OBS. 5.—The participle in ed, as is mentioned above, usually denotes a completion of the being, action, or passion, and should therefore be denominated the PERFECT participle. But this completion may be spoken of as present, past, or future; for the participle itself has no tenses, and makes no distinction of time, nor should the name be supposed to refer to the perfect tense. The conjugation of any passive verb, is a sufficient proof of all this: nor is the proof invalidated by resolving verbs of this kind into their component parts. Of the participles in ed applied to present time, the following is an example: "Such a course would be less likely to produce injury to health, than the present course pursued at our colleges."—Literary Convention, p. 118. Tooke's notion of grammatical time, appears to have been in several respects a strange one: he accords with those who call this a past participle, and denies to the other not only the name and notion of a tense, but even the general idea of time. In speaking of the old participial termination and or ende,[304] which our Anglo-Saxon ancestors used where we write ing, he says, "I do not allow that there are any present participles, or any present tense of the verb." [305]—Diversions of Purley, Vol. ii, p. 41.

OBS. 6.—The Perfect participle of transitive verbs, being used in the formation of passive verbs, is sometimes called the Passive participle. It usually has in itself a passive signification, except when it is used in forming the compound tenses of the active verb. Hence the difference between the sentences, "I have written a letter," and, "I have a letter written;" the former being equivalent to Scripsi literas, and the latter to Sunt mihi literae scriptae. But there are many perfect participles which cannot with any propriety be called passive. Such are all those which come from intransitive or neuter verbs; and also those which so often occur in the tenses of verbs not passive. I have already noticed some instances of this misnomer; and it is better to preclude it altogether, by adhering to the true name of this Participle, THE PERFECT. Nor is that entirely true which some assert, "that this participle in the active is only found in combination;" that, "Whenever it stands alone to be parsed as a participle, it is passive."—Hart's English Gram., p. 75. See also Bullions's Analyt. and Pract. Gram., p. 77; and Greene's Analysis, or Gram., p. 225. "Rebelled," in the following examples, cannot with any propriety be called a passive participle:

"Rebelled, did I not send them terms of peace, Which not my justice, but my mercy asked?"—Pollok, x, 253.

"Arm'd with thy might, rid Heav'n of these rebell'd, To their prepar'd ill mansion driven down."—Milton, vi, 737.

OBS. 7.—The third participle has most generally been called the Compound, or the Compound perfect. The latter of these terms seems to be rather objectionable on account of its length; and against the former it may be urged that, in the compound forms of conjugation, the first or imperfect participle is a compound: as, being writing, being seen. Dr. Adam calls having loved the perfect participle active, which he says must be rendered in Latin by the pluperfect of the subjunctive; as, he having loved, quum amavisset; (Lat. and Eng. Gram., p. 140;) but it is manifest that the perfect participle of the verb to love, whether active or passive, is the simple word loved, and not this compound. Dr. Adam, in fact, if he denies this, only contradicts himself; for, in his paradigms of the English Active Voice, he gives the participles as two only, and both simple, thus: "Present, Loving; Perfect, Loved:"—"Present, Having; Perfect, Had." So of the Neuter Verb: "Present, Being; Perfect, Been."—Ib., pp. 81 and 82. His scheme of either names or forms is no model of accuracy. On the very next page, unless there is a misprint in several editions, he calls the Second participle the "imperfect;" saying, "The whole of the passive voice in English is formed by the auxiliary verb to be, and the participle imperfect; as, I am loved, I was loved, &c." Further: "In many verbs," he adds, "the present participle also is used in a passive sense; as, These things are doing, were doing, &c.; The house is building, was building, &c."—Ib., p. 83. N. Butler, in his Practical Grammar, of 1845, names, and counts, and orders, the participles very oddly: "Every verb," he says, "has two participles—the imperfect and the perfect."—P. 78. Yet, for the verb love, he finds these six: two "IMPERFECT, Loving and Being loved;" two "PERFECT, Having loved, and Having been loved;" one "AUXILIARY PERFECT, Loved," of the "Active Voice;" and one "PASSIVE, Loved," of the "Passive Voice." Many old writers erroneously represent the participle in ing as always active, and the participle in ed or en as always passive; and some, among whom is Buchanan, making no distinction between the simple perfect loved and the compound having loved, place the latter with the former, and call it passive also. The absurdity of this is manifest: for having loved or having seen is active; having been or having sat is neuter; and having been loved or having been seen is passive. Again, the triple compound, having been writing, is active; and having been sitting is neuter; but if one speak of goods as having been selling low, a similar compound is passive.

OBS. 8.—Now all the compound participles which begin with having are essentially alike; and, as a class of terms, they ought to have a name adapted to their nature, and expressive of their leading characteristic. Having loved differs from the simple participle loved, in signification as well as in form; and, if this participle is to be named with reference to its meaning, there is no more suitable term for it than the epithet PREPERFECT,—a word which explains itself, like prepaid or prerequisite. Of the many other names, the most correct one is PLUPERFECT,—which is a term of very nearly the same meaning. Not because this compound is really of the pluperfect tense, but because it always denotes being, action, or passion, that is, or was, or will be, completed before the doing or being of something else; and, of course, when the latter thing is represented as past, the participle must correspond to the pluperfect tense of its verb; as, "Having explained her views, it was necessary she should expatiate on the vanity and futility of the enjoyments promised by Pleasure."—Jamieson's Rhet., p. 181. Here having explained is exactly equivalent to when she had explained. Again: "I may say, He had commanded, and we obeyed; or, He having commanded, we obeyed."—Fetch's Comprehensive Gram., p. ix. Here the two phrases in Italics correspond in import, though not in construction.

OBS. 9.—Pluperfect is a derivative contracted from the Latin plusquam-perfectum, and literally signifies more than complete, or beyond the perfect; i. e., (as confirmed by use,) antecedently finished, or completed before. It is the usual name of our fourth tense; is likewise applicable to a corresponding tense in other tongues; and is a word familiar to every scholar. Yet several grammarians,—too ready, perhaps, for innovation,—have shown their willingness to discard it altogether. Bullions, Butler, Hiley, Perley, Wells, and some others, call the English pluperfect tense, the past-perfect, and understand either epithet to mean—"completed at or before a certain past time;" (Bullions's E. Gram., p. 39;) that is—"finished or past, at some past time."—Butler's Pract. Gram., p. 72. The relation of the tense is before the past, but the epithet pluperfect is not necessarily limited to this relation, any more than what is perfect is necessarily past. Butler has urged, that, "Pluperfect does not mean completed before," but is only "a technical name of a particular tense;" and, arguing from this erroneous assumption, has convinced himself, "It would be as correct to call this the second future participle, as the pluperfect."—Ib., p. 79. The technical name, as limited to the past, is preterpluperfect, from the older term praeteritum plusquam perfectum; so preterperfect, from praeteritum perfectum, i. e. past perfect, is the name of an other tense, now called the perfect: wherefore the substitution of past-perfect for pluperfect is the less to be commended. There may be a convenience in having the name of the tense to differ from that of the participle, and this alone induces me to prefer preperfect to pluperfect for the name of the latter.

OBS. 10.—From the participle in ed or en, we form three tenses, which the above-named authors call perfect;—"the present-perfect, the past-perfect, and the future-perfect;"—as, have seen, had seen, will have seen. Now it is, doubtless, the participle, that gives to these their perfectness; while diversity in the auxiliaries makes their difference of time. Yet it is assumed by Butler, that, in general, the simple participle in ed or en, "does not denote an action done and completed," and is not to be called perfect; (p. 80;)—that, "If we wish to express by a participle, an action completed at any time, we use the compound form, and this is THE perfect participle;" (p. 79;)—that, "The characteristic of the participle in ed is, that it implies the reception of an action;" (p. 79;)—that, hence, it should be called the passive, though it "is usually called the perfect participle;" (p. 79;)—that, "The use of this participle in the perfect tenses of the active voice should not be taken into consideration in giving it a name or a definition;" (p. 80;)—that its active, neuter, or intransitive use is not a primitive idiom of the language, but the result of a gradual change of the term from the passive to the active voice; (p. 80;)—that, "the participle has changed its mode of signification, so that, instead of being passive, it is now active in sense;" (p. 105;)—that, "having changed its original meaning so entirely, it should not be considered the same participle;" (p. 78;)—that, "in such cases, it is a perfect participle," and, "for the sake of distinction [,] this may be called the auxiliary perfect participle."—Ib. These speculations I briefly throw before the reader, without designing much comment upon them. It will be perceived that they are, in several respects, contradictory one to an other. The author himself names the participle in reference to a usage which he says, "should not be taken into consideration;" and names it absurdly too; for he calls that "the auxiliary," which is manifestly the principal term. He also identifies as one what he professes to distinguish as two.

OBS. 11.—Participles often become adjectives, and are construed before nouns to denote quality. The terms so converted form the class of participial adjectives. Words of a participial form may be regarded as adjectives, under the following circumstances: 1. When they reject the idea of time, and denote something customary or habitual, rather than a transient act or state; as, "A lying rogue,"—i.e., one that is addicted to lying. 2. When they admit adverbs of comparison; as, "A more learned man." 3. When they are compounded with something that does not belong to the verb; as, "unfeeling, unfelt:" there is no verb to unfeel, therefore these words cannot be participles. Adjectives are generally placed before their nouns; participles, after them. The words beginning with un, in the following lines may be classed with participial adjectives:

"No king, no subject was; unscutcheoned all; Uncrowned, unplumed, unhelmed, unpedigreed; Unlaced, uncoroneted, unbestarred." —Pollok, C. of T., B. viii, l. 89.

