoken to thee OF."—Gen., xxviii, 15. The word governed by the preposition is always the subsequent term of the relation, however it may be placed; and if this be a relative pronoun, the transposition is permanent. The preposition, however, may be put before any relative, except that and as; and this is commonly thought to be its most appropriate place: as, "Until I have done that of which I have spoken to thee," Of the placing of it last, Lowth says, "This is an idiom which our language is strongly inclined to;" Murray and others, "This is an idiom to which our language is strongly inclined:" while they all add, "it prevails in common conversation, and suits very well with the familiar style in writing; but the placing of the preposition before the relative, is more graceful, as well as more perspicuous, and agrees much better with the solemn and elevated style."—Lowth's Gram., p. 95; Murray's, 8vo, p. 200; Fisk's, 141; R. C. Smiths, 167; Ingersoll's, 227; Churchill's. 150.

OBS. 4.—The terms of relation between which a preposition may be used, are very various. The former or antecedent term may be a noun, an adjective, a pronoun, a verb, a participle, or an adverb: and, in some instances, we find not only one preposition put before an other, but even a conjunction or an interjection used on this side; as, "Because OF offences."—"Alas FOR him!"—The latter or subsequent term, which is the word governed by the preposition, may be a noun, a pronoun, a pronominal adjective, an infinitive verb, or an imperfect or preperfect participle: and, in some instances, prepositions appear to govern adverbs, or even whole phrases. See the observations in the tenth chapter of Etymology.

OBS. 5.—Both terms of the relation are usually expressed; though either of them may, in some instances, be left out, the other being given: as, (1.) THE FORMER—"All shall know me, [reckoning] FROM the least to the greatest."—Heb., viii, 11. [I say] "IN a word, it would entirely defeat the purpose."—Blair. "When I speak of reputation, I mean not only [reputation] IN regard to knowledge, but [reputation] IN regard to the talent of communicating knowledge."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 163; Murray's Gram., i, 360. (2.) THE LATTER—"Opinions and ceremonies [which] they would die FOR."—Locke. "IN [those] who obtain defence, or [in those] who defend."—Pope. "Others are more modest than [what] this comes TO."—Collier's Antoninus, p. 66.

OBS. 6.—The only proper exceptions to the foregoing rule, are those which are inserted above, unless the abstract infinitive used as a predicate is also to be excepted; as, "In both, to reason right, is to submit."—Pope. But here most if not all grammarians would say, the verb "is" is the antecedent term, or what their syntax takes to govern the infinitive. The relation, however, is not such as when we say, "He is to submit;" that is, "He must submit, or ought to submit;" but, perhaps, to insist on a different mode of parsing the more separable infinitive or its preposition, would be a needless refinement. Yet some regard ought to be paid to the different relations which the infinitive may bear to this finite verb. For want of a due estimate of this difference, the following sentence is, I think, very faulty: "The great business of this life is to prepare, and qualify us, for the enjoyment of a better."—Murray's Gram., Vol. i, p. 373. If the author meant to tell what our great business in this life is, he should rather have said: "The great business of this life is, to prepare and qualify ourselves for the enjoyment of a better."

OBS. 7.—In relation to the infinitive, Dr. Adam remarks, that, "To in English is often taken absolutely; as, To confess the truth; To proceed; To conclude."—Latin and Eng. Gram., p. 182. But the assertion is not entirely true; nor are his examples appropriate; for what he and many other grammarians call the infinitive absolute, evidently depends on something understood; and the preposition is, surely, in no instance independent of what follows it, and is therefore never entirely absolute. Prepositions are not to be supposed to have no antecedent term, merely because they stand at the head of a phrase or sentence which is made the subject of a verb; for the phrase or sentence itself often contains that term, as in the following example: "In what way mind acts upon matter, is unknown." Here in shows the relation between acts and way; because the expression suggests, that mind acts IN some way upon matter.

OBS. 8.—The second exception above, wherever it is found applicable, cancels the first; because it introduces an antecedent term before the preposition to, as may be seen by the examples given. It is questionable too, whether both of them may not also be cancelled in an other way; that is, by transposition and the introduction of the pronoun it for the nominative: as, "It is a great affliction, TO be reduced to poverty."—"It is hard FOR man to tell how human life began."—"Nevertheless it is more needful for you, THAT I should abide in the flesh." We cannot so well say, "It is more needful for you, FOR me to abide in the flesh;" but we may say, "It is, on your account, more needful FOR me to abide in the flesh." If these, and other similar examples, are not to be accounted additional instances in which to and for, and also the conjunction that, are without any proper antecedent terms, we must suppose these particles to show the relation between what precedes and what follows them.

OBS. 9.—The preposition (as its name implies) precedes the word which it governs. Yet there are some exceptions. In the familiar style, a preposition governing a relative or an interrogative pronoun, is often separated from its object, and connected with the other term of relation; as, "Whom did he speak to?" But it is more dignified, and in general more graceful, to place the preposition before the pronoun; as, "To whom did he speak?" The relatives that and as, if governed by a preposition, must always precede it. In some instances, the pronoun must be supplied in parsing; as, "To set off the banquet [that or which] he gives notice of."—Philological Museum, i, 454. Sometimes the objective word is put first because it is emphatical; as, "This the great understand, this they pique themselves upon."—Art of Thinking, p. 66. Prepositions of more than one syllable, are sometimes put immediately after their objects, especially in poetry; as, "Known all the world over."—Walker's Particles p. 291. "The thing is known all Lesbos over."—Ibid.

"Wild Carron's lonely woods among."—Langhorne.

