—Electoral Reform. See Elections.

—Empire, Napoleonic, 295; Second French, 299-300.

—Extreme Left, in Chamber of Deputies, 332.

—First Instance, courts of, 337.

—Franchise, under Napoleonic system, 294; under Constitutional Charter of 1814, 296-297; present regulations, 317.

—Frankfort, Peace of, 302.

—Generalite, 342.

—Great Western Line, purchase of, 332.

—Impeachment, 309.

—Intendant, 342.

—Interpellation, 314.

—Jaures, socialist leader, 334.

—Journal Officiel, 326.

—Judges, appointment and tenure, 339.

—Judiciary. See Court.

—Juge de paix, 337.

—Law, codification, 335-336; character, 336-337; administrative, 339.

—Left, in Chamber of Deputies, 332.

—Legislation, President's part in, 309-310; processes, 326-327; powers, 328-329.

—Legitimists, policies in 1871-1875, 303-305.

—MacMahon, Marshall, president, 304.

—Mayor, functions, 347-350.

—Millerand, Etienne, socialist member of ministry, 334.

—Ministry, place in governmental system, 311; composition, 312; responsibility, 312-313; frequency of changes, 313; interpellation, 314.

—Multiple Candidature Act, 318.

—Napoleon III., proclaimed emperor, 299.

—National Assembly, of 1871-1875, 302-303; of Third Republic, election of President, 309, 328; amendment of constitution, 327-328.

—Orleanists, policies in 1871-1875, 303-304.

—Pacification, policy of, 330.

—Parliament, establishment of bicameral system, 315; original form of Senate, 315-316; composition and election to-day, 316-317; composition of Chamber of Deputies, 317-318; question of electoral reform, 319-324; sessions, 325; officers, 325; committees, 326; procedure, 326; powers and functions, 327-329.

—Parliamentarism, 313.

—Parties, multiplicity, 312-313; development after 1848, 329; situation after 1876, 330; rise of Radicals, 330; the bloc, 331; rise of Socialists, 330-331, 333-334; elections of 1906, 331; elections of 1910, 332; changes since 1871, 333.

—Penal Code, 336.

—Prefect, creation in 1800, 343; appointment and functions, 346.

—Premier, position and powers, 312.

—President, title created, 303; occupants of the office, 308; election, 308, 328; term, 309; qualifications, 309; salary and privileges, 309; powers, 309-311; relation with ministers, 311-312.

—Procedure, in Senate and Chamber of Deputies, 326-327.

—Procureur, 327.

—Progressive Party, rise, 331.

—Proportional Representation, movement for establishment of, 320-324.

—Province, abolished, 342.

—Prussia, war with, 301.

—Radical Party, rise, 330; ascendancy, 331.

—Rallies, 330.

—Republic, Second, 297-298; Third established, 302-304.

—Republican Party, in 1848, 329; control of Chamber of Deputies after 1876, 330.

—Right, in Chamber of Deputies, 332; present character, 333.

—Rivet Law, 302.

—Rouvier, ministry, 331.

—Sarrien, ministry, 331

—Scrutin d'arrondissement, established in 1820, 296; re-established in 1889, 318; proposed change from, 319-320.

—Scrutin de liste, established in 1817, 296; election of senators by, 316; advantages of, 319-320; proposals to re-establish, 320-324.

—Senate, original form, 315-316; composition and election to-day, 316-317; sessions, 325; officers, 325; bureaus and committees, 325-326; procedure, 326; powers and functions, 327-329.

—Sieyes, electoral project, 294.

—Socialist Party, rise, 330; gains, 331; in Chamber of Deputies, 332; growth and present character, 333-334.

—Thiers, Louis Adolph, made Chief of the Executive Power, 302; made President of the French Republic, 303; retirement, 303.

—Trade-unions, and socialism, 333-334.

—Tribunal des Conflits, 341.

—Veto, 310.

—Waldeck-Rousseau, ministry, 331; Franchise, in Great Britain, in early nineteenth century, 79-81; extension, 81-85; present system, 85-88; questions concerning, 88-91; in German Empire, 224-225; in Prussia, 258-260; development in France, 294-297; in France to-day, 317; in Italy, 376-378; in Switzerland, 426; in Austria, 467-472; in Holland, 526-528; in Belgium, 539-548; in Denmark, 563-564; in Norway, 581-582; in Sweden, 592-597; in Spain, 617-618; in Portugal, 637, 641.

Germany (see also Prussia and Austria): —Abgeordnetenhaus, of Wuerttemberg, 278.

—Abtheilungen, in German Reichstag, 226; in Prussian Landtag, 264.

—Agrarian Party, 234.

—Alsace-Lorraine, original organization, 282; the Landesausschuss, 283; movement for autonomy, 284; bill of 1910, 285; present governmental system, 286-287.

—Amendment, of Imperial constitution, 209.

—Amtsgericht, 243.

—Antisemitic Party, 232.

—Army, 208.

—Austria, war with Prussia, 200.

—Baden, granted a constitution, 197; special privileges, 208; governmental system, 279.

