- Farmer's Income Income Total Cost of Cost of Total Balance. Area from from Other Cultivation Living Outlay Farming Work - yen yen yen yen yen yen yen 2-1/2 cho 366 43 409 107 276 382 27 5 cho 441 33 474 119 301 423 52 -

It will be seen that mixed farming is the more profitable.

Income of Tenants (Hokkaido).—Professor Takaoka was kind enough to give me the following summaries of balance sheets of tenants of college lands in different parts of Hokkaido in 1915. (In all cases the accounts have been debited with wages for the farmer's family.)

Five cho. Income, 447 yen; net return, 37 yen. (Rye, wheat, oats, corn, soy, potatoes, grass, flax, buckwheat and rape. One horse and a few hens.)

Five cho. Income, 763 yen; net return, 58 yen. (Rye, wheat, oats, rape, soy, potatoes, corn, grass, flax and onions. Three cows, one horse.)

Ten cho. Income, 1,015 yen; net return, 122 yen. (Same crops with two cows and one horse and some hired labour.)

Five cho (peppermint on 3 cho). Income, 882 yen; net return, 93 yen.

Three cho. Income, 1,195 yen; net return, 332 yen. (Vegetable farming. 206 yen paid for labour.)

Thirty cho. Income, 1,979 yen; net return, 61 yen. (Mixed farming; 632 yen paid for labour.)

Model 5-cho farm without rice. Made 604 yen, and 107 yen net return, farm capital being 1,487 yen. (208 yen allowed for labour, interest 128 yen, amortisation 27 yen, and taxes 13 yen.)

Milk farmer, 12 cho and 90 cattle. Income, 12,280 yen; net return of 3,641 yen.

2,120 cho (1,235 forest, 402 pasture, 110 artificial grass and 42 crops; 111 cattle). Income, 66,205 yen; net return, 1,011 yen. (Milk and meat farming.)

Average income and expenditure of 200 tenants of University land whose budgets Professor Morimoto (see Chapter XXXIV) investigated:

yen Crops 451.66 Wages earned 61.33 Horses 20.09 Poultry and eggs .96 Pigs .85 Manure (animal, 35 kwan; human, 14 koku) 24.50 Other income 29.64 ——— 589.03 yen Cultivation, etc. 206.32 Cost of living 303.33 ——— 509.65 ——— Profit 79.38 ======

The returns of capital yielded the following averages:

yen Tenant right in respect of 5-16 cho 750.82 Buildings (32.2 tsubo) 195.95 Clothing 162.82 Horse (average 1.23) 108.48 Furniture 58.47 Implements 51.23 Poultry (average 2.58) 1.15 Pigs (average .12) .87 ———— Total 1,329.79 ========

VALUE OF NEW PADDY [XIV]. More delicious rice could be got, I was told, from well-fertilised barren land than from naturally fertile land. The first year the new paddy yielded per tan an average of 1.2 koku, the second 1.6, the third 2, and this fourth year the yield would have been 2.3 had it not been for damage by storm.

AREAS AND CROPS OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF RICE [XV]. In 1919 there was grown of paddy rice 2,984,750 cho (2,729,639 ordinary, 255,111 glutinous) and of upland rice 141,365 cho. Total, 3,126,115 cho. The yield (husked, uncleaned) was of paddy 61,343,403 koku (ordinary, 56,438,005; glutinous, 4,905,398); of upland, 1,839,312. Total, 63,182,715 koku; value, 2,352,145,519 yen.

In 1877 the area is reputed to have been 1,940,000 cho with a yield of 24,450,000 koku and in 1882 2,580,000 cho with a yield of 30,692,000 koku. The average of the five years 1910-14 was 3,033,000 cho with a yield of 57,006,000 koku; of the five years 1915-19, 3,081,867 cho with a yield of 94,817,431 koku.

In a prefecture in south-western Japan I found that 2 koku 5 to (or 2-1/2 koku, there being 10 to in a koku) per tan was common and that from 3 koku to 3 koku 5 to was reached. "A good yield for 1 tan," says an eminent authority, "is 3 koku, or on the best fields even 4 koku." The average yield in koku per tan for the whole country has been (paddy-field rice only): 1882, 1.19; 1894-8, 1.38; 1899-1903, 1.44; 1904-8, 1.57; 1909-13, 1.63; 1914-18, 1.86; 1919, 1.99; 1920, 2.05 (ordinary, 2.06; glutinous, 1.92). Upland rice in 1920, 1.30 as against 1.02 in 1909. All these figures are for husked, uncleaned rice.