"Thy deep ravines and dells along."—Sir W. Scott.

OBS. 10.—Two prepositions sometimes come together; as, "Lambeth is over against Westminster abbey."—Murray's Gram., i, 118. "And from before the lustre of her face, White break the clouds away."—Thomson. "And the meagre fiend Blows mildew from between his shrivell'd lips."—Cowper. These, in most instances, though they are not usually written as compounds, appear naturally to coalesce in their syntax, as was observed in the tenth chapter of Etymology, and to express a sort of compound relation between the other terms with which they are connected. When such is their character, they ought to be taken together in parsing; for, if we parse them separately, we must either call the first an adverb, or suppose some very awkward ellipsis. Some instances however occur, in which an object may easily be supplied to the former word, and perhaps ought to be; as, "He is at liberty to sell it at [a price] above a fair remuneration."— Wayland's Moral Science, p. 258. "And I wish they had been at the bottom of the ditch I pulled you out of, instead of [being] upon my back."—Sandford and Merton, p. 29. In such examples as the following, the first preposition, of, appears to me to govern the plural noun which ends the sentence; and the intermediate ones, from and to, to have both terms of their relation understood: "Iambic verse consists of from two to six feet; that is, of from four to twelve syllables."—Blair's Gram., p. 119. "Trochaic verse consists of from one to three feet."—Ibid. The meaning is—"Iambic verse consists of feet varying in number from two to six; or (it consists) of syllables varying from four to twelve."—"Trochaic verse consists of feet varying from one foot to three feet."

OBS. 11.—One antecedent term may have several prepositions depending on it, with one object after each, or more than one after any, or only one after both or all; as, "A declaration for virtue and against vice."—Butler's Anal., p. 157. "A positive law against all fraud, falsehood, and violence, and for, or in favour of, all justice and truth." "For of him, and through him, and to him, are all things."—Bible. In fact, not only may the relation be simple in regard to all or any of the words, but it may also be complex in regard to all or any of them. Hence several different prepositions, whether they have different antecedent terms or only one and the same, may refer either jointly or severally to one object or to more. This follows, because not only may either antecedents or objects be connected by conjunctions, but prepositions also admit of this construction, with or without a connecting of their antecedents. Examples: "They are capable of, and placed in, different stations in the society of mankind."—Butler's Anal., p. 115. "Our perception of vice and ill desert arises from, and is the result of, a comparison of actions with the nature and capacities of the agent."—Ib., p. 279. "And the design of this chapter is, to inquire how far this is the case; how far, over and above the moral nature which God has given us, and our natural notion of him, as righteous governor of those his creatures to whom he has given this nature; I say, how far, besides this, the principles and beginnings of a moral government over the world may be discerned, notwithstanding and amidst all the confusion and disorder of it."—Ib., p. 85.

OBS. 12.—The preposition into, expresses a relation produced by motion or change; and in, the same relation, without reference to motion as having produced it: hence, "to walk into the garden," and, "to walk in the garden," are very different in meaning. "It is disagreeable to find a word split into two by a pause."—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 83. This appears to be right in sense, but because brevity is desirable in unemphatic particles, I suppose most persons would say, "split in two." In the Bible we have the phrases, "rent in twain,"—"cut in pieces,"—"brake in pieces the rocks,"—"brake all their bones in pieces,"—"brake them to pieces,"—"broken to pieces,"—"pulled in pieces." In all these, except the first, to may perhaps be considered preferable to in; and into would be objectionable only because it is longer and less simple. "Half of them dare not shake the snow from off their cassocks, lest they shake themselves to pieces."—SHAK.: Kames, ii, 246.

OBS. 13.—Between, or betwixt, is used in reference to two things or parties; among, or amongst, amid, or amidst, in reference to a greater number, or to something by which an other may be surrounded: as, "Thou pendulum betwixt a smile and tear."—Byron. "The host between the mountain and the shore."—Id. "To meditate amongst decay, and stand a ruin amidst ruins."—Id. In the following examples, the import of these prepositions is not very accurately regarded; "The Greeks wrote in capitals, and left no spaces between their words."—Wilson's Essay, p. 6. This construction may perhaps be allowed, because the spaces by which words are now divided, occur severally between one word and an other; but the author might as well have said, "and left no spaces to distinguish their words." "There was a hunting match agreed upon betwixt a lion, an ass, and a fox."—L'Estrange. Here by or among would, I think, be better than betwixt, because the partners were more than two. "Between two or more authors, different readers will differ, exceedingly, as to the preference in point of merit."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 162; Jamieson's, 40; Murray's Gram., i, 360. Say, "Concerning two or more authors," because between is not consistent with the word more. "Rising one among another in the greatest confusion and disorder."—Spect., No. 476. Say, "Rising promiscuously," or, "Rising all at once;" for among is not consistent with the distributive term one an other.