—Bavaria, made a kingdom, 194; granted a constitution, 197; special privileges, 208; governmental system, 275-276.

—Bebel, August, president of German Social Democratic party, 240.

—Bernstein, Edward, and the "revisionist" socialists, 239.

—Bismarck, Otto von, minister-president of Prussia, 199; plan for reorganization of German Confederation, 200; establishment of North German Bund, 200; creation of the German Empire, 201; and socialism, 231; dismissed, 233; and Prussian local government, 266-267.

—Bloc, 234.

—Bremen, governmental system, 281.

—Buelow, Count von, chancellor, 234; and political parties, 236; on electoral reform in Prussia, 261.

—Bund. See Confederation of 1815 and North German Confederation.

—Bundeskanzleramt, 216.

—Bundesrath, composition, 217; legal character, 218; sessions and procedure, 219; committees, 220; powers and functions, 221-222.

—Caprivi, General von, chancellor, 233.

—Carlsbad Decrees, 248.

—Centre Party, rise, 230; pivotal position, 235; present position, 236-240.

—Chancellor, appointment, 213; legal position, 214; functions and powers, 215-217.

—Civil List, of king of Prussia, 253.

—Confederation of 1815, formation, 195; character, 195-197; terminated, 200.

—Committees, in German Bundesrath, 220; in Reichstag, 226; in Prussian Landtag, 264.

—Conservative Party, rise, 229; varying fortunes, 233-234; present position, 236-240.

—Constitution, of Confederation of 1815, 194-196; grants in various states, 197; grant in Prussia, 199; of the Empire, 202-204; process of amendment, 209; of Prussia, 250-252.

—Courts, regulated by Law of Judicial. Organization, 243; inferior tribunals, 243; Reichsgericht, 244.

—Crown. See Emperor.

—Elections, of members of Reichstag, 224-225.

—Emperor, title, 210; legal position and privileges, 211; powers, 211-213; relations with Chancellor, 214.

—Empire, established, 201; constitution, 202-203; nature, 203-207.

—Erfurt Programme, 239.

—Frankfort, seat of Diet, 195; parliament of 1848, 198; the Fuerstentag, 199.

—Gneist, Rudolph von, writings on government, 266.

—Gotha, congress at, 231.

—Guelf Party, 232.

—Hamburg, governmental system, 280-281.

—Hanoverian Party, 232.

—Hardenberg, Count von, establishes a ministry of state, 255.

—Holy Roman Empire, terminated, 193.

—Kulturkampf, 230.

—Landgericht, 243.

—Landtag, of Bavaria, 275-276.

—Law, character, 241-242.

—Legislation, powers, 221, 227-228; methods, 219-220, 226-227.

—Luebeck, governmental system, 281.

—Metternich, Count, at Congress of Vienna, 195.

—Ministry, organization, 213-215.

—Napoleon I., changes wrought in Germany, 193-194.

—National Liberal Party, rise, 229; preponderance, 230; break-up, 233.

—North German Confederation, formation, 200; converted into Empire, 201.

—Oberlandesgericht, 243.

—Parliamentarism, absence in German Empire, 213; absence in Prussia, 254.

—Parties, rise, 229; older alignments, 229-230; more recent alignments, 230-232; minor parties, 232-233; rise of the bloc, 234; recent developments, 236-240.

—Polish Party, 232.

—Privileges, of members of Reichstag, 225.

—Proportional Representation, in Wuerttemberg, 278.

—Prussia, in Confederation of 1815, 194-195; voting power in the Diet, 195-196; Bismarck's ministry, 199; war with Austria, 200; leadership of North German Bund, 200; creation of German Empire, 201; pre-eminence and special privileges, 207-217; position in Bundesrath, 218-219; regeneration in Napoleonic period, 246-248; repression of liberalism, 248; diet of 1847, 249; revolution of 1848, 249-250; formation of constitution, 250.

—Reichsgericht, 244.

—Reichsgesetzblatt, 215.

—Reichsland. See Alsace-Lorraine.

—Reichstag, composition, 223; electoral system, 224; franchise, 225; privileges of members, 225; sessions and officers, 226; committees, 226; conduct of business, 227; powers and franchise, 227-228.

—Revolution of 1848, in Germany, 198-199; in Prussia, 249-250.

—Saxony, made a kingdom, 194; granted a constitution, 197; governmental system, 276-278.

—Social Democratic Party, rise, 231; growth, 232; triumph in 1912, 236-238; present programme and character, 239-240; strength in Prussia, 260-261.

—Sonderrechte, 208.

—Standeversammlung, of Saxony, 277.

—Statthalter, of Alsace-Lorraine, 286.

—Versailles, William I. proclaimed emperor at, 193.

—Vienna, Congress of, arrangements in Germany, 194.

—Vorparlament, of 1848, 198.

—William I., proclaimed German Emperor, 193.

—Wuerttemberg, made a kingdom, 194; granted a constitution, 197; special privileges, 208; governmental system, 278-279.