OBS. 12.—Participles in ing often become nouns. When preceded by an article, an adjective or a noun or pronoun of the possessive case, they are construed as nouns; and, if wholly such, have neither adverbs nor active regimen: as, "He laugheth at the shaking of a spear."—Job, xli, 29. "There is no searching of his understanding."—Isaiah, xl, 28. "In their setting of their threshold by ray threshold."—Ezekiel, xliii, 8. "That any man should make my glorying void."—1 Cor., ix, 15. The terms so converted form the class of verbal or participial nouns. But some late authors—(J. S. Hart, S. S. Greene, W. H. Wells, and others—) have given the name of participial nouns to many participles,—such participles, often, as retain all their verbal properties and adjuncts, and merely partake of some syntactical resemblance to nouns. Now, since the chief characteristics of such words are from the verb, and are incompatible with the specific nature of a noun, it is clearly improper to call them nouns. There are, in the popular use of participles, certain mixed constructions which are reprehensible; yet it is the peculiar nature of a participle, to participate the properties of other parts of speech,—of the verb and adjective,—of the verb and noun,—or sometimes, perhaps, of all three. A participle immediately preceded by a preposition, is not converted into a noun, but remains a participle, and therefore retains its adverb, and also its government of the objective case; as, "I thank you for helping him so seasonably." Participles in this construction correspond with the Latin gerund, and are sometimes called gerundives.

OBS. 13.—To distinguish the participle from the participial noun, the learner should observe the following four things: 1. Nouns take articles and adjectives before them; participles, as such, do not. 2. Nouns may govern the possessive case before them, but not the objective after them; participles may govern the objective case, but not so properly the possessive. 3. Nouns, if they have adverbs, require the hyphen; participles take adverbs separately, as do their verbs. 4. Participial nouns express actions as things, and are sometimes declined like other nouns; participles usually refer actions to their agents or recipients, and have in English no grammatical modifications of any kind.

OBS. 14.—To distinguish the perfect participle from the preterit of the same form, observe the sense, and see which of the auxiliary forms will express it: thus, loved for being loved, is a participle; but loved for did love, is a preterit verb. So held for did hold, stung for did sting, taught for did teach, and the like, are irregular verbs; but held for being held, stung for being stung, taught for being taught, and the like, are perfect participles.

OBS. 15.—Though the English participles have no inflections, and are consequently incapable of any grammatical agreement or disagreement, those which are simple, are sometimes elegantly taken in a plural sense, with the apparent construction of nouns; but, under these circumstances, they are in reality neither nouns nor participles, but participial adjectives construed elliptically, as other adjectives often are, and relating to plural nouns understood. The ellipsis is sometimes of a singular noun, though very rarely, and much less properly. Examples: "To them who are the called according to his purpose."—Rom., x, 28. That is—"the called ones or persons." "God is not the God of the dead, but of the living."—Matt., xxii, 32. "Neither is it found in the land of the living."—Job, xxviii, 13. "The living, the living, he shall praise thee, as I do this day."—Isaiah, xxxviii, 19. "Till we are made fit to live and reign with him and all his redeemed, in the heavenly glory forever."—Jenks's Prayers, p. 18.

"Ye blessed of my Father, come, ye just, Enter the joy eternal of your Lord."—Pollok, B. x, l. 591.

"Depart from me, ye cursed, into the fire Prepared eternal in the gulf of Hell."—Id., B. x, l. 449.

EXAMPLES FOR PARSING.

PRAXIS VII.—ETYMOLOGICAL.

In the Seventh Praxis it is required of the pupil—to distinguish and define the different parts of speech, and the classes and modifications of the ARTICLES, NOUNS, ADJECTIVES, PRONOUNS, VERBS, and PARTICIPLES.

The definitions to be given in the Seventh Praxis, are two for an article, six for a noun, three for an adjective, six for a pronoun, seven for a verb finite, five for an infinitive, two for a participle,—and one for an adverb, a conjunction, a preposition, or an interjection. Thus:—

EXAMPLE PARSED.

"Religion, rightly understood and practised, has the purest of all joys attending it."

Religion is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned. 2. A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class, of beings or things. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the subject of a finite verb.

Rightly is an adverb. 1. An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb; and generally expresses time, place, degree, or manner.

Understood is a perfect participle, from the irregular active-transitive verb, understand, understood, understanding, understood. 1. A participle is a word derived from a verb, participating the properties of a verb, and of an adjective or a noun; and is generally formed by adding ing, d, or ed, to the verb. 2. The perfect participle is that which ends commonly in ed or en, and implies a completion of the being, action, or passion.

And is a conjunction. 1. A conjunction, is a word used to connect words or sentences in construction, and to show the dependence of the terms so connected.

Practised is a perfect participle, from the regular active-transitive verb, practise, practised, practising, practised. 1. A participle is a word derived from a verb, participating the properties of a verb, and of an adjective or a noun; and is generally formed by adding ing, d, or ed, to the verb. 2. The perfect participle is that which ends commonly in ed or en, and implies a completion of the being, action, or passion.

Has is an irregular active-transitive verb, from have, had, having, had; found in the indicative mood, present tense, third person, and singular number. 1. A verb is a word that signifies to be, to act, or to be acted upon. 2. An irregular verb is a verb that does not form the preterit and the perfect participle by assuming d or ed. 3. An active-transitive verb is a verb that expresses an action which has some person or thing for its object. 4. The indicative mood is that form of the verb, which simply indicates or declares a thing, or asks a question. 5. The present tense is that which expresses what now exists, or is taking place. 6. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 7. The singular number is that which denotes but one.

The is the definite article. 1. An article is the word the, an, or a, which we put before nouns to limit their signification. 2. The definite article is the, which denotes some particular thing or things.

Purest is a common adjective, of the superlative degree; compared regularly, pure, purer, purest. 1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality. 2. A common adjective is any ordinary epithet, or adjective denoting quality or situation. 3. The superlative degree is that which is most or least of all included with it.

Of is a preposition. 1. A preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other, and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun.

All is a pronominal adjective, not compared. 1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality. 2. A pronominal adjective is a definitive word which may either accompany its noun or represent it understood. 3. Those adjectives whose signification does not admit of different degrees, cannot be compared.

Joys is a common noun, of the third person, plural number, neuter gender, and objective case. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned. 2. A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class, of beings or things. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The plural number is that which denotes more than one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the object of a verb, participle, or preposition.

Attending is an imperfect participle, from the regular active-transitive verb, attend, attended, attending, attended. 1. A participle is a word derived from a verb, participating the properties of a verb, and of an adjective or a noun; and is generally formed by adding ing, d, or ed, to the verb. 2. The imperfect participle is that which ends commonly in ing, and implies a continuance of the being, action, or passion.

It is a personal pronoun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case. 1. A pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun. 2. A personal pronoun is a pronoun that shows, by its form, of what person it is. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the object of a verb, participle, or preposition.

LESSON I.—PARSING.

"A Verb is a word whereby something or other is represented as existing, possessing, acting, or being acted upon, at some particular time, past, present, or future; and this in various manners."—White, on the English Verb, p. 1.

"Error is a savage, lurking about on the twilight borders of the circle illuminated by truth, ready to rush in and take possession, the moment her lamp grows dim."—Beecher.

"The science of criticism may be considered as a middle link, connecting the different parts of education into a regular chain."—Ld. Kames, El. of Crit., p. xxii.

"When I see a man walking, a tree growing, or cattle grazing, I cannot doubt but that these objects are really what they appear to be. Nature determines us to rely on the veracity of our senses; for otherwise they could not in any degree answer their end, that of laying open things existing and passing around us."—Id., ib., i, 85.

"But, advancing farther in life, and inured by degrees to the crooked ways of men; pressing through the crowd, and the bustle of the world; obliged to contend with this man's craft, and that man's scorn; accustomed, sometimes, to conceal their sentiments, and often to stifle their feelings; they become at last hardened in heart, and familiar with corruption."—BLAIR: Murray's Sequel, p. 140.

"Laugh'd at, he laughs again; and stricken hard, Turns to his stroke his adamantine scales, That fear no discipline of human hands."—Cowper's Task, p. 47.

LESSON II.—PARSING.

"Thus shame and remorse united in the ungrateful person, and indignation united with hatred in the hearts of others, are the punishments provided by nature for injustice."—Kames, El. of Crit., Vol. i, p. 288.

"Viewing man as under the influence of novelty, would one suspect that custom also should influence him?—Human nature, diversified with many and various springs of action, is wonderfully, and, indulging the expression, intricately constructed."—Id., ib., i, 325.

"Dryden frequently introduces three or four persons speaking upon the same subject, each throwing out his own notions separately, without regarding what is said by the rest."—Id., ib., ii, 294.

"Nothing is more studied in Chinese gardens, than to raise wonder and surprise. Sometimes one is led insensibly into a dark cavern, terminating unexpectedly in a landscape enriched with all that nature affords the most delicious."—Id., ib., ii, 334.

"The answer to the objection here implied, is obvious, even on the supposition of the questions put being answered in the affirmative."—Prof. Vethake.

"As birds flying, so will the Lord of hosts defend Jerusalem; defending also, he will deliver it; and, passing over, he will preserve it."—Isaiah, xxxi, 5.

"Here, by the bonds of nature feebly held, Minds combat minds, repelling and repell'd."—Goldsmith.

"Suffolk first died, and York, all haggled over, Comes to him where in gore he lay insteeped."—Shakspeare.

LESSON III.—PARSING.

"Every change in the state of things is considered as an effect, indicating the agency, characterizing the kind, and measuring the degree, of its cause."—Dr. Murray, Hist. of En. L., i, 179.

"Having loved his own who were in the world, he loved them unto the end. And supper being ended, (the devil having now put it into the heart of Judas Iscariot, Simon's son, to betray him,) Jesus, knowing that the Father had given all things into his hand, and that he had come from God and was going to God, arose from supper, and laid aside his coat, and, taking a towel, girded himself: then he poured some water into a basin, and began to wash the disciples' feet, and to wipe them with the towel with which he was girded."—See John, xiii.

"Spiritual desertion is naturally and judicially incurred by sin. It is the withdrawal of that divine unction which enriches the acquiescent soul with moral power and pleasure. The subtraction leaves the mind enervated, obscured, confused, degraded, and distracted."—HOMO: N. Y. Observer.

"Giving no offence in any thing, but in all things approving ourselves as the ministers of God: as unknown, and yet well known; as dying, and, behold, we live; as chastened, and not killed; as sorrowful, yet always rejoicing; as poor, yet making many rich; as having nothing, and yet possessing all things."—2 Cor., vi.