OBS. 14.—Of two prepositions coming together between the same terms of relation, and sometimes connected in the same construction, I have given several plain examples in this chapter, and in the tenth chapter of Etymology, a very great number, all from sources sufficiently respectable. But, in many of our English grammars, there is a stereotyped remark on this point, originally written by Priestley, which it is proper here to cite, as an other specimen of the Doctor's hastiness, and of the blind confidence of certain compilers and copyists: "Two different prepositions must be improper in the same construction, and in the same sentence: [as,] The combat between thirty Britons, against twenty English. Smollett's Voltaire, Vol. 2, p. 292."—Priestley's Gram., p. 156. Lindley Murray and others have the same remark, with the example altered thus: "The combat between thirty French against twenty English."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 200; Smith's New Gram., 167: Fisk's, 142; Ingersoll's, 228. W. Allen has it thus: "Two different prepositions in the same construction are improper; as, a combat between twenty French against thirty English."—Elements of E. Gram., p. 179. He gives the odds to the latter party. Hiley, with no expense of thought, first takes from Murray, as he from Priestley, the useless remark, "Different relations, and different senses, must be expressed by different prepositions;" and then adds, "One relation must not, therefore, be expressed by two different prepositions in the same clause; thus, 'The combat between thirty French against thirty English,' should be, 'The combat between thirty French and thirty English.'"—Hiley's E. Gram., p 97. It is manifest that the error of this example is not in the use of two prepositions, nor is there any truth or fitness in the note or notes made on it by all these critics; for had they said, "The combat of thirty French against twenty English," there would still be two prepositions, but where would be the impropriety, or where the sameness of construction, which they speak of? Between is incompatible with against, only because it requires two parties or things for its own regimen; as, "The combat between thirty Frenchmen and twenty Englishmen." This is what Smollett should have written, to make sense with the word "between."

OBS. 15.—With like implicitness, Hiley excepted, these grammarians and others have adopted from Lowth an observation in which the learned doctor has censured quite too strongly the joint reference of different prepositions to the same objective noun: to wit, "Some writers separate the preposition from its noun, in order to connect different prepositions to the same noun; as, 'To suppose the zodiac and planets to be efficient of, and antecedent to, themselves.' Bentley, Serm. 6. This [construction], whether in the familiar or the solemn style, is always inelegant; and should never be admitted, but in forms of law, and the like; where fullness and exactness of expression must take place of every other consideration."—Lowth's Gram., p. 96; Murray's, i, 200; Smith's, 167; Fisk's, 141; Ingersoll's, 228; Alger's, 67; Picket's, 207. Churchill even goes further, both strengthening the censure, and disallowing the exception: thus, "This, whether in the solemn or in the familiar style, is always inelegant, and should never be admitted. It is an awkward shift for avoiding the repetition of a word, which might be accomplished without it by any person who has the least command of language."—New Gram., p. 341. Yet, with all their command of language, not one of these gentlemen has told us how the foregoing sentence from Bentley may be amended; while many of their number not only venture to use different prepositions before the same noun, but even to add a phrase which puts that noun in the nominative case: as, "Thus, the time of the infinitive may be before, after, or the same as, the time of the governing verb, according as the thing signified by the infinitive is supposed to be before, after, or present with, the thing denoted by the governing verb."—Murray's Gram., i, 191; Ingersoll's, 260; R. C. Smith's, 159.

OBS. 16.—The structure of this example not only contradicts palpably, and twice over, the doctrine cited above, but one may say of the former part of it, as Lowth, Murray, and others do, (in no very accurate English,) of the text 1 Cor., ii, 9: "There seems to be an impropriety in this sentence, in which the same noun serves in a double capacity, performing at the same time the offices both of the nominative and objective cases."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 224. See also Lowth's Gram., p. 73; Ingersoll's, 277; Fisk's, 149; Smith's, 185. Two other examples, exactly like that which is so pointedly censured above, are placed by Murray under his thirteenth rule for the comma; and these likewise, with all faithfulness, are copied by Ingersoll, Smith, Alger, Kirkham, Comly, Russell, and I know not how many more. In short, not only does this rule of their punctuation include the construction in question; but the following exception to it, which is remarkable for its various faults, or thorough faultiness, is applicable to no other: "Sometimes, when the word with which the last preposition agrees, is single, it is better to omit the comma before it: as, 'Many states were in alliance with, and under the protection of Rome.'"—Murray's Gram., p. 272; Smith's, 190; Ingersoll's, 284; Kirkham's, 215; Alger's, 79; Alden's, 149; Abel Flint's, 103; Russell's, 115. But the blunders and contradictions on this point, end not here. Dr. Blair happened most unlearnedly to say, "What is called splitting of particles, or separating a preposition from the noun which it governs, is always to be avoided. As if I should say, 'Though virtue borrows no assistance from, yet it may often be accompanied by, the advantages of fortune.'"—Lect. XII, p. 112. This too, though the author himself did not always respect the rule, has been thought worthy to be copied, or stolen, with all its faults! See Jamieson's Rhetoric, p. 93; and Murray's Octavo Gram., p. 319.

OBS. 17.—Dr. Lowth says, "The noun aversion, (that is, a turning away,) as likewise the adjective averse, seems to require the preposition from after it; and not so properly to admit of to, or for, which are often used with it."—Gram., p. 98. But this doctrine has not been adopted by the later grammarians: "The words averse and aversion (says Dr. Campbell) are more properly construed with to than with from. The examples in favour of the latter preposition, are beyond comparison outnumbered by those in favour of the former."—Murray's Gram., i, 201; Fisk's, 142; Ingersoll's, 229. This however must be understood only of mental aversion. The expression of Milton, "On the coast averse from entrance," would not be improved, if from were changed to to. So the noun exception, and the verb to except, are sometimes followed by from, which has regard to the Latin particle ex, with which the word commences; but the noun at least is much more frequently, and perhaps more properly, followed by to. Examples: "Objects of horror must be excepted from the foregoing theory."—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 268. "From which there are but two exceptions, both of them rare."—Ib., ii. 89. "To the rule that fixes the pause after the fifth portion, there is one exception, and no more."—Ib., ii, 84. "No exception can be taken to the justness of the figure."—Ib., ii, 37. "Originally there was no exception from the rule."—Lowth's Gram., p. 58. "From this rule there is mostly an exception."—Murray's Gram., i, 269. "But to this rule there are many exceptions."—Ib., i. 240. "They are not to be regarded as exceptions from the rule,"—Campbell's Rhet., p. 363.