—Zollverein, rise, 197.

Great Britain. See England.

Hamburg, governmental system, 280-281.

Herrenhaus. See Prussia and Austria.

Herzegovina. See Austria-Hungary.

Holland:— —Administration, organization of province, 532-533; organization of commune, 533.

—Amendment, process, 523.

—Assembly, of province, 532.

—Batavian Republic, established, 518.

—Belgium, revolution in, 520; independence of, 521.

—Commune, organization, 533.

—Conservative Party, 529-530.

—Constitution, granted by William I., 519; revision, 521-522; present character, 523; process of amendment, 523.

—Council of commune, 533.

—Council of State, 524.

—Courts, 531-532.

—Crown, status and privileges, 523-524; powers, 525.

—Elections, movement for reform, 526; law of 1896, 527; pending questions, 527-528; of 1903, 529-530; of 1909, 530.

—France, Holland annexed to, 518.

—Franchise, movement for liberalizing, 526; law of 1896, 527; pending questions, 527-528.

—High Court, 531.

—Judiciary, principles, 531; courts, 531-532.

—Liberal Party, 529-530.

—Ministry, composition, 524; powers, 525.

—Napoleon, relations with the Netherlands, 517-518.

—Parliament. See States-General.

—Parties, rise, 529; present alignment, 520; elections of 1909, 530.

—Province, organization, 532-533.

—States-General, composition of the houses, 526; electoral system, 527-528; organization and powers, 528-529; political complexion, 530.

—Socialists, 529-530.

—Vienna, Congress of, arrangements respecting the Netherlands, 518.

—William I., king of the Netherlands, 518-519; grants constitution, 519-520; resists Belgian independence, 520-521; abdicates, 521.

—Woman's suffrage, 527-528.

Holy Roman Empire, terminated, 193.

House of Commons. See England.

House of Lords. See England.

House of Representatives. See Belgium.

Hungary:— —Administration, 506-507.

—Andrassy, introduces electoral reform bill, 495.

—Andrew II., promulgates Golden Bull, 446-447, 489.

—Arpads, dynasty of, 447.

—Ausgleich, established, 458-459; and Hungarian political parties, 500.

—Austria, establishment of control, 443; encroachment by, 449-450; suppresses revolution of 1848, 455-456; constitutional experiments, 457-468; Ausgleich established, 458-459.

—Banffy, ministry, 502.

—Banus, of Croatia-Slavonia, 508.

—Chamber of Deputies, composition, 493; electoral system, 493-494; movement for electoral reform, 495-496; electoral procedure, 497-498; organization, 498; powers, 499-500.

—Constitution, foundations, 446-447; development, 447-448; March Laws, 453-454, 489; character, 490.

—County, origins, 506; organization, 507.

—Courts, 505-506.

—Croatia, government, 507-508.

—Crown. See King.

—Deak, Francis, builds up Liberal party, 452; voices demands of Hungary, 457; retirement, 501.

—Elections, present franchise, 493-494; movement for reform, 495; reform bill of 1908, 495-497; procedure, 497-498; of 1905, 503.

—Franchise, present system, 493-494; electoral reform bill of 1908, 495-497.

—Golden Bull, promulgated, 446-447, 489.

—Hedervary, ministry, 504-505.

—Independence, proclaimed in 1849, 455.

—Judiciary. See Courts.

—King, status, 491.

—Law, 505.

—Liberal Party, origins, 452, 501-502; demands in 1860-1861, 457; ascendancy, 501, 502.

—Magyars, settlement in Europe, 445; policies in 1848, 454; number and domination of, 494.

—March Laws, promulgated, 453.

—Metternich, repressive policy, 452.

—Ministry, composition and status, 491-492.

—Mohacs, battle of, 448.

—Parliament, composition, 492-493; electoral system, 493-497; organization and procedure, 497-498; powers 499-500; obstructionism in, 502-505.

—Parliamentarism, 498.

—Parties, and question of Ausgleich, 500; rise of Liberals, 500-501; era of parliamentary obstructionism, 502-505.

—Pragmatic Sanction, promulgated, 449.

—Revolution of 1848, 453-455.

—Settlement, 445.

—Slavonia, government, 507-508.

—Stephen I., receives crown from Pope, 446.

—Table of Magnates, composition, 492-493; privileges, 493; organization and procedure, 498; powers, 499-500.

—Tisza, Istvan, ministry, 503.

—Tisza, Kalman, ministry, 501-502.

—Turks, invasions of, 448.

—Wekerle, ministry, 504.

Initiative, in Switzerland, 421, 432-434.

Interpellation, in Prussian Landtag, 265; in French Chamber of Deputies, 314; in Italian Chamber of Deputies, 380.

Ireland, union of 1801, 40-41; allotment of parliamentary seats, 85; over-representation, 89; representative peers, 98-99; question of Home Rule, 150-152.

Italy:— —Administration, patterned on French, 363; nature and organization of province, 384; nature and organization of commune, 385.