"O may th' indulgence of a father's love, Pour'd forth on me, be doubled from above."—Young.

IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.

ERRORS OF PARTICIPLES.

[Fist] [As the principles upon which our participles ought to be formed, were necessarily anticipated in the preceding chapter on verbs, the reader must recur to that chapter for the doctrines by which the following errors are to be corrected. The great length of that chapter seemed a good reason for separating these examples from it, and it was also thought, that such words as are erroneously written for participles, should, for the sake of order, be chiefly noticed in this place. In many of these examples, however, the participle is not really a separate part of speech, but is in fact taken with an auxiliary to form some compound tense of its verb.]

LESSON I.—IRREGULARS.

"Many of your readers have mistook that passage."—Steele, Spect., No. 544.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the preterit verb mistook is here used for the perfect participle. But, according to the table of irregular verbs, we ought to say, mistake, mistook, mistaking, mistaken; after the form of the simple verb, take, took, taking, taken. Therefore, the sentence should be amended thus: "Many of your readers have mistaken that passage."]

"Had not my dog of a steward ran away."—Addison, Spect. "None should be admitted, except he had broke his collar-bone thrice."—Spect., No. 474. "We could not know what was wrote at twenty."—Pref. to Waller. "I have wrote, thou hast wrote, he has wrote; we have wrote, ye have wrote, they have wrote."—Ash's Gram., p. 62. "As if God had spoke his last words there to his people."—Barclay's Works, i, 462. "I had like to have came in that ship myself."—N. Y. Observer, No. 453. "Our ships and vessels being drove out of the harbour by a storm."—Hutchinson's Hist. of Mass., i, 470. "He will endeavour to write as the ancient author would have wrote, had he writ in the same language."—Bolingbroke, on Hist., i, 68. "When his doctrines grew too strong to be shook by his enemies."—Atterbury. "The immortal mind that hath forsook Her mansion."—Milton. "Grease that's sweaten from the murderer's gibbet, throw into the flame."—Shak., Macbeth. "The court also was chided for allowing such questions to be put."—Col. Stone, on Freemasonry, p. 470. "He would have spoke."— Milton, P. L., B. x, 1. 517. "Words interwove with sighs found out their way."—Id., ib., i, 621. "Those kings and potentates who have strove."—Id., Eiconoclast, xvii. "That even Silence was took."—Id., Comus, l. 557. "And envious Darkness, ere they could return, had stole them from me."—Id., Comus, 1. 195. "I have chose this perfect man."—Id., P. R., B. i, l. 165. "I will scarce think you have swam in a gondola."—Shak., As You Like It. "The fragrant brier was wove between."—Dryden, Fables. "Then finish what you have began."—Id., Poems, ii, 172. "But now the years a numerous train have ran."—Pope's Odyssey, B. xi, l. 555. "Repeats your verses wrote on glasses."—Prior. "Who by turns have rose."—Id. "Which from great authors I have took."—Id., Alma. "Ev'n there he should have fell."—Id., Solomon.

"The sun has rose, and gone to bed, Just as if Partridge were not dead."—Swift.

"And though no marriage words are spoke, They part not till the ring is broke."—Id., Riddles.

LESSON II.—REGULARS.

"When the word is stript of all the terminations."—Dr. Murray's Hist. of En. L., i, 319.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the participle stript is terminated in t. But, according to Observation 2d, on the irregular verbs, stript is regular. Therefore, this t should be changed to ed; and the final p should be doubled, according to Rule 3d for Spelling: thus, "When the word is stripped of all the terminations."]

"Forgive him, Tom; his head is crackt."—Swift's Poems, p. 397. "For 'tis the sport, to have the engineer hoist with his own petar."—Hamlet, Act 3. "As great as they are, I was nurst by their mother."—Swift's Poems, p. 310. "If he should now be cry'd down since his change."—Ib., p. 306. "Dipt over head and ears—in debt."—Ib., p. 312. "We see the nation's credit crackt."—Ib., p. 312. "Because they find their pockets pickt."—Ib., p. 338. "O what a pleasure mixt with pain!"—Ib., p. 373. "And only with her Brother linkt."—Ib., p. 387. "Because he ne'er a thought allow'd, That might not be confest."—Ib., p. 361. "My love to Sheelah is more firmly fixt."—Ib., p. 369. "The observations annext to them will be intelligible."—Philological Museum, Vol. i, p. 457. "Those eyes are always fixt on the general principles."—Ib., i, 458. "Laborious conjectures will be banisht from our commentaries."—Ib., i, 459. "Tiridates was dethroned, and Phraates was reestablisht in his stead."—Ib., i, 462. "A Roman who was attacht to Augustus."—Ib., i, 466. "Nor should I have spoken of it, unless Baxter had talkt about two such."—Ib., i, 467. "And the reformers of language have generally rusht on."—Ib., i, 649. "Three centuries and a half had then elapst since the date."—Ib., i, 249. "Of such criteria, as has been remarkt already, there is an abundance."—Ib., i, 261. "The English have surpast every other nation in their services."—Ib., i, 306. "The party addrest is next in dignity to the speaker."—Harris's Hermes, p. 66. "To which we are many times helpt."—Walker's Particles, p. 13. "But for him, I should have lookt well enough to myself."—Ib., p. 88. "Why are you vext, Lady? why do frown?"—Milton, Comus, l. 667. "Obtruding false rules prankt in reason's garb."—Ib., l. 759. "But, like David equipt in Saul's armour, it is encumbered and oppressed."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 378.

"And when their merchants are blown up, and crackt, Whole towns are cast away in storms, and wreckt." —Butler, p. 163.

LESSON III.—MIXED.

"The lands are holden in free and common soccage." —Trumbull's Hist, i, 133.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the participle holden is not in that form which present usage authorizes. But, according to the table of irregular verbs, the four parts of the verb to hold, as now used, are hold, held, holding, held. Therefore, holden should be held; thus, "The lands are held in free and common soccage."]

"A stroke is drawed under such words."—Cobbett's E. Grammar, Edition of 1832, 154. "It is striked even, with a strickle."—Walkers Particles, p. 115. "Whilst I was wandring, without any care, beyond my bounds."—Ib., p. 83. "When one would do something, unless hindred by something present."—Johnson's Gram. Com., p. 311. "It is used potentially, but not so as to be rendred by these signs."—Ib., p. 320. "Now who would dote upon things hurryed down the stream thus fast?"—Collier's Antoninus, p. 89. "Heaven hath timely try'd their growth."—Milton, Comus, l. 970. "O! ye mistook, ye should have snatcht his wand."—Ib., p. 815. "Of true virgin here distrest."—Ib., p. 905. "So that they have at last come to be substitute in the stead of it."—Barclay's Works, i, 339. "Though ye have lien among the pots."—Psal., lxviii, 13. "And, lo, in her mouth was an olive-leaf pluckt off."—FRIENDS' BIBLE, and BRUCE'S: Gen., viii, 11. "Brutus and Cassius Are rid like madmen, through the gates of Rome."—Shak. "He shall be spitted on."—Luke, xviii, 32. "And are not the countries so overflown still situate between the tropics?"—Bentley's Sermons. "Not trickt and frounc't as she was wont, But kercheft in a comely cloud."—Milton, Il Penseroso, l. 123. "To satisfy his rigor, Satisfy'd never."—Id., P. L., B. x, l. 804. "With him there crucify'd."—Id., P. L., B. xii, l. 417. "Th' earth cumber'd, and the wing'd air darkt with plumes."—Id., Comus, l. 730. "And now their way to Earth they had descry'd."—Id., P. L., B. x, l. 325. "Not so thick swarm'd once the soil Bedropt with blood of Gorgon."—Ib., B. x, l. 527. "And in a troubled sea of passion tost."—Ib., B. x, l. 718. "The cause, alas, is quickly guest."—Swift's Poems, p. 404. "The kettle to the top was hoist"—Ib., p. 274. "In chains thy syllables are linkt."—Ib., p. 318. "Rather than thus be overtopt, Would you not wish their laurels cropt?"—Ib., p. 415. "The hyphen, or conjoiner, is a little line, drawed to connect words, or parts of words."—Cobbett's E. Gram., 1832, 150. "In the other manners of dependence, this general rule is sometimes broke."—Joh. Gram. Com., p. 334. "Some intransitive verbs may be rendered transitive by means of a preposition prefixt to them."—Grant's Lat. Gram., p. 66. "Whoever now should place the accent on the first syllable of Valerius, would set every body a-laughing."—Walker's Dict. "Being mocked, scourged, spitted on, and crucified."—Gurney's Essays, p. 40.

"For rhyme in Greece or Rome was never known, Till by barbarian deluges o'erflown."—Roscommon.

"In my own Thames may I be drownded, If e'er I stoop beneath a crown'd-head."—Swift.



CHAPTER VIII.—ADVERBS.

An Adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb; and generally expresses time, place, degree, or manner: as, They are now here, studying very diligently.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—Adverbs briefly express what would otherwise require several words: as Now, for at this time;—Here, for in this place;—Very, for in a high degree;—Diligently, for in an industrious manner. Thus the meaning of almost any adverb, may be explained by some phrase beginning with a preposition and ending with a noun.

OBS. 2.—There are several customary combinations of short words, which are used adverbially, and which some grammarians do not analyze in parsing; as, not at all, at length, in fine, in full, at least, at present, at once, this once, in vain, no doubt, on board. But all words that convey distinct ideas, and rightly retain their individuality, ought to be taken separately in parsing. With the liberty of supposing a few ellipses, an ingenious parser will seldom find occasion to speak of "adverbial phrases." In these instances, length, doubt, fine, and board, are unquestionably nouns; once, too, is used as a noun; full and all may be parsed either as nouns, or as adjectives whose nouns are understood; at least, is, at the least measure; at present, is, at the present time; and in vain, is, in a vain course, or manner.