OBS. 18.—After correcting the example. "He knows nothing on [of] it," Churchill remarks, "There seems to be a strange perverseness among the London vulgar in perpetually substituting on for of, and of for on."—New Gram., p. 345. And among the expressions which Campbell censures under the name of vulgarism, are the following: "'Tis my humble request you will be particular in speaking to the following points."—Guardian, No. 57. "The preposition ought to have been on. Precisely of the same stamp is the on't for of it, so much used by one class of writers."—Philosophy of Rhet., p. 217. So far as I have observed, the use of of for on has never been frequent; and that of on for of, or on't for of it, though it may never have been a polite custom, is now a manifest archaism, or imitation of ancient usage. "And so my young Master, whatever comes on't, must have a Wife look'd out for him."—Locke, on Ed., p. 378. In Saxon, on was put for more than half a dozen of our present prepositions. The difference between of and on or upon, appears in general to be obvious enough; and yet there are some phrases in which it is not easy to determine which of these words ought to be preferred: as, "Many things they cannot lay hold on at once."—HOOKER: Joh. Dict. "Uzzah put forth his hand to the ark of God, and took hold of it."—2 SAM.: ib. "Rather thou shouldst lay hold upon him."—BEN JONSON: ib. "Let them find courage to lay hold on the occasion."—MILTON: ib. "The hand is fitted to lay hold of objects."—RAY: ib. "My soul took hold on thee."—ADDISON: ib. "To lay hold of this safe, this only method of cure."—ATTERBURY: ib. "And give fortune no more hold of him."—DRYDEN: ib. "And his laws take the surest hold of us."—TILLOTSON: ib. "It will then be impossible you can have any hold upon him."—SWIFT: ib. "The court of Rome gladly laid hold on all the opportunities."—Murray's Key, ii, p. 198. "Then did the officer lay hold of him and execute him."—Ib., ii, 219. "When one can lay hold upon some noted fact."—Blair's Rhet., p. 311. "But when we would lay firm hold of them."—Ib., p. 28. "An advantage which every one is glad to lay hold of."—Ib., p. 75. "To have laid fast hold of it in his mind."—Ib., p. 94. "I would advise them to lay aside their common-places, and to think closely of their subject."—Ib., p. 317. "Did they not take hold of your fathers?"—Zech., i, 6. "Ten men shall take hold of the skirt of one that is a Jew."—Ib., viii, 23. "It is wrong to say, either 'to lay hold of a thing,' or 'to take hold on it.'"—Blair's Gram., p. 101. In the following couplet, on seems to have been preferred only for a rhyme:

"Yet, lo! in me what authors have to brag on! Reduc'd at last to hiss in my own dragon."—Pope.

OBS. 19.—In the allowable uses of prepositions, there may perhaps be some room for choice; so that what to the mind of a critic may not appear the fittest word, may yet be judged not positively ungrammatical. In this light I incline to view the following examples: "Homer's plan is still more defective, upon another account."—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 299. Say—"on an other account." "It was almost eight of the clock before I could leave that variety of objects."—Spectator, No. 454. Present usage requires—"eight o'clock." "The Greek and Latin writers had a considerable advantage above us."—Blair's Rhet., p. 114. "The study of oratory has this advantage above that of poetry."—Ib., p. 338. "A metaphor has frequently an advantage above a formal comparison."— Jamieson's Rhet., p. 150. This use of above seems to be a sort of Scotticism: an Englishman, I think, would say—"advantage over us," &c. "Hundreds have all these crowding upon them from morning to night."— Abbott's Teacher, p. 33. Better—"from morning till night." But Horne Tooke observes, "We apply TO indifferently to place or time; but TILL to time only, and never to place. Thus we may say, 'From morn TO night th' eternal larum rang;' or, 'From morn TILL night.' &c."—Diversions of Purley, i, 284.

NOTES TO RULE XXIII.

NOTE I.—Prepositions must be chosen and employed agreeably to the usage and idiom of the language, so as rightly to express the relations intended. Example of error: "By which we arrive to the last division."—Richard W. Green's Gram., p. vii. Say,—"arrive at." NOTE II.—Those prepositions which are particularly adapted in meaning to two objects, or to more, ought to be confined strictly to the government of such terms only as suit them. Example of error: "What is Person? It is the medium of distinction between the speaker, the object addressed or spoken to, and the object spoken of."—O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 34. "Between three" is an incongruity; and the text here cited is bad in several other respects.

NOTE III.—An ellipsis or omission of the preposition is inelegant, except where long and general use has sanctioned it, and made the relation sufficiently intelligible. In the following sentence, of is needed: "I will not flatter you, that all I see in you is worthy love."— Shakspeare. The following requires from: "Ridicule is banished France, and is losing ground in England."—Kames, El. of Crit., i, 106.

NOTE IV.—The insertion of a preposition is also inelegant, when the particle is needless, or when it only robs a transitive verb of its proper regimen; as, "The people of England may congratulate to themselves."—DRYDEN: Priestley's Gram., p. 163. "His servants ye are, to whom ye obey."—Rom., vi, 16.

NOTE V.—The preposition and its object should have that position in respect to other words, which will render the sentence the most perspicuous and agreeable. Examples of error: "Gratitude is a forcible and active principle in good and generous minds."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 169. Better: "In good and generous minds, gratitude is a forcible and active principle." "By a single stroke, he knows how to reach the heart."— Blair's Rhet., p. 439. Better: "He knows how to reach the heart by a single stroke."

IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.

FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE XXIII.

EXAMPLES UNDER NOTE I.—CHOICE OF PREPOSITIONS.

"You have bestowed your favours to the most deserving persons."—Swift, on E. Tongue.

[FORMULE.—Not proper because the relation between have bestowed and persons is not correctly expressed by the preposition to. But, according to Note 1st under Rule 23d, "Prepositions must be chosen and employed agreeably to the usage and idiom of the language, so as rightly to express the relations intended." This relation would be better expressed by upon; thus, "You have bestowed your favours upon the most deserving persons."]

"But to rise beyond that, and overtop the crowd, is given to few."—Blair's Rhet., p. 351. "This also is a good sentence, and gives occasion to no material remark."—Ib., p. 201. "Though Cicero endeavours to give some reputation of the elder Cato, and those who were his cotemporaries."—Ib., p. 245. "The change that was produced on eloquence, is beautifully described in the Dialogue."—Ib., p. 249. "Without carefully attending to the variation which they make upon the idea."—Ib., p. 367. "All of a sudden, you are transported into a lofty palace."—Hazlitt's Lect., p. 70. "Alike independent on one another."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 398. "You will not think of them as distinct processes going on independently on each other,"—Channing's Self-Culture, p. 15. "Though we say, to depend on, dependent on, and independent on, we say, independently of."—Churchill's Gram., p. 348. "Independently on the rest of the sentence."—Lowth's Gram., p. 78; Guy's, 88; Murray's, i, 145 and 184; Ingersoll's, 150; Frost's, 46; Fisk's, 125; Smith's New Gram., 156; Gould's Lat. Gram., 209; Nixon's Parser, 65. "Because they stand independent on the rest of the sentence."—Fisk's Gram., p. 111. "When a substantive is joined with a participle in English independently in the rest of the sentence."—Adam's Lat. and Eng. Gram., Boston Ed. of 1803, p. 213; Albany Ed. of 1820, p. 166. "Conjunction, comes of the two Latin words con, together, and jungo, to join."—Merchant's School Gram., p. 19. "How different to this is the life of Fulvia!"—Addison's Spect., No. 15. "Loved is a participle or adjective, derived of the word love."—Dr. Ash's Gram., p. 27. "But I would inquire at him, what an office is?"—Barclay's Works, iii, 463. "For the capacity is brought unto action."—Ib., iii, 420. "In this period, language and taste arrive to purity."—Webster's Essays, p. 94. "And should you not aspire at distinction in the republick of letters."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 13. "Delivering you up to the synagogues, and in prisons."—Keith's Evidences, p. 55. "One that is kept from falling in a ditch, is as truly saved, as he that is taken out of one."—Barclay's Works, i, 312. "The best on it is, they are but a sort of French Hugonots."—Addison, Spect., No. 62. "These last Ten Examples are indeed of a different Nature to the former."—Johnson's Gram. Com., p. 333. "For the initiation of students in the principles of the English language."—ANNUAL REVIEW: Murray's Gram., ii, 299. "Richelieu profited of every circumstance which the conjuncture afforded,"—Bolingbroke, on Hist., p. 177. "In the names of drugs and plants, the mistake in a word may endanger life."—Murray's Key, ii, 165. "In order to the carrying on its several parts into execution."—Butler's Analogy, p. 192. "His abhorrence to the superstitious figure."—HUME: Priestley's Gram., p. 164. "Thy prejudice to my cause."—DRYDEN: ib., p. 164. "Which is found among every species of liberty."—HUME: ib., p. 169. "In a hilly region to the north of Jericho."—Milman's Jews, Vol. i, p. 8. "Two or more singular nouns, coupled with AND, require a verb and pronoun in the plural."—Lennie's Gram., p. 83.

"Books should to one of these four ends conduce, For wisdom, piety, delight, or use."—Denham, p. 239.

UNDER NOTE II.—TWO OBJECTS OR MORE.

"The Anglo-Saxons, however, soon quarrelled between themselves for precedence."—Constable's Miscellany, xx, p. 59. "The distinctions between the principal parts of speech are founded in nature."—Webster's Essays, p. 7. "I think I now understand the difference between the active, passive, and neuter verbs."—Ingersoll's Gram., p. 124. "Thus a figure including a space between three lines, is the real as well as nominal essence of a triangle."—Locke's Essay, p. 303. "We must distinguish between an imperfect phrase, a simple sentence, and a compound sentence."—Lowth's Gram., p. 117; Murray's, i, 267; Ingersoll's, 280; Guy's, 97. "The Jews are strictly forbidden by their law, to exercise usury among one another."—Sale's Koran, p. 177. "All the writers have distinguished themselves among one another."—Addison. "This expression also better secures the systematic uniformity between the three cases."—Nutting's Gram., p. 98. "When a disjunctive occurs between two or more Infinitive Modes, or clauses, the verb must be singular."— Jaudon's Gram., p. 95. "Several nouns or pronouns together in the same case, not united by and, require a comma between each."—Blair's Gram., p. 115. "The difference between the several vowels is produced by opening the mouth differently, and placing the tongue in a different manner for each."—Churchill's Gram., p. 2. "Thus feet composed of syllables, being pronounced with a sensible interval between each, make a more lively impression than can be made by a continued sound."—Kames, El. of Crit., Vol. ii, p. 32. "The superlative degree implies a comparison between three or more."—Smith's Productive Gram., p. 51. "They are used to mark a distinction between several objects."—Levizac's Gram., p. 85.