—Austria, influence in Italy in eighteenth century, 353; position after 1815, 358; helps suppress revolution of 1848, 361; Piedmontese-French alliance against, 362; loss of Venetia, 364.

—Ballottaggio, 378.

—Bissolati, political influence, 397.

—Bonaparte, Napoleon, and the Cisalpine Republic, 354; overthrows Genoese oligarchy, 354; wins at Marengo, 355; supervises revision of Italian constitutions, 355-356; crowned king of Italy, 356; annexes Rome to France, 357; prophecy of Italian unification, 359.

—Campo Formio, treaty of, 354.

—Cassation, courts of, 382.

—Catholics, political activities, 400-402.

—Cavour, Count, policies, 362.

—Chamber of Deputies, composition, 375; franchise law of 1882, 376; franchise to-day, 376-377; electoral procedure, 378; qualifications and privileges of members, 378-379; organization, 379-380; procedure, 380-381.

—Charles Albert I., becomes king of Piedmont, 360; grants constitution in 1848, 360-361; abdicates, 361.

—Circondaro, 383.

—Cisalpine Republic, 353-354.

—Code Napoleon, established in Italy, 357.

—Committees, of Parliament, 380.

—Commune, nature and organization, 385.

—Conservative Party, origins, 391; lack of normal development, 398.

—Constitution, of Cispadane Republic, 354; of Transpadane Republic, 354; of Ligurian Republic, 355; of Roman Republic, 355; of Parthenopaean Republic, 355; revisions in 1802-1803, 355-356; of Napoleonic kingdom of Naples, 357; proclaimed in Naples in 1820, 359; proclaimed in Naples in 1848, 360-361; granted in Piedmont in 1848, 360-361; character of Statuto, 365-367.

—Council, of province, 384; of commune, 385.

—Courts, patterned upon the French, 381; ordinary tribunals, 381-382; courts of cassation, 382; administrative courts, 382-383.

—Crispi, ministries, 393, 394-395.

—Crown, status, 368; civil list, 368; powers and functions, 368-369; relation with ministers, 370.

—Depretis, ministries, 392-393.

—Elections, development of laws regarding, 376; franchise, 376-378; procedure, 378; Catholic participation in, 400-402; of 1909, 402-403.

—Extreme Left, influence, 395; groups of, 398.

—France, relations with Italy during Napoleonic period, 354-357; allied with Piedmont, 362; receives Savoy and Nice, 363; withdrawal of troops from Rome, 364.

—Franchise, prior to 1882, 375; law of 1882, 376; present regulations, 376-377; electoral reform, 377.

—Fortis, ministry, 396.

—Garibaldi, conquest of Sicily, 363.

—Genoa, government remodelled, 354.

—Giolitti, ministries, 394, 396-398.

—Giunta, of province, 384; of commune, 385.

—Judiciary. See Courts.

—Italian Republic, 356.

—Interpellation, 380.

—Left, origins, 391; dominance, 392-394; prospects of harmony, 398.

—Liberal Party, in control, 395.

—Ligurian Republic, established, 354; annexed to France, 356.

—Lombardy, Austria's position in, 353, 358; annexed to Piedmont, 363.

—Luneville, treaty of, 355.

—Luzzatti, ministry, 396.

—Mandamento, 381.

—Milan, Transpadane Republic inaugurated at, 354; Napoleon crowned at, 356.

—Ministry, composition, 369; organization and functions, 370-371; ordinances, 371-372.

—Naples, invaded by French, 355; Murat king of, 357; revolution of 1820, 359; revolution of 1848, 360-361; annexed to kingdom of Italy, 363.

—Napoleon. See Bonaparte.

—Nice, ceded to France, 363.

—Non Expedit, purpose and effect, 400-401; partial relaxation, 401-402.

—Novara, battle of, 361.

—Ordinances, 371.

—Papacy, and revolution of 1848, 360-361; losses of territory to Piedmont, 362-363; and of temporal dominion, 387; Law of Papal Guarantees promulgated, 388; prerogatives, 388-389; relations with state, 389; opposition to existing system, 390; the Non Expedit, 400-402.

—Papal Guarantees, Law of, promulgated, 388; contents and character, 388-389; papal attitude toward, 390.

—Parliament, of united kingdom of Italy, 364; composition, 372-373; legislative weakness of Senate, 373; proposed reform of Senate, 373-374; composition of Chamber of Deputies, 375; franchise, 376-377; electoral procedure, 378; qualifications and privileges of members, 378-379; organization, 379-380; procedure, 380-381.

—Parties, rise of, 391; rule of Radicals, 392-394; era of composite ministries, 395-398; lack of real conservatives, 398-399; groups of Extreme Left, 398; rise of socialism, 399-400; effects of the Non Expedit, 401-402; elections of 1909, 402-403.

—Parthenopaean Republic, 355.

—Piedmont, incorporated with France, 355; recovery in 1815, 358; revolution of 1821, 360; revolution of 1848, 360; obtains constitution, 361; accession of Victor Emmanuel II., 361; ascendancy of, 362; annexations of 1859-1860, 362.