OBS. 3.—A phrase is a combination of two or more separable parts of speech, the parsing of which of course implies their separation. And though the division of our language into words, and the division of its words into parts of speech, have never yet been made exactly to correspond, it is certainly desirable to bring them as near together as possible. Hence such terms as everywhere, anywhere, nowadays, forever, everso, to-day, to-morrow, by-and-by, inside-out, upside-down, if they are to be parsed simply as adverbs, ought to be compounded, and not written as phrases.

OBS. 4—Under nearly all the different classes of words, some particular instances may be quoted, in which other parts of speech seem to take the nature of adverbs, so as either to become such, or to be apparently used for them. (1.) ARTICLES: "This may appear incredible, but it is not the less true."—Dr. Murray's Hist., i, 337. "The other party was a little coy."—D. Webster. (2.) NOUNS: "And scrutiny became stone[306] blind."—Cowper. "He will come home to-morrow."—Clark. "They were travelling post when he met them."—Murray's Gram., p. 69. "And with a vengeance sent from Media post to Egypt."—Milton, P. L., B. iv, l. 170. "That I should care a groat whether he likes the work or not."—Kirkham. "It has snowed terribly all night, and is vengeance cold."—Swift. (3.) ADJECTIVES: "Drink deep, or taste not."—Pope. "A place wondrous deep."—Webster's Dict. "That fools should be so deep contemplative."—Shak. "A man may speak louder or softer in the same key; when he speaks higher or lower, he changes his key."—Sheridan's Elocution, p. 116. (4.) PRONOUNS: "What am I eased?"—Job. "What have I offended thee?"—Gen., xx, 9. "He is somewhat arrogant."—Dryden. (5.) VERBS: "Smack went the whip, round went the wheels."—Cowper. "For then the farmers came jog, jog, along the miry road."—Id. "Crack! went something on deck."—Robinson Crusoe. "Then straight went the yard slap over their noddle."—Arbuthnot. (6.) PARTICIPLES: "Like medicines given scalding hot."—Dodd. "My clothes are almost dripping wet."—"In came Squire South, stark, staring mad."—Arbuthnot. "An exceeding high mountain."—Matt., iv, 8. "How sweet, how passing sweet, the hour to me!"—Ch. Observer. "When we act according to our duty."—Dr. Johnson. "A man was famous according as he had lifted up axes upon the thick trees."—Psal., lxxiv, 5. (7.) CONJUNCTIONS: "Look, as I blow this feather from my face."—Shak. "Not at all, or but very gently."—Locke. "He was but born to try the lot of man."—Pope. (8.) PREPOSITIONS: "They shall go in and out."—Bible. "From going to and fro in the earth, and walking up and down in it."—Ib. These are actually adverbs, and not prepositions, because they govern nothing. (9.) INTERJECTIONS are never used as adverbs, though the Greek grammarians refer them nearly all to this class. The using of other words for adverbs, (i. e., the adverbial use of any words that we do not actually call adverbs,) may be referred to the figure enallage:[307] as,

"Tramp, tramp, across the land they speed, Splash, splash, across the sea."—Burger.

OBS. 5.—As other parts of speech seem sometimes to take the nature of adverbs, so adverbs sometimes, either really or apparently, assume the nature of other parts of speech. (1.) Of NOUNS: as, "A committee is not needed merely to say Yes or No; that will do very little good; the yes or the no must be accompanied and supported by reasons."—Dr. M'Cartee. "Shall I tell you why? Ay, sir, and wherefore; for, they say, every why hath a wherefore."—Shak. (2.) Of ADJECTIVES: as, "Nebuchadnezzar invaded the country, and reduced it to an almost desert."—Wood's Dict., w. Moab. "The then bishop of London, Dr. Laud, attended on his Majesty."—Clarendon. "With upward speed his agile wings he spread."—Prior. "She lights the downward heaven, and rises there."—Dryden. (3.) Of PRONOUNS: as, "He liked the ground whereon she trod."—Milton. "Wherein have you been galled by the king?"—Shak. "O how unlike the place from whence they fell!"—Par. Lost, B. i, l. 75. Here whereon is exactly equivalent in sense to on which; wherein, to in what; and whence, to which: but none of them are actually reckoned pronouns. (4.) Of VERBS: as, "If he be hungry, more than wanton, bread alone will down."—Locke. "To down proud hearts that would not willing die."—Sidney. "She never could away with me."—Shak. "Away, and glister like the god of war."—Id. "Up, get ye out of this place."—Gen., xix, 14. (5.) Of CONJUNCTIONS: as, "I, even I, am he."—Isaiah, xliii, 25. "If I will that he tarry till I come."—John, xxi, 22. "I will go and see him before I die."—Gen., xlv, 28. "Before I go whence I shall not return."—Job, x, 21. (6) Of PREPOSITIONS: as, "Superior to any that are dug out the ground."—Eames's Lect., p. 28. "Who act so counter heavenly mercy's plan."—Burns. Better perhaps, "out of" and "counter to." (7.) Of INTERJECTIONS: as, "Up, up, Glentarkin! rouse thee, ho!"—Scott. "Down, down, cried Mar, your lances down!"—Id. "Off! or I fly for ever from thy sight."—Smith.

OBS. 6.—In these last examples, up, and down, and off, have perhaps as much resemblance to imperative verbs, as to interjections; but they need not be referred to either of these classes, because by supplying a verb we may easily parse them as adverbs. I neither adopt the notion of Horne Tooke, that the same word cannot belong to different parts of speech, nor refer every word to that class to which it may at first sight appear to belong; for both of these methods are impracticable and absurd. The essential nature of each part of speech, and every important peculiarity of its individual terms, it is hoped, will be sufficiently explained in some part or other of this work; but, as the classification of words often depends upon their construction, some explanations that go to determine the parts of speech, must be looked for under the head of Syntax.

OBS. 7.—The proper classification, or subdivision, of adverbs, though it does not appear to have been discovered by any of our earlier grammarians, is certainly very clearly indicated by the meaning and nature of the words themselves. The four important circumstances of any event or assertion, are the when, the where, the how-much, and the how; or the time, the place, the degree, and the manner. These four are the things which we usually express by adverbs. And seldom, if ever, do we find any adverb the notion of which does not correspond to that of sometime, somewhere, somewhat, or somehow. Hence, the general classes of this sort of words ought to be formed under these four heads. The classification heretofore most commonly adopted in English grammar, has every fault which the spirit of awkwardness could possibly give it. The head of it is this: "Adverbs, though very numerous, may be reduced to certain classes, the chief of which are those of Number, Order, Place, Time, Quantity, Manner or Quality, Doubt, Affirmation, Negation, Interrogation, and Comparison."—Murray's Gram., p. 115; Comly's, 66; Kirkham's, 86; R. C. Smith's, 34; Hall's, 26; and others.



CLASSES.

Adverbs may be reduced to four general classes; namely, adverbs of time, of place, of degree, and of manner. Besides these, it is proper to distinguish the particular class of conjunctive adverbs.

I. Adverbs of time are those which answer to the question, When? How long? How soon? or, How often? including these which ask.

OBS.—Adverbs of time may be subdivided as follows:—

1. Of time present; as, Now, yet, to-day, nowadays, presently, instantly, immediately, straightway, directly, forthwith.

2. Of time past; as, Already, just now, lately, recently, yesterday, formerly, anciently, once, heretofore, hitherto, since, till now, long ago, erewhile, erst.

3. Of time to come; as, To-morrow, hereafter, henceforth, henceforward, by-and-by, soon, erelong, shortly.

4. Of time relative; as, When, then, first, just, before, after, while, whilst, meanwhile, as, till, until, seasonably, betimes, early, late, whenever, afterward, afterwards, otherwhile, otherwhiles.

5. Of time absolute; as, Always, ever, never, aye, eternally, forever, perpetually, continually, incessantly, endlessly, evermore, everlastingly.

6. Of time repeated; as, Often, oft, again, occasionally, frequently, sometimes, seldom, rarely, daily, weekly, monthly, yearly, annually, once, twice, thrice, or three times. Above this, we use only the phrases four times, five times, six times, &c. Whether these ought to be reckoned adverbs, or not, is questionable: times, for repetitions, or instances, may be supposed a noun; but such phrases often appear to be used adverbially.

II. Adverbs of place are those which answer to the question, Where? Whither? Whence? or, Whereabout? including these which ask.

OBS.—Adverbs of place may be subdivided as follows:—

1. Of place in which; as, Where, here, there, yonder, above, below, about, around, somewhere, anywhere, elsewhere, otherwhere, everywhere, nowhere, wherever, wheresoever, within, without, whereabout, whereabouts, hereabout, hereabouts, thereabout, thereabouts.

2. Of place to which; as, Whither, hither, thither, in, up, down, back, forth, aside, ashore, abroad, aloft, home, homewards, inwards, upwards, downwards, backwards, forwards. Inward, homeward, upward, downward, backward, and forward, are also adverbs, as well as adjectives; but some critics, for distinction's sake, choose to use these only as adjectives.

3. Of place from which; as, Whence, hence, thence, away, out, off, far, remotely.

4. Of the order of place; as, First, secondly, thirdly, fourthly, &c. Thus, secondly means in the second place; thirdly, in the third place; &c. For order, or rank, implies place, though it may consist of relative degrees.

III. Adverbs of degree are those which answer to the question, How much? How little? or, to the idea of more or less.

OBS.—Adverbs of degree may be subdivided as follows:—

1. Of excess or abundance; as, Much, more, most, too, very, greatly, far, besides; chiefly, principally, mainly, mostly, generally; entirely, full, fully, completely, perfectly, wholly, totally, altogether, all, quite, clear, stark; exceedingly, excessively, extravagantly, intolerably; immeasurably, inconceivably, infinitely.

2. Of equality or sufficiency; as, Enough, sufficiently, competently, adequately, proportionally, equally, so, as, even, just, exactly, precisely.

3. Of deficiency or abatement; as, Little, less, least, scarcely, hardly, scantly, scantily merely, barely, only, but, partly, partially, nearly, almost, well-nigh, not quite.