UNDER NOTE III.—OMISSION OF PREPOSITIONS.

"This would have been less worthy notice."—Churchill's Gram., p. 197. "But I passed it, as a thing unworthy my notice."—Werter. "Which, in compliment to me, perhaps, you may, one day, think worthy your attention."—Bucke's Gram., p. 81. "To think this small present worthy an introduction to the young ladies of your very elegant establishment."— Ib., p. iv. "There are but a few miles portage."—Jefferson's Notes on Virginia, p. 17. "It is worthy notice, that our mountains are not solitary."—Ib., p. 26. "It is of about one hundred feet diameter."— Ib., 33. "Entering a hill a quarter or half a mile."—Ib., p. 47. "And herself seems passing to that awful dissolution, whose issue is not given human foresight to scan."—Ib., p. 100. "It was of a spheroidical form, of about forty feet diameter at the base, and had been of about twelve feet altitude."—Ib., p. 143. "Before this it was covered with trees of twelve inches diameter, and round the base was an excavation of five feet depth and width."—Ibid. "Then thou mayest eat grapes thy fill at thine own pleasure."—Deut., xxiii, 24. "Then he brought me back the way of the gate of the outward sanctuary."—Ezekiel, xliv, 1. "They will bless God that he has peopled one half the world with a race of freemen."—Webster's Essays, p. 94. "What use can these words be, till their meaning is known?"—Town's Analysis, p. 7. "The tents of the Arabs now are black, or a very dark colour."—The Friend, Vol. v, p. 265. "They may not be unworthy the attention of young men."—Kirkham's Elocution, p. 157. "The pronoun that is frequently applied to persons, as well as things."— Merchant's Gram., p. 87. "And who is in the same case that man is."—Sanborn's Gram., p. 148. "He saw a flaming stone, apparently about four feet diameter."—The Friend, vii, 409. "Pliny informs us, that this stone was the size of a cart."—Ibid. "Seneca was about twenty years of age in the fifth year of Tiberius, when the Jews were expelled Rome."—Seneca's Morals, p. 11. "I was prevented[438] reading a letter which would have undeceived me."—Hawkesworth, Adv., No. 54. "If the problem can be solved, we may be pardoned the inaccuracy of its demonstration."—Booth's Introd., p. 25. "The army must of necessity be the school, not of honour, but effeminacy."—Brown's Estimate, i. 65. "Afraid of the virtue of a nation, in its opposing bad measures."—Ib., i, 73. "The uniting them in various ways, so as to form words, would be easy."—Music of Nature, p. 34. "I might be excused taking any more notice of it."—Watson's Apology, p. 65. "Watch therefore; for ye know not what hour your Lord doth come."—Matt., xxiv, 42. "Here, not even infants were spared the sword."—M'Ilvaine's Lectures, p. 313. "To prevent men turning aside to corrupt modes of worship."—Calvin's Institutes, B. I, Ch. 12, Sec. 1. "God expelled them the Garden of Eden."—Burder's Hist., Vol. i, p. 10. "Nor could he refrain expressing to the senate the agonies of his mind"—Art of Thinking, p. 123. "Who now so strenuously opposes the granting him any new powers."—Duncan's Cicero, p. 127. "That the laws of the censors have banished him the forum."—Ib., p. 140. "We read not that he was degraded his office any other way."—Barclay's Works, iii, 149. "To all whom these presents shall come, Greeting."—Hutchinson's Mass., i, 459. "On the 1st, August, 1834."—British Act for the Abolition of Slavery.

"Whether you had not some time in your life Err'd in this point which now you censure him."—Shak.

UNDER NOTE IV.—OF NEEDLESS PREPOSITIONS.

"And the apostles and elders came together to consider of this matter."—Barclay's Works, i, 481. "And the apostles and elders came together for to consider of this matter."—Acts, xv, 6. "Adjectives in our Language have neither Case, Gender, nor Number; the only Variation they have is by Comparison."—Buchanan's Gram., p. 27. "'It is to you, that I am indebted for this privilege;' that is, 'to you am I indebted;' or, 'It is to you to whom I am indebted.'"—Sanborn's Gram., p. 232. "Books is a noun, of the third person, plural number, of neuter gender,"— Ingersoll's Gram., p. 15. "Brother's is a common substantive, of the masculine gender, the third person, the singular number, and in the possessive case."—Murray's Gram., i, 229. "Virtue's is a common substantive, of the third person, the singular number, and in the possessive case."—Ib., i, 228. "When the authorities on one side greatly preponderate, it is in vain to oppose the prevailing usage."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 173; Murray's Gram., i, 367. "A captain of a troop of banditti, had a mind to be plundering of Rome."—Collier's Antoninus, p. 51. "And, notwithstanding of its Verbal power, we have added the to and other signs of exertion."—Booth's Introd., p. 28. "Some of these situations are termed CASES, and are expressed by additions to the Noun instead of by separate words."—Ib., p. 33. "Is it such a fast that I have chosen, that a man should afflict his soul for a day, and to bow down his head like a bulrush?"—Bacon's Wisdom, p. 65. "And this first emotion comes at last to be awakened by the accidental, instead of, by the necessary antecedent."—Wayland's Moral Science, p. 17. "At about the same time, the subjugation of the Moors was completed."—Balbi's Geog., p. 269. "God divided between the light and between the darkness."— Burder's Hist., i, 1. "Notwithstanding of this, we are not against outward significations of honour."—Barclay's Works, i, 242. "Whether these words and practices of Job's friends, be for to be our rule."—Ib., i, 243. "Such verb cannot admit of an objective case after it."—Lowth's Gram., "For which God is now visibly punishing of these Nations."—Right of Tythes, "In this respect, Tasso yields to no poet, except to Homer."—Blair's Rhet., "Notwithstanding of the numerous panegyrics on the ancient English liberty."—HUME: Priestley's Gram., "Their efforts seemed to anticipate on the spirit, which became so general afterwards."—Id., ib., p. 167.