—Pius IX., reforms, 360; and revolution of 1848, 360-361; loss of temporal dominion, 387; rejects Law of Guarantees, 390.

—Plombieres, agreement of, 362.

—Prefect, 384.

—Premier, appointment, 369-370.

—Pressburg, treaty of, 356.

—Province, nature and organization, 384.

—Radical Party, origins, 391; dominance, 392-394.

—Republican Party, weakness, 399.

—Revolution of 1820-1821, 359; of 1848, 360.

—Right, origins, 391; loss of power, 392; coalition with Left, 393.

—Risorgimento, 353.

—Roman Republic, 355.

—Rome, republic established in 1798, 355; annexed to France, 357; annexed to kingdom of Italy, 364; becomes capital of kingdom, 364.

—Rudini, ministries, 394-395.

—Sardinia, kingdom of. See Piedmont.

—Savoy, ceded to France, 363.

—Scrutinio di lista, established in 1882, 376.

—Senate, composition, 372-373; legislative weakness, 373; proposed reform, 373-374; privileges and powers, 375; organization, 379; procedure, 380-381.

—Sindaco, of commune, 385.

—Socialist Party, rise and character, 399-400.

—Sonnino, ministries, 396-397.

—Statuto, granted, 360; character, 365, 366-367; amendment, 365-366.

—Transpadane Republic, 354.

—Treaties, 369.

—Turin, kingdom of Italy proclaimed at, 364.

—Uffici, 380.

—Venice, ceded to Austria, 354; annexed to kingdom of Italy, 364.

—Vienna, Congress of, settlement of Italian affairs, 358.

—Victor Emmanuel II., accession as king of Piedmont, 361; building of Italian unity, 362-364.

—Zanardelli, ministry, 396.

Landsthing. See Denmark.

Landtag. See Prussia.

Law, of England, 167-169; of Germany, 241-242; of France, 335-339; of Switzerland, 439; of Hungary, 505.

London, government, 190-191.

Magna Carta, importance and character, 9.

Ministry, organization and status in Great Britain, 57-70; proceedings, 71-73; in German Empire, 213-215; in Prussia, 254-256; in France, 311-314; in Italy, 369-372; in Austria, 464-465; in Hungary, 491-492; in Holland, 524-525; in Belgium, 536-537; in Denmark, 560-568; in Norway, 580-581; in Sweden, 590-591; in Spain, 615-616; in Portugal, 635-636, 644.

Netherlands. See Holland.

Non Expedit, nature and effects, 400-402.

Norway:— —Administration, organization, 588.

—Amtsthing, 588.

—Bernadotte, and union with Sweden, 554, 573-574.

—Commune, organization, 588.

—Conservative Party, 585-586.

—Constitution, of Eidsvold, 574; present form, 578; amendment, 579.

—Consular Service, question of, 576-577.

—County, organization, 588.

—Courts, organization, 587-588.

—Crown, restoration of independence, 578; status, 580; powers, 580-581; question of veto, 584-585.

—Denmark, united with, 553, 572-573; separated from, 554.

—Eidsvold, constitution of, 574.

—Elections, method, 581; franchise, 581-582; of 1909 and 1912, 587.

—Formaend, 588.

—Franchise, development, 581-582; present system, 582.

—Haakon VII., crowned king, 578.

—Hoeiesteret, 587.

—Independence, movement for in 1813-1814, 574; achieved, 577-578.

—Judiciary. See Courts.

—Kalmar, union of, 553.

—Karlstad, convention of, 578.

—Kiel, treaty of, 554, 573, 575.

—Liberal Party, growth, 585-586.

—Lagthing. See Storthing.

—Michelsen, ministry, 577.

—Ministry, composition, 580; functions, 580-581.

—Odelsthing. See Storthing.

—Parliament. See Storthing.

—Parliamentarism, 581.

—Parties, history to 1905, 585-586; status since 1905, 586-587.

—Riksakt, of 1815, 574-575.

—Social Democratic Party, 587.

—Steen, carries electoral reform, 581.

—Storthing, composition, 581; electoral system, 581-582; sessions and organization, 582; powers and procedure, 583-584.

—Sverdrup, organizes first Liberal ministry, 585.

—Sweden, union with established, 574; nature of union, 574-575; friction with, 575-576; question of consular service, 576-577; separation from, 577-578.

—Union. See Sweden.

—Veto, power of, 584-585.

—Woman's Suffrage, status, 582.

Papacy. See Italy.

Parliament. See England, France, Italy, Austria, etc.

Parliamentarism, in Great Britain, 143; in German Empire, 213; in Prussia, 254; in Austria, 464-465, 480-481; in Hungary, 498; in Belgium, 536-537; in Denmark, 560-562; in Norway, 581; in Sweden, 591.

Parties, rise in England, 38-39; history in England, 143-166; in Germany, 229-240; in France, 329-333; in Italy, 391-402; in Switzerland, 434-437; in Austria, 475-483; in Hungary, 500-505; in Holland, 529-530; in Denmark, 565-568; in Norway, 585-587; in Sweden, 592-600; in Spain, 620-625; in Portugal, 631-633, 639-642.