4. Of quantity in the abstract; as, How, (meaning, in what degree,) however, howsoever, everso, something, anything, nothing, a groat, a sixpence, a sou-markee, and other nouns of quantity used adverbially.

IV. Adverbs of manner are those which answer to the question, How? or, by affirming, denying, or doubting, show how a subject is regarded.

OBS.—Adverbs of manner may be subdivided as follows:—

1. Of manner from quality; as, Well, ill, wisely, foolishly, justly, wickedly, and many others formed by adding ly to adjectives of quality. Ly is a contraction of like; and is the most common termination of English adverbs. When added to nouns, it forms adjectives; but some few of these are also used adverbially; as, daily, weekly, monthly, which denote time.

2. Of affirmation or assent; as, Yes, yea, ay, verily, truly, indeed, surely, certainly, doubtless, undoubtedly, assuredly, certes, forsooth,[308] amen.

3. Of negation; as, No, nay, not, nowise, noway, noways, nohow.

4. Of doubt or uncertainty; as, Perhaps, haply, possibly, perchance, peradventure, may-be.

5. Of mode or way; as, Thus, so, how, somehow, nohow, anyhow, however, howsoever, like, else, otherwise, across, together, apart, asunder, namely, particularly, necessarily, hesitatingly, trippingly, extempore, headlong, lengthwise.

V. Conjunctive adverbs are those which perform the office of conjunctions, and serve to connect sentences, as well as to express some circumstance of time, place, degree, or the like. This class embraces a few words not strictly belonging to any of the others: as, (1.) The adverbs of cause; why, wherefore, therefore; but the last two of these are often called conjunctions. (2.) The pronominal compounds; herein, therein, wherein, &c.; in which the former term is a substitute, and virtually governed by the enclitic particle.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—Conjunctive adverbs often relate equally to two verbs in different clauses, on which account it is the more necessary to distinguish them from others; as, "And they feared when they heard that they were Romans,"—Acts, xvi, 38. Here when is a conjunctive adverb of time, and relates equally to feared and to heard. "The right of coming on the shore for their purposes in general, as and when they please."—Holroyd. Here as is a conjunctive adverb of manner, and when, of time; both relating equally to coming and to please.

OBS. 2.—The following words are the most frequently used as conjunctive adverbs: after, again, also, as, before, besides, consequently, else, ere, even, furthermore, hence, how, however, moreover, nevertheless, otherwise, since, so, still, till, then, thence, therefore, too, until, when, where, wherefore, whither, and while, or whilst.

OBS. 3.—Adverbs of time, place, and manner, are generally connected with verbs or participles; those of degree are more frequently placed before adjectives or adverbs: the latter, however, sometimes denote the measure of actions or effects; as, "And I wept much"—Rev., v, 4. "And Isaac trembled very exceedingly"—Gen., xxvii, 33. "Writers who had felt less, would have said more"—Fuller.

"Victors and vanquished, in the various field, Nor wholly overcome, nor wholly yield."—Dryden.

OBS. 4.—The adverbs here, there, and where, when compounded with prepositions, have the force of pronouns, or of pronominal adjectives: as, Hereby, for by this; thereby, for by that; whereby, for by which, or by what. The prepositions which may be subjoined in this manner, are only the short words, at, by, for, from, in, into, of, on, to, unto, under, upon, and with. Compounds of this kind, although they partake of the nature of pronouns with respect to the nouns going before, are still properly reckoned adverbs, because they relate as such to the verbs which follow them; as, "You take my life, when you do take the means whereby I live."—Shak. Here whereby is a conjunctive adverb, representing means, and relating to the verb live.[309] This mode of expression is now somewhat antiquated, though still frequently used by good authors, and especially by the poets.

OBS. 5—The adverbs, when, where, whither, whence, how, why, wherefore, wherein, whereof, whereby, and other like compounds of where, are sometimes used as interrogatives; but, as such, they still severally belong to the classes under which they are placed in the foregoing distribution, except that words of interrogation are not at the same time connectives. These adverbs, and the three pronouns, who, which, and what, are the only interrogative words in the language; but questions may be asked without any of them, and all have other uses than to ask questions.

OBS. 6.—The conjunctive adverbs, when, where, whither, whence, how, and why, are sometimes so employed as to partake of the nature of pronouns, being used as a sort of special relatives, which refer back to antecedent nouns of time, place, manner, or cause, according to their own respective meanings; yet being adverbs, because they relate as such, to the verbs which follow them: as, "In the day when God shall judge the secrets of men."—Rom., ii, 16. "In a time when thou mayest be found."—Psal., xxxii, 6. "I sought for some time what I at length found here, a place where all real wants might be easily supplied."—Dr. Johnson. "To that part of the mountain where the declivity began to grow craggy."—Id. "At Canterbury, whither some voice had run before."—Wotton. "Look unto the rock whence ye are hewn, and to the hole of the pit whence ye are digged."—Isaiah, li, 1. "We may remark three different sources whence it arises."—Blair's Rhet., p. 163. "I'll tell you a way how you may live your time over again."—Collier's Antoninus, p. 108. "A crude account of the method how they perceive truth."—Harris's Hermes, p. 404. "The order how the Psalter is appointed to be read."—Common Prayer. "In the same reasoning we see the cause, why no substantive is susceptible of these comparative degrees."—Hermes, p. 201. "There seems no reason why it should not work prosperously."—Society in America, p. 68. "There are strong reasons why an extension of her territory would be injurious to her."—Ib. "An other reason why it deserved to be more studied."—Blair's Rhet., p. 123. "The end why God hath ordained faith, is, that his free grace might be glorified."—Goodwin.

OBS. 7.—The direct use of adverbs for pronouns, is often, if not generally, inelegant; and, except the expression may be thereby agreeably shortened, it ought to be considered ungrammatical. The following examples, and perhaps also some of the foregoing, are susceptible of improvement: "Youth is the time, when we are young."—Sanborn's Gram., p. 120. Say rather, "Youth is that part of life which succeeds to childhood." "The boy gave a satisfactory reason why he was tardy."—Ibid. Say rather, "The boy gave a satisfactory reason for his tardiness." "The several sources from whence these pleasures are derived."—Murray's Key, p. 258. Say rather—"sources from which" "In cases where it is only said, that a question has been asked."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 117. Say, "In those cases in which." "To the false rhetoric of the age when he lived."—Harris's Hermes, p. 415. Say rather—"of the age in which he lived."

OBS. 8.—When a conjunctive adverb is equivalent to both an antecedent and a relative, the construction seems to be less objectionable, and the brevity of the expression affords an additional reason for preferring it, especially in poetry: as, "But the Son of man hath not where to lay his head."—Matt., viii, 20. "There might they see whence Po and Ister came."—Hoole's Tasso. "Tell how he formed your shining frame."—Ogilvie. "The wind bloweth where it listeth, and thou hearest the sound thereof, but canst not tell whence it cometh, and whither it goeth."—John, iii, 8. In this construction, the adverb is sometimes preceded by a preposition; the noun being, in fact, understood: as,

"Sinks, like a sea-weed, into whence she rose."—Byron.

"Here Machiavelli's earth return'd to whence it rose."—Id.

OBS. 9.—The conjunctive adverb so, very often expresses the sense of some word or phrase going before; as, "Wheresoever the speech is corrupted, so is the mind."—Seneca's Morals, p. 267. That is, the mind is also corrupted. "I consider grandeur and sublimity, as terms synonymous, or nearly so."—Blair's Rhet., p. 29. The following sentence is grossly wrong, because the import of this adverb was not well observed by the writer: "We have now come to far the most complicated part of speech; and one which is sometimes rendered still more so, than the nature of our language requires."—Nutting's Gram., p. 38. So, in some instances, repeats the import of a preceding noun, and consequently partakes the nature of a pronoun; as,

"We think our fathers fools, so wise we grow; Our wiser sons, no doubt, will think us so."—Pope, on Crit.

OBS. 10.—"Since is often improperly used for ago: as, 'When were you in France?—Twenty years since.' It ought to be, 'Twenty years ago.' Since may be admitted to supply the place of ago that: it being equally correct to say, 'It is twenty years since I was in France;' and, 'It is twenty years ago, that I was in France.'"—Churchill's Gram., p. 337. The difference between since and ago is clearly this: the former, being either a preposition or a conjunctive adverb, cannot with strict propriety be used adjectively; the latter, being in reality an old participle, naturally comes after a noun, in the sense of an adjective; as, a year ago, a month ago, a week ago. "Go, ago, ygo, gon, agon, gone, agone, are all used indiscriminately by our old English writers as the past participle of the verb to go."—Tooke's Diversions, Vol. i, p. 376. "Three days agone, I fell sick."—1 Samuel, xxx, 13.

MODIFICATIONS.

Adverbs have no modifications, except that a few are compared, after the manner of adjectives: as, soon, sooner, soonest; often, oftener, oftenest;[310] long, longer, longest; fast, faster, fastest.

The following are irregularly compared: well, better, best; badly or ill, worse, worst; little less, least; much, more, most; far, farther, farthest; forth, further, furthest. Rath, rather, rathest, is now used only in the comparative.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—Most adverbs that are formed from adjectives by the addition of ly, will admit the comparative adverbs more and most, less and least, before them:, as, wisely, more wisely, most wisely; culpably, less culpably, least culpably. This is virtually a comparison of the latter adverb, but the grammatical inflection, or degree, belongs only to the former; and the words being written separately, it is certainly most proper to parse them separately, ascribing the degree of comparison to the word which expresses it. As comparison does not belong to adverbs in general, it should not be mentioned in parsing, except in the case of those few which are varied by it.

OBS. 2.—In the works of Milton, and occasionally in those of some other poets of his age,[311] adverbs of two syllables, ending in ly, are not only compared regularly like adjectives of the same ending, but are used in the measure of iambic verse as if they still formed only two syllables. Examples:—

"But God hath wiselier arm'd his vengeful ire." —P. Lost, B. x, l. 1022.

"Destroyers rightlier call'd and plagues of men." —Ib., B. xi, l. 699.

"And on his quest, where likeliest he might find." —Ib., B. ix, l. 414.