UNDER NOTE V.—THE PLACING OF THE WORDS.

"But how short are my expressions of its excellency!"—Baxter. "There is a remarkable union in his style, of harmony with ease."—Blair's Rhet., "It disposes in the most artificial manner, of the light and shade, for viewing every thing to the best advantage."—"Aristotle too holds an eminent rank among didactic writers for his brevity."—"In an introduction, correctness should be carefully studied in the expression."—"Precision is to be studied, above all things in laying down a method."—"Which shall make the impression on the mind of something that is one, whole and entire."—"At the same time, there are some defects which must be acknowledged in the Odyssey."—"Beauties, however, there are, in the concluding books, of the tragic kind."—"These forms of conversation by degrees multiplied and grew troublesome."—Spectator, No. 119. "When she has made her own choice, for form's sake, she sends a conge-d'-elire to her friends."—"Let us endeavour to establish to ourselves an interest in him who holds the reins of the whole creation in his hand."—"Let us endeavour to establish to ourselves an interest in him, who, in his hand, holds the reins of the whole creation."—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 53. "The most frequent measure next to this in English poetry is that of eight syllables."—Blair's Gram., "To introduce as great a variety as possible of cadences."—Jamieson's Rhet., "He addressed several exhortations to them suitable to their circumstances."—Murray's Key, ii, "Habits must be acquired of temperance and self-denial."—"In reducing the rules prescribed to practice."—Murray's Gram., "But these parts must be so closely bound together as to make the impression upon the mind, of one object, not of many."—Blair's Rhet., "Errors are sometimes committed by the most distinguished writer, with respect to the use of shall and will"—Butler's Pract. Gram.,



CHAPTER XI—INTERJECTIONS.

Interjections, being seldom any thing more than natural sounds or short words uttered independently, can hardly be said to have any syntax; but since some rule is necessary to show the learner how to dispose of them in parsing, a brief axiom for that purpose, is here added, which completes our series of rules: and, after several remarks on this canon, and on the common treatment of Interjections, this chapter is made to embrace Exercises upon all the other parts of speech, that the chapters in the Key may correspond to those of the Grammar.

RULE XXIV.—INTERJECTIONS.

Interjections have no dependent construction; they are put absolute, either alone, or with other words: as, "O! let not thy heart despise me."—Dr. Johnson. "O cruel thou!"—Pope, Odys., B. xii, l. 333. "Ah wretched we, poets of earth!"—Cowley,

"Ah Dennis! Gildon ah! what ill-starr'd rage Divides a friendship long confirm'd by age?" Pope, Dunciad, B. iii,

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XXIV.

OBS. 1.—To this rule, there are properly no exceptions. Though interjections are sometimes uttered in close connexion with other words, yet, being mere signs of passion or of feeling, they seem not to have any strict grammatical relation, or dependence according to the sense. Being destitute alike of relation, agreement, and government, they must be used independently, if used at all. Yet an emotion signified in this manner, not being causeless, may be accompanied by some object, expressed either by a nominative absolute, or by an adjective after for: as, "Alas! poor Yorick!"—Shak. Here the grief denoted by alas, is certainly for Yorick; as much so, as if the expression were, "Alas for poor Yorick!" But, in either case, alas, I think, has no dependent construction; neither has Yorick, in the former, unless we suppose an ellipsis of some governing word.

OBS. 2.—The interjection O is common to many languages, and is frequently uttered, in token of earnestness, before nouns or pronouns put absolute by direct address; as, "Arise, O Lord; O God, lift up thine hand."—Psalms, x, 12. "O ye of little faith!"—Matt., vi, 30. The Latin and Greek grammarians, therefore, made this interjection the sign of the vocative case; which case is the same as the nominative put absolute by address in English. But this particle is no positive index of the vocative; because an independent address may be made without that sign, and the O may be used where there is no address: as, "O scandalous want! O shameful omission!"—"Pray, Sir, don't be uneasy."—Burgh's Speaker, p. 86.

OBS. 3.—Some grammarians ascribe to two or three of our interjections the power of governing sometimes the nominative case, and sometimes the objective. First, NIXON; in an exercise entitled, "NOMINATIVE GOVERNED BY AN INTERJECTION," thus: "The interjections O! Oh! and Ah! require after them the nominative case of a substantive in the second person; as, 'O thou persecutor!'—'O Alexander! thou hast slain thy friend.' O is an interjection, governing the nominative case Alexander."—English Parser, Again, under the title, "OBJECTIVE CASE GOVERNED BY AN INTERJECTION," he says: "The interjections O! Oh! and Ah! require after them the objective case of a substantive in the first or third person; as, 'Oh me!' 'Oh the humiliations!' Oh is an interjection, governing the objective case humiliations."—These two rules are in fact contradictory, while each of them absurdly suggests that O, oh, and ah, are used only with nouns. So J. M. PUTNAM: "Interjections sometimes govern an objective case; as, Ah me! O the tender ties! O the soft enmity! O me miserable! O wretched prince! O cruel reverse of fortune! When an address is made, the interjection does not perform the office of government."—Putnam's Gram., So KIRKHAM; who, under a rule quite different from these, extends the doctrine of government to all interjections: "According to the genius of the English language, transitive verbs and prepositions require the objective case of a noun or pronoun after them; and this requisition is all that is meant by government, when we say that these parts of speech govern the objective case. THE SAME PRINCIPLE APPLIES TO THE INTERJECTION. 'Interjections require the objective case of a pronoun of the first person after them; but the nominative of a noun or pronoun of the second or third person; as, Ah me! Oh thou! O my country!' To say, then, that interjections require particular cases after them, is synonymous with saying, that they govern those cases; and this office of the interjection is in perfect accordance with that which it performs in the Latin, and many other languages."—Kirkham's Gram., According to this, every interjection has as much need of an object after it, as has a transitive verb or a preposition! The rule has, certainly, no "accordance" with what occurs in Latin, or in any other language; it is wholly a fabrication, though found, in some shape or other, in well-nigh all English grammars.