Plural vote, in England, 88-90; in Austria, 468; in Belgium, 550-551.

Portugal:— —Administration, organization under monarchy, 638-639; under republic, 646.

—Arriaga, Manoel, elected president, 642.

—Bonaparte, Napoleon, subjugation by, 629.

—Braga, Theophile, leader of provisional government, 641.

—Braganza, house of, proscribed, 641-642.

—Brazil, relation with, 629.

—Chagas, Joao, ministry, 642.

—Charter, of 1826, 630; revised, 631.

—Chartist Party, 630-631.

—Commune, organization, 638-639.

—Congress, composition and powers, 645-646.

—Constitution, of 1826, 630; revision of 1852, 631; character under monarchy, 634-635; of republic framed, 642-643; nature, 643; amendment, 643.

—Cortes, extinct at opening of nineteenth century, 629; revival, 630-631; party strength under monarchy, 633-634; renewed in 1908, 634; composition under monarchy, 636-638.

—Council of Municipalities, composition and powers, 645-646.

—Courts, under monarchy, 638; under republic, 646.

—Crown, status prior to 1910, 635-636.

—Dictadura, of France, 633-634.

—District, organization, 638-639.

—Elections, of 1906, 633; system prior to 1910, 637; of 1910, 640; provision for in decree of 1911, 641-642.

—Franchise, under monarchy, 637; under decree of 1911, 642.

—Franco, dictatorship, 633-634.

—House of Deputies, under monarchy, 636-637.

—House of Peers, under monarchy, 636-637.

—Judiciary. See Courts.

—Liberal Concentration, of 1906, 633.

—Manoel II., overthrow, 641.

—Miguel, assumption of crown, 630.

—Ministry, status prior to 1910, 635-636; under the republic, 644.

—National Council, composition and powers, 645-646.

—Parties, rivalries, 631-632; dictatorship of Franco, 633-634; elections of 1906, 633; and revolution of 1910, 639-642.

—Pedro IV., contest with Miguelists, 630.

—Pombal, reforms, 629.

—President, status and powers, 644.

—Progressive Party, 631-634.

—Regenerador Party, 631-634.

—Revolution of 1910, origins, 639; character and results, 640-641.

—Rotativos, 632-633.

—Septembrist Party, 631.

—Thomar, Count of, ministry, 631.

President, of France, 303-312; of Switzerland, 422-424; of Portugal, 644.

Proportional Representation, in Wuertemberg, 278; movement for in France, 320-324; in Switzerland, 419, 433; in Belgium, 543-545; in Denmark, 563.

Province, in Prussia, 268-270; in Italy, 384; in Austria, 485-487; in Holland, 532-533; in Belgium, 550-551; in Spain, 627.

Prussia (see also Germany and Austria):— —Abgeordnetenhaus, composition, 258; electoral system 258-260; question of electoral reform, 260-263; session and powers, 263-264.

—Abtheilungen, in Landtag, 264.

—Administration, reform measures of Stein and Hardenberg, 265; reforms of Bismarck, 266; general principles, 267; the province and its government, 268-270; the government district, 270-271; the circle, 271-272; the commune, 272-273.

—Amendment, of constitution, 252.

—Amtsgerichte, 243.

—Austria, war with, 200.

—Bezirksausschuss, 270.

—Charlottenburg, constitution promulgated at, 251.

—Circle. See Kreis.

—Civil List, 253.

—Committees, in Landtag, 264.

—Commune, organization, 272-273.

—Constitution, obstacles to establishment, 248; promulgated, 250; nature, 251; amendment, 252.

—Crown, status and power, 252.

—Diet, of 1847, 249.

—Elections, present system, 258-260; question of reform, 260-263.

—Franchise, 258-260.

—Frederick William III., and constitutionalism, 248-250.

—Hardenberg, reform measures, 247-265.

—Herrenhaus, original provisions of constitution concerning, 257; law of 1853, 257; composition to-day, 257-258.

—Interpellation, in Landtag, 265.

—Judiciary, 243-244.

—Kreis, organization, 271.

—Kreisausschuss, 271.

—Kreistag, 271.

—Landeshauptmann, 270.

—Landgerichte, 243.

—Landrath, 271.

—Landtag, composition, 257-258; electoral system, 258-260; electoral reform, 260-263; sessions, 263; powers, 264.

—Ministry, composition, 254; organization and workings, 255-256; subsidiary executive bodies, 256.

—Napoleon, and Prussia, 246-247.

—Oberlandesgerichte, 243.

—Oberpraesident, 269.

—Oberrechnungskammer, 256.

—Regierungsbezirk, organization, 270-271.

—Regierungspraesident, 270.

—Revolution of 1848, 249-250.

—Schulze, 272.

—Social Democratic Party, 260-261.

—Stadtrath, 273.

—Stein, reform measures, 247, 265; and Prussian local government, 265.

—Parliamentarism, absence of, 254.