"Now amplier known thy Saviour and thy Lord." —Ib., B. xii, l. 544.

"Though thou wert firmlier fasten'd than a rock." —Sam. Agon., l. 1398.

"Not rustic, as before, but seemlier clad." —P. Reg., B. ii, l. 299.

————————————-"Whereof to thee anon Plainlier shall be reveal'd." —Paradise Lost, B. xii, l. 150.

——————"To show what coast thy sluggish erare Might easiliest harbour in." —Shakspeare, Cymb., Act IV.

"Shall not myself be kindlier mov'd than thou art?" —Id., Tempest, Act V.

"But earthlier happy is the rose distill'd." —Id., M. S. N. Dream, Act I.

OBS. 3.—The usage just cited is clearly analogical, and has the obvious advantage of adding to the flexibility of the language, while it also multiplies its distinctive forms. If carried out as it might be, it would furnish to poets and orators an ampler choice of phraseology, and at the same time, obviate in a great measure the necessity of using the same words both adjectively and adverbially. The words which are now commonly used in this twofold character, are principally monosyllables; and, of adjectives, monosyllables are the class which we oftenest compare by er and est: next to which come dissyllables ending in y; as, holy, happy, lovely. But if to any monosyllable we add ly to form an adverb, we have of course a dissyllable ending in y; and if adverbs of this class may be compared regularly, after the manner of adjectives, there can be little or no occasion to use the primitive word otherwise than as an adjective. But, according to present usage, few adverbs are ever compared by inflection, except such words as may also be used adjectively. For example: cleanly, comely, deadly, early, kindly, kingly, likely, lively, princely, seemly, weakly, may all be thus compared; and, according to Johnson and Webster, they may all be used either adjectively or adverbially. Again: late, later, latest, is commonly contrasted in both senses, with early, earlier, earliest; but if lately, latelier, lateliest, were adopted in the adverbial contrast, early and late, earlier and later, earliest and latest, might be contrasted as adjectives only.

OBS. 4.—The using of adjectives for adverbs, is in general a plain violation of grammar. Example: "To is a preposition, governing the verb sell, in the infinitive mood, agreeable to Rule 18, which says, The preposition TO governs the infinitive mood."—Comly's Gram., p. 137. Here agreeable ought to be agreeably; an adverb, relating to the participle governing. Again, the using of adverbs for adjectives, is a fault as gross. Example: "Apprehending the nominative to be put absolutely."— Murray's Gram., p. 155. Here absolutely ought to be absolute; an adjective, relating to the word nominative. But, in poetry, there is not only a frequent substitution of quality for manner, in such a way that the adjective may still be parsed adjectively; but sometimes also what appears to be (whether right or wrong) a direct use of adjectives for adverbs, especially in the higher degrees of comparison: as,

"Firmer he roots him the ruder it blow." —Scott, L. of L., C. ii, st. 19.

"True ease in writing comes from art, not chance, As those move easiest who have learn'd to dance." —Pope, Ess. on Crit.

"And also now the sluggard soundest slept." —Pollok, C. of T., B. vi, l. 257.

"In them is plainest taught, and easiest learnt, What makes a nation happy, and keeps it so." —Milton, P. R., B. iv, l. 361.

OBS. 5.—No use of words can be right, that actually confounds the parts of speech; but in many instances, according to present practice, the same words may be used either adjectively or adverbially. Firmer and ruder are not adverbs, but adjectives. In the example above, they may, I think, be ranked with the instances in which quality is poetically substituted for manner, and be parsed as relating to the pronouns which follow them. A similar usage occurs in Latin, and is considered elegant. Easiest, as used above by Pope, may perhaps be parsed upon the same principle; that is, as relating to those, or to persons understood before the verb move. But soundest, plainest, and easiest, as in the latter quotations, cannot be otherwise explained than as being adverbs. Plain and sound, according to our dictionaries, are used both adjectively and adverbially; and, if their superlatives are not misapplied in these instances, it is because the words are adverbs, and regularly compared as such. Easy, though sometimes used adverbially by reputable writers, is presented by our lexicographers as an adjective only; and if the latter are right, Milton's use of easiest in the sense and construction of most easily, must be considered an error in grammar. And besides, according to his own practice, he ought to have preferred plainliest to plainest, in the adverbial sense of most plainly.

OBS. 6.—Beside the instances already mentioned, of words used both adjectively and adverbially, our dictionaries exhibit many primitive terms which are to be referred to the one class or the other, according to their construction; as, soon, late, high, low, quick, slack, hard, soft, wide, close, clear, thick, full, scant, long, short, clean, near, scarce, sure, fast; to which may as well be added, slow, loud, and deep; all susceptible of the regular form of comparison, and all regularly convertible into adverbs in ly; though soonly and longly are now obsolete, and fastly, which means firmly, is seldom used. In short, it is, probably, from an idea, that no adverbs are to be compared by er and est unless the same words may also be used adjectively, that we do not thus compare lately, highly, quickly, loudly, &c., after the example of Milton. But, however custom may sanction the adverbial construction of the foregoing simple terms, the distinctive form of the adverb is in general to be preferred, especially in prose. For example: "The more it was complained of, the louder it was praised."—Daniel Webster, in Congress, 1837. If it would seem quaint to say, "The loudlier it was praised," it would perhaps be better to say, "The more loudly it was praised;" for our critics have not acknowledged loud or louder to be an adverb. Nor have slow and deep been so called. Dr. Johnson cites the following line to illustrate the latter as an adjective:

"Drink hellebore, my boy! drink deep, and scour thy brain. DRYDEN." —Joh. Dict., w. Deep.

"Drink hellebore, my boy! drink deep, and purge thy brain." —Dryd. IV. Sat. of Persius.

OBS. 7.—In some instances, even in prose, it makes little or no difference to the sense, whether we use adjectives referring to the nouns, or adverbs of like import, having reference to the verbs: as, "The whole conception is conveyed clear and strong to the mind."—Blair's Rhet., p, 138. Here clear and strong are adjectives, referring to conception; but we might as well say, "The whole conception is conveyed clearly and strongly to the mind." "Against a power that exists independent of their own choice."—Webster's Essays, p. 46. Here we might as well say, "exists independently;" for the independence of the power, in whichever way it is expressed, is nothing but the manner of its existence. "This work goeth fast on and prospereth."—Ezra. "Skill comes so slow, and life so fast doth fly."—Davies. Dr. Johnson here takes fast and slow to be adjectives, but he might as well have called them adverbs, so far as their meaning or construction is concerned. For what here qualifies the things spoken of, is nothing but the manner of their motion; and this might as well be expressed by the words, rapidly, slowly, swiftly. Yet it ought to be observed, that this does not prove the equivalent words to be adverbs, and not adjectives. Our philologists have often been led into errors by the argument of equivalence.

EXAMPLES FOR PARSING.

PRAXIS VIII.—ETYMOLOGICAL.

In the Eighth Praxis, it is required of the pupil—to distinguish and define the different parts of speech, and the classes and modifications of the ARTICLES, NOUNS, ADJECTIVES, PRONOUNS, VERBS, PARTICIPLES, and ADVERBS.

The definitions to be given in the Eighth Praxis, are two for an article, six for a noun, three for an adjective, six for a pronoun, seven for a verb finite, five for an infinitive, two for a participle, two (and sometimes three) for an adverb,—and one for a conjunction, a preposition, or an interjection. Thus:—

EXAMPLE PARSED.

"When was it that Rome attracted most strongly the admiration of mankind?"—R. G. Harper.

When is an adverb of time. 1. An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb; and generally expresses time, place, degree or manner. 2. Adverbs of time are those which answer to the question, When? How long? How soon? or, How often? including these which ask.

Was is an irregular neuter verb, from be, was, being, been; found in the indicative mood, imperfect tense, third person, and singular number. 1. A verb is a word that signifies to be, to act, or to be acted upon. 2. An irregular verb is a verb that does not form the preterit and the perfect participle by assuming d or ed. 3. A neuter verb is a verb that expresses neither action nor passion, but simply being, or a state of being. 4. The indicative mood is that form of the verb, which simply indicates or declares a thing, or asks a question. 5. The imperfect tense is that which expresses what took place, or was occurring, in time fully past. 6. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 7. The singular number is that which denotes but one.

It is a personal pronoun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case. 1. A pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun. 2. A personal pronoun is a pronoun that shows, by its form, of what person it is. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the subject of a finite verb.

That is a conjunction. 1. A conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences in construction, and to show the dependence of the terms so connected.

Rome is a proper noun, of the third person, singular number, personified feminine, and nominative case. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned. 2. A proper noun is the name of some particular individual, or people, or group. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The feminine gender is that which denotes persons or animals of the female kind. 6. The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the subject of a finite verb.

Attracted is a regular active-transitive verb, from attract, attracted, attracting, attracted; found in the indicative mood, imperfect tense, third person, and singular number. 1. A verb is a word that signifies to be, to act, or to be acted upon. 2. A regular verb is a verb that forms the preterit and the perfect participle by assuming d or ed. 3. An active-transitive verb is a verb that expresses an action which has some person or thing for its object. 4. The indicative mood is that form of the verb, which simply indicates or declares a thing, or asks a question. 5. The imperfect tense is that which expresses what took place, or was occurring, in time fully past. 6. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 7. The singular number is that which denotes but one.

Most is an a adverb of degree, compared, much, more, most, and found in the superlative. 1. An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb; and generally expresses time, place, degree, or manner. 2. Adverbs of degree are those which answer to the question, How much? How little? or to the idea of more or less. 3. The superlative degree is that which is most or least of all included with it.

Strongly is an adverb of manner. 1. An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb; and generally expresses time, place, degree, or manner. 2. Adverbs of manner are those which answer to the question, How? or, by affirming, denying, or doubting, show how a subject is regarded.

The is the definite article. 1. An article is the word the, an, or a, which we put before nouns to limit their signification. 2. The definite article is the, which denotes some particular thing or things.

Admiration is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned. 2. A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class, of beings or things. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the object of a verb, participle, or preposition.