OBS. 4.—L. MURRAY'S doctrine on this point is thus expressed: "The interjections O! Oh! and Ah! require the objective case of a pronoun in the first person after them, as, 'O me! oh me! Ah me!' But the nominative case in the second person: as, 'O thou persecutor!' 'Oh ye hypocrites!' 'O thou, who dwellest,' &c."—Octavo Gram., INGERSOLL copies this most faulty note literally, adding these words to its abrupt end,—i. e., to its inexplicable "&c." used by Murray; "because the first person is governed by a preposition understood: as, 'Ah for me!' or, 'O what will become of me!' &c., and the second person is in the nominative independent, there being a direct address."—Conversations on E. Gram., So we see that this grammarian and Kirkham, both modifiers of Murray, understand their master's false verb "require" very differently. LENNIE too, in renouncing a part of Murray's double or threefold error, "Oh! happy us!" for, "O happy we!" teaches thus: "Interjections sometimes require the objective case after them, but they never govern it. In the first edition of this grammar," says he, "I followed Mr. Murray and others, in leaving we, in the exercises to be turned into us; but that it should be we, and not us, is obvious; because it is the nominative to are understood; thus, Oh happy are we, or, Oh we are happy, (being) surrounded with so many blessings."—Lennie's Gram., Fifth Edition, Twelfth, Here is an other solution of the construction of this pronoun of the first person, contradictory alike to Ingersoll's, to Kirkham's, and to Murray's; while all are wrong, and this among the rest. The word should indeed be we, and not us; because we have both analogy and good authority for the former case, and nothing but the false conceit of sundry grammatists for the latter. But it is a nominative absolute, like any other nominative which we use in the same exclamatory manner. For the first person may just as well be put in the nominative absolute, by exclamation, as any other; as, "Behold I and the children whom God hath given me!"—Heb., "Ecce ego et pueri quos mihi dedit Deus!"—Beza. "O brave we!"—Dr. Johnson, often. So Horace: "O ego laevus," &c.—Ep. ad Pi., 301.

"Ah! luckless I! who purge in spring my spleen— Else sure the first of bards had Horace been." —Francis's Hor., ii, 209.

OBS. 5.—Whether Murray's remark above, on "O! Oh! and Ah!" was originally designed for a rule of government or not, it is hardly worth any one's while to inquire. It is too lame and inaccurate every way, to deserve any notice, but that which should serve to explode it forever. Yet no few, who have since made English grammars, have copied the text literally; as they have, for the public benefit, stolen a thousand other errors from the same quarter. The reader will find it, with little or no change, in Smith's New Grammar, p. 96 and 134; Alger's, 56; Allen's, 117; Russell's, 92; Blair's, 100, Guy's, 89; Abel Flint's, 59; A Teacher's, 43, Picket's, 210; Cooper's[439] Murray, 136; Wilcox's, 95; Bucke's, 87; Emmons's, 77; and probably in others. Lennie varies it indefinitely, thus: "RULE. The interjections Oh! and Ah! &c. generally require the objective case of the first personal pronoun, and the nominative of the second; as, Ah me! O thou fool! O ye hypocrites!"—Lennie's Gram., p. 110; Brace's, 88. M'Culloch, after Crombie, thus: "RULE XX. Interjections are joined with the objective case of the pronoun of the first person, and with the nominative of the pronoun of the second; as, Ah me! O ye hypocrites."—Manual of E. Gram., p. 145; and Crombie's Treatise, p. 315; also Fowler's E. Language, p. 563. Hiley makes it a note, thus: "The interjections. O! Oh! Ah! are followed by the objective case of a pronoun of the first person; as, 'Oh me!' 'Ah me!' but by the nominative case of the pronoun in the second person; as, 'O thou who dwellest.' "—Hiley's Gram., p. 82. This is what the same author elsewhere calls "THE GOVERNMENT OF INTERJECTIONS;" though, like some others, he had set it in the "Syntax of PRONOUNS." See Ib., p. 108. Murray, in forming his own little "Abridgment," omitted it altogether. In his other grammars, it is still a mere note, standing where he at first absurdly put it, under his rule for the agreement of pronouns with their antecedents. By many of his sage amenders, it has been placed in the catalogue of principal rules. But, that it is no adequate rule for interjections, is manifest; for, in its usual form, it is limited to three, and none of these can ever, with any propriety, be parsed by it. Murray himself has not used it in any of his forms of parsing. He conceived, (as I hinted before in Chapter 1st,) that, "The syntax of the Interjection is of so very limited a nature, that it does not require a distinct, appropriate rule."—Octavo Gram., i. 224.