—Province, origins and number, 268-269; organs of central administration, 269; organs of self-government, 269-270.

—Provinziallandtag, 270.

—Provinzialrath, 269.

—Volkswirthschaftsrath, 256.

Referendum, Unionist proposal in Great Britain, 109; in Swiss cantons, 419-420; in Swiss federal government, 430-432.

Reichsrath. See Austria.

Republicanism, in France, 297-298, 302-304, 329-330; in Italy, 399.

Rigsdag. See Denmark.

Riksdag. See Sweden.

Saxony, made a kingdom, 194; granted a constitution, 197; governmental system, 276-278.

Scotland, union of 1707, 39-40; allotment of parliamentary seats, 85; representative peers, 98-99.

Senate. See France, Italy, Belgium, Spain.

Social Democrats, in German Empire, 231-240; in Prussia, 260-261; in France, 330-334; in Italy, 399-400; in Switzerland, 434-436; in Austria, 469-470, 483; in Holland, 529-530; in Belgium, 540-548; in Norway, 587; in Sweden, 593-595, 600; in Spain, 625.

Spain:— —Administration, organization, 627-628; principles, 628.

—Alfonso XII., accession, 610.

—Amendment, of constitution, 611.

—Ayuntamiento, of commune, 628.

—Bonaparte, Napoleon, conquest by, 603-604.

—Cadiz, Cortes convoked at, 604.

—Canovas del Castillo, ministries, 621-622.

—Carlists, 606, 609, 620.

—Commune, organization, 627.

—Congress of Deputies, composition and election, 617-618; sessions and organization, 618-619; powers, 619-620.

—Conservative Party, character, 621, 625; governments of, 621-623.

—Constitution, of 1812 drawn up, 604; rescinded by Frederick VII., 605; of 1834, 607; of 1837, 607; of 1845, 607-608; of 1869, 608; of 1876, 611; character and contents to-day, 611-612.

—Cortes, convened in 1810, 604; drafts constitution of 1812, 604; under constitution of 1812, 604; under constitution of 1834, 607; under constitution of 1837, 607; under constitution of 1845, 608; under constitution of 1869, 608-609; establishes republic, 609; re-establishes monarchy, 610; adopts constitution of 1876, 611; composition to-day, 616-618; sessions and organization, 618-619; powers, 619-620; strength of parties, 624-625.

—Council, of province, 627; of commune, 628.

—Courts, organization, 626-627.

—Crown, rules of succession, 613; regencies, 613-614; powers, 614-615.

—Elections, of senators, 617; of deputies, 618; of 1907 and 1910, 624-625.

—Espartero, regent, 607.

—Estatuto Real, of 1834, 607.

—Isabella II., accession, 606; declared of age, 608; abdicates, 608.

—Ferdinand VII., reign, 605-607.

—France, intervention, 605.

—Franchise, present system, 618.

—Governor, of province, 627.

—Judiciary. See Courts.

—King. See Crown.

—Law, 626.

—Liberal Party, character, 621, 625; governments of, 621-623.

—Maria Christina, regency, 606-607; abdicates, 607.

—Maura, ministries, 623-624.

—Ministry, composition, 615; functions, 615-616.

—Parliament. See Cortes.

—Parties, beginnings, 620; character of Liberals and Conservatives, 621-622; since 1903, 623-624; elections of 1910, 624-625; republicans and socialists, 625.

—Pragmatic Sanction, of 1830, 606.

—Province, organization, 627.

—Regency, 613-614.

—Republic, established, 609; abolished, 610.

—Republican Party, rise, 620; present character, 625.

—Revolution of 1820, 605.

—Sagasta, ministries, 621-623.

—Salic Law, rescinded, 606.

—Scrutin de liste, in election of deputies, 618.

—Senate, composition, 616; appointment and election, 616-617; sessions and organization, 618-619.

—Serrano, regent, 609.

—Socialist Party, character of, 625.

—Succession, rules of, 613.

—Supreme Court, 626-627.

States-General. See Holland.

Storthing. See Norway.

Sweden:— —Administration, organization, 601.

—Agricultural Party. See Landtmannapartiet.

—Amendment, process, 589.

—Bernadotte, and union with Norway, 554, 573-574.

—Conservative Party, and electoral reform, 592-596; long tenure of power, 599-600.

—Consular Service, question of, 576-577.

—Constitution, character, 572, 589; amendment, 589.

—Constitutional Committee, 598.

—County, organization, 601.

—Courts, organization, 600-601.

—Crown, early status, 570-571; present basis, 590; relations with ministry, 590-591.

—Elections, present system, 592; movement for reform, 592-596; of 1908 and 1911, 600.

—Franchise, present regulations, 592; rise of movement for reform, 592-593; Conservative proposal of 1904, 593-594; Staaff project of 1906, 594-595; law of 1907-1909, 595-596; question of women's suffrage, 596; bill of 1912, 596-597.

—Gustavus III., rehabilitation of monarchy, 571.

—Gustavus IV., abdicates, 572.