Of is a preposition. 1. A preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other, and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun.

Mankind is a common noun, collective, of the third person, conveying the idea of plurality, masculine gender, and objective case. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned. 2. A collective noun, or noun of multitude, is the name of many individuals together. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The plural number is that which denotes more than one. 5. The masculine gender is that which denotes persons or animals of the male kind. 6. The objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the object of a verb, participle, or preposition.

LESSON I.—PARSING.

"Wisely, therefore, is it ordered, and agreeably to the system of Providence, that we should have nature for our instructor."—Kames, El. of Crit., i, 358.

"It is surprising, how quickly, and for the most part how correctly, we judge of character from external appearance."—Id., ib., i, 359.

"The members of a period connected by proper copulatives, glide smoothly and gently along, and are a proof of sedateness and leisure in the speaker."—Id., ib., ii, 33.

"Antithesis ought only to be occasionally studied, when it is naturally demanded by the comparison or opposition of objects."—Jamieson's Rhet., p. 102.

"Did men always think clearly, and were they at the same time fully masters of the language in which they write, there would be occasion for few rules."—Ib., 102. "Rhetoric, or oratory, is the art of speaking justly, methodically, floridly, and copiously, upon any subject, in order to touch the passions, and to persuade."—Bradley's Literary Guide, p. 155.

"The more closely we follow the natural order of any subject we may be investigating, the more satisfactorily and explicitly will that subject be opened to our understanding."—Gurney's Essays, p. 160.

"Why should we doubt of that, whereof our sense Finds demonstration from experience? Our minds are here, and there, below, above; Nothing that's mortal, can so swiftly move."—Denham.

LESSON II.—PARSING.

"If we can discern particularly and precisely what it is, which is most directly obedience or disobedience to the will and commands of God; what is truly morally beautiful, or really and absolutely deformed; the question concerning liberty, as far as it respects ethics, or morality, will be sufficiently decided."—West, on Agency, p. xiii.

"Thus it was true, historically, individually, philosophically, and universally, that they did not like to retain God in their knowledge."—Cox, on Christianity, p. 327.

"We refer to Jeremiah Evarts and Gordon Hall. They had their imperfections, and against them they struggled discreetly, constantly, successfully, until they were fitted to ascend to their rest."—N. Y. Observer, Feb. 2d, 1833.

"Seek not proud riches; but such as thou mayst get justly, use soberly, distribute cheerfully and leave contentedly."—Ld. Bacon.

"There are also some particularly grievous sins, of which conscience justly accuses us; sins committed more or less presumptuously and willingly, deliberately and repeatedly."—Bickersteth, on Prayer, p. 59.

"And herein I apprehend myself now to suffer wrongfully, being slanderously reported, falsely accused, shamefully and despitefully used, and hated without a cause."—Jenks's Prayers, p. 173.

"Of perfect knowledge, see, the dawning light Foretells a noon most exquisitely bright! Here, springs of endless joy are breaking forth! There, buds the promise of celestial worth!"—Young.

LESSON III—PARSING.

"A true friend unbosoms freely, advises justly, assists readily, adventures boldly, takes all patiently, defends courageously, and continues a friend unchangeably."—Penn's Maxims.

"That mind must be wonderfully narrow, that is wholly wrapped up in itself; but this is too visibly the character of most human minds."—Burgh's Dignity, ii, 35.

"There is not a man living, who wishes more sincerely than I do, to see a plan adopted for the abolition of slavery; but there is only one proper and effectual mode by which it can be accomplished, and that is, by legislative authority."—Geo. Washington, 1786.

"Sloth has frequently and justly been denominated the rust of the soul. The habit is easily acquired; or, rather, it is a part of our very nature to be indolent."—Student's Manual, p. 176.

"I am aware how improper it is to talk much of my wife; never reflecting how much more improper it is to talk much of myself."—Home's Art of Thinking, p. 89.

"Howbeit whereinsoever any is bold, (I speak foolishly,) I am bold also. Are they Hebrews? so am I. Are they Israelites? so am I. Are they the seed of Abraham? so am I. Are they ministers of Christ? (I speak as a fool,) I am more."—2 Cor., xi.

"Oh, speak the wondrous man! how mild, how calm, How greatly humble, how divinely good, How firm establish'd on eternal truth."—Thomson.

IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.

ERRORS RESPECTING ADVERBS.

"We can much easier form the conception of a fierce combat."—Blair's Rhet., p. 167.

[FORMULE—Not proper, because the adjective easier is used as an adverb, to qualify the verb can form. But, according to Observation 4th on the Modifications of Adverbs, "The using of adjectives for adverbs, is in general a plain violation of grammar." Therefore, easier should be more easily; thus, "We can much more easily form the conception of a fierce combat."]

"When he was restored, agreeable to the treaty, he was a perfect savage."—Webster's Essays, p. 235. "How I shall acquit myself suitable to the importance of the trial."—Duncan's Cic., p. 85. "Can any thing show your holiness how unworthy you treat mankind?"—Spect., No. 497. "In what other [language,] consistent with reason and common sense, can you go about to explain it to him?"—Lowth's Gram., Pref., p. viii. "Agreeable to this rule, the short vowel Sheva has two characters."—Wilson's Hebrew Gram., p. 46. "We shall give a remarkable fine example of this figure."—Murray's Gram., p. 347. "All of which is most abominable false."—Barclay's Works, iii, 431. "He heaped up great riches, but passed his time miserable."—Murray's Key, 8vo, ii, 202. "He is never satisfied with expressing any thing clearly and simple."—Blair's Rhet., p. 96. "Attentive only to exhibit his ideas clear and exact, he appears dry."—Ib., p. 100. "Such words as have the most liquids and vowels, glide the softest."—Ib., p. 129. "The simplest points, such as are easiest apprehended."—Ib., p. 312. "Too historical, to be accounted a perfect regular epic poem."—Ib., p. 441. "Putting after them the oblique case, agreeable to the French construction."—Priestley's Gram., p. 108. "Where the train proceeds with an extreme slow pace."—Kames, El. of Crit., i, 151. "So as scarce to give an appearance of succession."—Ib., i, 152. "That concord between sound and sense, which is perceived in some expressions independent of artful pronunciation."—Ib., ii, 63. "Cornaro had become very corpulent, previous to the adoption of his temperate habits."—Hitchcock, on Dysp., p. 396. "Bread, which is a solid and tolerable hard substance."—Sandford and Merton, p. 38. "To command every body that was not dressed as fine as himself."—Ib., p, 19. "Many of them have scarce outlived their authors."—Pref. to Lily's Gram., p. ix. "Their labour, indeed, did not penetrate very deep."—Wilson's Heb. Gram., p. 30. "The people are miserable poor, and subsist on fish."—Hume's Hist., ii, 433. "A scale, which I took great pains, some years since, to make."—Bucke's Gram., p. 81. "There is no truth on earth so well established as the truth of the Bible."—Taylor's District School, p. 288. "I know of no work so much wanted as the one Mr. Taylor has now furnished."—DR. NOTT: ib., p. ii. "And therefore their requests are seldom and reasonable."—Taylor: ib., p. 58. "Questions are easier proposed than rightly answered."—Dillwyn's Reflections, p. 19. "Often reflect on the advantages you possess, and on the source from whence they are all derived."—Murray's Gram., p. 374. "If there be no special Rule which requires it to be put forwarder."—Milnes's Greek Gram., p. 234. "The Masculine and Neuter have the same Dialect in all Numbers, especially when they end the same."—Ib., p. 259.

"And children are more busy in their play Than those that wisely'st pass their time away."—Butler, p. 163.



CHAPTER IX.—CONJUNCTIONS.

A Conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences in construction, and to show the dependence of the terms so connected: as, "Thou and he are happy, because you are good."—Murray.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—Our connective words are of four kinds; namely, relative pronouns, conjunctive adverbs,[312] conjunctions, and prepositions. These have a certain resemblance to one another, so far as they are all of them connectives; yet there are also characteristical differences by which they may in general be easily distinguished. Relative pronouns represent antecedents, and stand in those relations which we call cases; conjunctive adverbs assume the connective power in addition to their adverbial character, and consequently sustain a double relation; conjunctions, (except the introductory correspondents,) join words or sentences together, showing their relation either to each other or to something else; prepositions, though naturally subject themselves to something going before, assume the government of the terms which follow them, and in this they differ from all the rest.

OBS. 2.—Conjunctions do not express any of the real objects of the understanding, whether things, qualities, or actions, but rather the several modes of connexion or contrast under which these objects are contemplated. Hence conjunctions were said by Aristotle and his followers to be in themselves "devoid of signification;" a notion which Harris, with no great propriety, has adopted in his faulty definition[313] of this part of speech. It is the office of this class of particles, to link together words, phrases, or sentences, that would otherwise appear as loose shreds, or unconnected aphorisms; and thus, by various forms of dependence, to give to discourse such continuity as may fit it to convey a connected train of thought or reasoning. The skill or inability of a writer may as strikingly appear in his management of these little connectives, as in that of the longest and most significant words in the language.

"The current is often evinced by the straws, And the course of the wind by the flight of a feather; So a speaker is known by his ands and his ors, Those stitches that fasten his patchwork together."—Robert F. Mott.

OBS. 3.—Conjunctions sometimes connect entire sentences, and sometimes particular words or phrases only. When one whole sentence is closely linked with an other, both become clauses or members of a more complex sentence; and when one word or phrase is coupled with an other, both have in general a common dependence upon some other word in the same sentence. In etymological parsing, it may be sufficient to name the conjunction as such, and repeat the definition above; but, in syntactical parsing, the learner should always specify the terms connected. In many instances, however, he may conveniently abbreviate his explanation, by parsing the conjunction as connecting "what precedes and what follows;" or, if the terms are transposed, as connecting its own clause to the second, to the third, or to some other clause in the context.

OBS. 4.—However easy it may appear, for even the young parser to name the terms which in any given instance are connected by the conjunction, and of course to know for himself what these terms are,—that is, to know what the conjunction does or does not, connect,—it is certain that a multitude of grammarians and philosophers, great and small, from Aristotle down to the latest modifier of Murray, or borrower from his text, have been constantly contradicting one an other, if not themselves, in relation to this matter. Harris avers, that "the Conjunction connects, not Words, but Sentences;" and frames his definition accordingly. See Hermes, p. 237. This doctrine is true of some of the conjunctions, but it is by no means true of them all. He adds, in a note, "Grammarians have usually considered the Conjunction as connecting rather single Parts of Speech, than whole Sentences, and that too with the addition of like with like, Tense with Tense, Number with Number, Case with Case, &c. This Sanctius justly explodes."—Ib., p. 238. If such has been the usual doctrine of the grammarians, they have erred on the one side, as much as our philosopher, and his learned authorities, on the other. For, in this instance, Harris's quotations of Latin and Greek writers, prove only that Sanctius, Scaliger, Apollonius, and Aristotle, held the same error that he himself had adopted;—the error which Latham and others now inculcate, that, "There are always two propositions where there is one Conjunction."—Fowler's E. Gram., 8vo, 1850, p. 557.

OBS. 5.—The common doctrine of L. Murray and others, that, "Conjunctions connect the same moods and tenses of verbs, and cases of nouns and pronouns," is not only badly expressed, but is pointedly at variance with their previous doctrine, that, "Conjunctions very often unite sentences, when they appear to unite only words; as in the following instances: 'Duty and interest forbid vicious indulgences;' 'Wisdom or folly governs us.' Each of these forms of expression," they absurdly say, "contains two sentences."—Murray's Gram., p. 124; Smith's, 95; Fisk's, 84; Ingersoll's, 81. By "the same moods, tenses, or cases," we must needs here understand some one mood, tense, or case, in which the connected words agree; and, if the conjunction has any thing to do with this agreement, or sameness of mood, tense, or case, it must be because words only, and not sentences, are connected by it. Now, if, that, though, lest, unless, or any other conjunction that introduces the subjunctive, will almost always be found to connect different moods, or rather to subjoin one sentence to another in which there is a different mood. On the contrary, and, as, even, than, or, and nor, though they may be used to connect sentences, do, in very many instances, connect words only; as, "The king and queen are an amiable pair."—Murray. "And a being of more than human dignity stood before me."—Dr. Johnson. It cannot be plausibly pretended, that and and than, in these two examples, connect clauses or sentences. So and and or, in the examples above, connect the nouns only, and not "sentences:" else our common rules for the agreement of verbs or pronouns with words connected, are nothing but bald absurdities. It is idle to say, that the construction and meaning are not what they appear to be; and it is certainly absurd to contend, that conjunctions always connect sentences; or always, words only. One author very strangely conceives, that, "Conjunctions may be said either always to connect words only, or always to connect sentences, according to the view which may be taken of them in analyzing."—Nutting's Gram., p. 77.

OBS. 6.—"Several words belonging to other parts of speech, are occasionally used as conjunctions. Such are the following: provided, except, verbs; both, an adjective; either, neither, that, pronouns; being, seeing, participles; before, since, for, prepositions. I will do it, provided you lend some help. Here provided is a conjunction, that connects the two sentences. 'Paul said, Except these abide in the ship, ye cannot be saved.' Here except is a conjunction. Excepting is also used as a participle and conjunction. 'Being this reception of the gospel was so anciently foretold.'—Bishop Pearson. 'Seeing all the congregation are holy.'—Bible. Here being and seeing are used as conjunctions."—Alexander's Gram:, p. 50. 'The foregoing remark, though worthy of some attention, is not altogether accurate. Before, when it connects sentences, is not a conjunction, but a conjunctive adverb. Provided, as cited above, resembles not the verb, but the perfect participle. Either and neither, when they are not conjunctions, are pronominal adjectives, rather than pronouns. And, to say, that, "words belonging to other parts of speech, are used as conjunctions," is a sort of solecism, which leaves the learner in doubt to what class they really belong. Being, and being that, were formerly used in the sense of because, since, or seeing that; (Lat. cum, quoniam, or quando;) but this usage is now obsolete. So there is an uncommon or obsolete use of without, in the sense of unless, or except; (Lat. nisi;) as, "He cannot rise without he be helped." Walker's Particles, p. 425. "Non potest nisi adjutus exsurgere."—Seneca.

CLASSES.

Conjunctions are divided into two general classes, copulative and disjunctive; and a few of each class are particularly distinguished from the rest, as being corresponsive.

I. A copulative conjunction is a conjunction that denotes an addition, a cause, a consequence, or a supposition: as, "He and I shall not dispute; for, if he has any choice, I shall readily grant it."

II. A disjunctive conjunction is a conjunction that denotes opposition of meaning: as, "Though he were dead, yet shall he live."—St. John's Gospel. "Be not faithless, but believing."—Id.

III. The corresponsive conjunctions are those which are used in pairs, so that one refers or answers to the other: as, "John came neither eating nor drinking."—Matt., xi, 18. "But if I cast out devils by the Spirit of God, then the kingdom of God is come unto you."—Ib., xii, 28.

OBS.—Not all terms which stand in the relation of correspondents, or corresponsives, are therefore to be reckoned conjunctions; nor are both words in each pair always of the same part of speech: some are adverbs; one or two are adjectives; and sometimes a conjunction answers to a preceding adverb. But, if a word is seen to be the mere precursor, index, introductory sign, or counterpart, of a conjunction, and has no relation or import which should fix it in any other of the ten classes called parts of speech, it is, clearly, a conjunction,—a corresponding or corresponsive conjunction. It is a word used preparatively, "to connect words or sentences in construction, and to show the dependence of the terms so connected."

LIST OF THE CONJUNCTIONS.

1. The Copulatives; And, as, both, because, even, for, if, that, then, since, seeing, so.

2. The Disjunctives; Or, nor, either, neither, than, though, although, yet, but, except, whether, lest, unless, save, provided, notwithstanding, whereas.

3. The Corresponsives; Both—and; as—as; as—so; if—then; either—or; neither—nor; whether—or; though, or although—yet.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—By some writers, the words, also, since, too, then, therefore, and wherefore, are placed among the copulative conjunctions; and as, so, still, however, and albeit, among the disjunctive; but Johnson and Webster have marked most of these terms as adverbs only. It is perhaps of little moment, by which name they are called; for, in some instances, conjunctions and conjunctive adverbs do not differ very essentially. As, so, even, then, yet, and but, seem to belong sometimes to the one part of speech, and sometimes to the other. I call them adverbs when they chiefly express time, manner, or degree; and conjunctions when they appear to be mere connectives. As, yet, and but, are generally conjunctions; but so, even, and then, are almost always adverbs. Seeing and provided, when used as connectives, are more properly conjunctions than any thing else; though Johnson ranks them with the adverbs, and Webster, by supposing many awkward ellipses, keeps them with the participles. Examples: "For these are not drunken, as ye suppose, seeing it is but the third hour of the day."—Acts, ii, 15. "The senate shall have power to adjourn themselves, provided such adjournment shall not exceed two days at a time."—Constitution of New Hampshire.

OBS. 2.—Since, when it governs a noun after it, is a preposition: as, "Hast thou commanded the morning since thy days?"—Job. Albeit is equivalent in sense to although, and is properly a conjunction; but this old compound is now nearly or quite obsolete. As is sometimes a relative pronoun, sometimes a conjunctive adverb, and sometimes a copulative conjunction. Example of the last: "We present ourselves as petitioners." If as is ever disjunctive, it is not so here; nor can we parse it as an adverb, because it comes between two words that are essentially in apposition. The equivalent Latin term quasi is called an adverb, but, in such a case, not very properly: as, "Et colles quasi pulverem pones;"—"And thou shalt make the hills as chaff."—Isaiah, xli, 15. So even, which in English is frequently a sign of emphatic repetition, seems sometimes to be rather a conjunction than an adverb: as, "I, even I, am the Lord."—Isaiah, xliii, 11.

OBS. 3.—Save and saving, when they denote exception, are not adverbs, as Johnson denominates them, or a verb and a participle, as Webster supposes them to be, or prepositions, as Covell esteems them, but disjunctive conjunctions; and, as such, they take the same case after as before them; as, "All the conspirators, save only he, did that they did, in envy of great Caesar."—Shak. "All this world's glory seemeth vain, and all their shows but shadows, saving she."—Spenser. "Israel burned none of them, save Hazor only."—Joshua. xi, 13. "And none of them was cleansed, saving Naaman the Syrian."—Luke, iv, 27. Save is not here a transitive verb, for Hazor was not saved in any sense, but utterly destroyed; nor is Naaman here spoken of as being saved by an other leper, but as being cleansed when others were not. These two conjunctions are now little used; and therefore the propriety of setting the nominative after them and treating them as conjunctions, is the more apt to be doubted. The Rev. Matt. Harrison, after citing five examples, four of which have the nominative with save, adds, without naming the part of speech, or assigning any reason, this decision, which I think erroneous: "In all these passages, save requires after it the objective case." His five examples are these: "All, save I, were at rest, and enjoyment."— Frankenstein. "There was no stranger with us, in the house, save we two."—1 Kings, iii, 18.

"And nothing wanting is, save she, alas!" —DRUMMOND of Hawthornden.

"When all slept sound, save she, who bore them both." —ROGERS, Italy, p. 108.

"And all were gone, save him, who now kept guard." —Ibid., p. 185.

OBS. 4.—The conjunction if is sometimes used in the Bible to express, not a supposition of what follows it, but an emphatic negation: as, "I have sworn in my wrath, if they shall enter into my rest."—Heb., iv, 3. That is, that they shall not enter. The same peculiarity is found in the Greek text, and also in the Latin, and other versions. Or, in the obsolete phrase, "or ever," is not properly a conjunction, but a conjunctive adverb of time, meaning before. It is supposed to be a corruption of ere: as, "I was set up from everlasting, from the beginning, or ever the earth was."—Prov., viii, 23. "And we, or ever he come near, are ready to kill him."—Acts, xxiii, 15. This term derives no support from the original text.