—Hoegsta Domstolen, organization and functions, 600-601.

—Independence, established, 570.

—Judiciary. See Courts.

—Karlstad, convention of, 578.

—Kiel, treaty of, 554, 573, 575.

—Landsthing, of county, 601.

—Landtmannapartiet, growth, 599.

—Liberal Party, and electoral reform, 592-596; gains, 600.

—Lindman, project for electoral reform, 595.

—Ministry, composition, 590; powers, 590-591.

—Norway, union with, 573-574; nature of union, 574-575; friction with, 575-576; question of consular service, 576-577; separation of, 577-578.

—Parliament. See Riksdag.

—Parliamentarism, 591.

—Parties, and electoral reform, 592-596; military and tariff questions, 598-599; history since 1891, 599-600.

—Regerings-formen, of 1809, promulgated, 572.

—Riksakt, of 1815, 574-575.

—Riksdag, original character, 591; reorganization in 1866, 591; composition of chambers, 591-595; electoral system, 582; movement for electoral reform, 592-596; organization and procedure, 597; powers, 597-598.

—Social Democratic Party, and electoral reform, 593-595; gains, 600.

—Staaff, project for electoral reform, 594.

—Statsrad. See Ministry.

—Supreme Court. See Hoegsta Domstolen.

—Union. See Norway.

—Women's Suffrage, movement for, 596-597.

Switzerland:— —Act of Mediation, 407.

—Bezirksammann, 422.

—Bezirksrath, 422.

—Bonaparte, Napoleon, promulgates Act of Mediation, 407.

—Bundesgericht, nature and functions, 437-438.

—Bundesrath. See Federal Council.

—Canton, constitutions liberalized, 409; sovereignty, 412; federal control, 412-413; powers exercised concurrently with Confederation, 414-415; variation of constitutions, 416; the Landesgemeinde, 417-418; the Greater Council, 418-419; use of referendum, 419-420; use of initiative, 421; the executive Council of State, 421; local administration, 422; the judiciary, 422.

—Centralism, triumph in 1848, 410; as a political issue, 434.

—Clerical Party, character, 434-435.

—Commune, 422.

—Confederation, origins, 405; composition in later eighteenth century, 406; erected into Helvetic Republic, 406; remodelled in 1803, 407; reorganized in 1815, 408; constitution of 1848 and 1874, 410; nature, 411-412; control of cantons by, 412; powers vested exclusively in, 413-414; powers denied, 414-415; general aspects, 415.

—Constitution, of Helvetic Republic, 406-407; remodelled in 1803, 407; of 1815, 408; of cantons liberalized, 409; of 1848, 410; revision of 1874, 410; nature of government established by, 411-416; amendment, 431-432.

—Council of State, executive agency in cantons, 421.

—Council of the States, composition, 427; compared with Senate of United States, 427-428; powers, 428-429; procedure, 429-430.

—Courts, of the cantons, 422; absence of administrative tribunals, 425-426; the Bundesgericht, 437-438; Civil Code, 439.

—Diet, of Confederation in 1803-1815, 407; after 1815, 408.

—Elections, of Federal Council, 423; of National Council, 426; of Council of the States, 428; party conditions, 435-437.

—Federal Assembly, relations with Federal Council, 424-425; composition, 426; powers, 428-429; procedure, 429-430.

—Federal Court. See Bundesgericht.

—Federalism, triumph of in 1803, 407; in 1815, 408; survival in present constitutional system, 411; as a political issue, 434.

—Federal Pact, 408.

—Franchise, 426.

—Gemeindeversammlung, 422.

—Greater Council, of the canton, 418-419.

—Helvetic Republic, creation and character, 406-407.

—Initiative, employment in cantons, 421; in the federal government, 432-434.

—Judiciary. See Courts.

—Landammann, 421-422.

—Landesgemeinde, 417-418.

—Law, 439.

—Left. See Radical Party.

—Liberal Party, character, 435.

—National Council, composition, 426; organization, 427; powers, 428-429; procedure, 429-430.

—Parties, prolonged ascendancy of Radicals, 434; alignments to-day, 434-435; stability of groups, 435-436; inactivity, 436-437.

—President, election and functions, 422-424.

—Proportional Representation, 419, 433.

—Radical Party, prolonged ascendancy, 434; present character, 434-436.

—Referendum, origins, 419; operation in cantons, 419-420; optional form in federal government, 430-431; obligatory form, 431-432.

—Right. See Clerical Party.

—Socialist Party, rise, 434-436.

—Sonderbund, 409.

—Vienna, Congress of, disposition of Swiss affairs, 408.

Table of Magnates. See Hungary.

Woman's Suffrage, in Great Britain, 91-92; in Holland, 527-528; in Norway, 582; in Sweden, 596-597.

Wuerttemberg, made a kingdom, 194; granted a constitution, 197; special privileges, 208; governmental system, 278-279.

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Transcriber's note:

The listing in the index for "Switzerland, Bundesrath" refers the reader "Switzerland, Federal Council", which is absent in the original text.

THE END