BARLEY AND WHEAT CROPS [XVI]. The following table (average of five years, 1913-17) shows the yields per tan of the two sorts of barley and of wheat and the average yield all three together in comparison with the rice yield (all quantities husked):

go go Barley 1,672 All three together 1,307 Naked barley 1,172 Rice 1,808 Wheat 1,073

Naked barley is grown as an upland crop, as are ordinary barley and wheat; but it is more largely grown as a second crop in paddies than either barley or wheat. The barleys are chiefly used for human food with or without rice. Wheat is eaten in macaroni, sweetstuffs and bread. It is also used in considerable quantities in the manufacture of soy, the chief ingredient of which is beans. There was imported in the year 1920 wheat to the value of 28-1/2 million yen, and flour to the value of 3-1/4 million yen. Macaroni is largely made of buckwheat as well as of wheat. The other grain crop is millet, which is eaten by the poorest farmers. In 1918, as against 60 million koku of rice, there were grown 5 million koku of beans and peas. The crops of barley were 17 million, of wheat 6 million, of millet 3-1/4 million, and of buckwheat 3/4 million. More than a million kwan of sweet potatoes were produced and nearly half a million of "Irish" potatoes. (The figures for barley and wheat are for 1919.)

COST AND PRICE OF RICE [XVII]. The annual figures (from Aichi) for the years 1894 to 1915 (page 384) show the cost of producing a tan of rice, that is the summer crop. The amounts per tan are calculated on the basis of the expenses of a tenant who is cropping 8 tan. The totals for the winter crop are also given. The figures which appear on the opposite page were described to me by the farmer concerned as "compiled on the basis of investigations by the chairman of the village agricultural association and by its managers and still further proved and quite trustworthy." It will be seen that the value of the winter crop is low; a secondary employment is usually a better thing for the farmer. In one or two places there is a sen or so difference in the additions which may have been made by the transcriber from the Japanese original. The difference in amounts of rent is due to difference in fields rented and also to reduction allowed owing to bad crops. The difference in the income from crops is usually due to destruction by hail or wind.

COST AND PRICE OF RICE (see page 383)

Year Yield in koku Reserved for Rent and Seeds (koku) Market Price per koku (yen) Gross Income including Straw and Chaff, not usually sold (yen) Manures (yen) Taxes and Amortisation of Implements (sen) Total Outlay (yen) Net Income from Summer Crop of Rice (yen) Days of Labour on Summer Crop of Rice Net Income from Winter Crop (?Barley) Total Net Income from both Crops. - - - - - - 1894 2.23 1.05 7.66 9.81 2 21 2.21 7.60 2.5 2.51 10.11 1895 2.13 1.05 8.09 8.71 2 21 2.26 6.45 21.5 2.48 8.92 1896 1.53 .80 8.67 6.89 2.4 22 2.58 4.31 21.5 3.38 7.69 1897 1.88 1.05 11.53 10.63 2.9 23 3.13 7.50 21.5 5.22 12.72 1898 2.39 1.05 14.62 21.13 3.2 25 3.40 17.73 21.5 5.50 23.23 1899 1.75 .88 12.05 11.48 3.8 30 4.11 7.37 21 2.22 9.99 1900 2.14 1.05 11.11 13.24 4.1 31 4.40 8.84 21 4.22 13.06 1901 2.10 1.05 10.53 12.06 4 32 4.35 7.71 21 3.87 11.58 1902 1.86 .99 12.99 12.40 3.1 38 3.51 8.89 21 4.11 13 1903 2.06 1.04 12.50 13.85 3.4 49 3.79 10.05 21 6 16.85 1904 2.24 1.03 12.20 16 2.6 53 3.11 9.89 21 6.06 15.95 1905 1.77 .99 13.42 11.60 2.1 46 2.55 9.05 21 6.67 15.71 1906 1.96 1.05 15.15 15 09 4 56 4.61 10.49 21 5.79 16.27 1907 1.98 1.14 16.39 16.69 4.4 42 4.83 11.84 21 8.60 20.43 1908 2.21 1.14 14.29 16.80 5.1 42 5.54 11.26 21 10.79 22.05 1909 2.27 1.14 11.63 14.39 3.7 99 4.64 9.75 21 11.49 21.24 1910 2.02 1.14 14.09 13.37 4.5 80 5.27 8.51 21 12.41 20.91 1911 2.22 1.14 16.67 19.72 4.4 78 5.13 14.59 21 13.49 28.08 1912 2.02 .90 21.74 26.48 5.9 75 6.60 19.88 21.5 3.73 23.6 1913 2.31 1.14 20.83 24.67 6.5 79 7.30 17.37 21.5 12.62 30 1914 2.48 1.14 12.50 18.29 5.8 78 6.53 11.75 21.5 11.54 23.30 1915 2.36 1.20 11.77 14.91 5.8 82 6.67 8.24 21.5 9.67 18.91

This table may be supplemented by the following prices for (unpolished) rice in Tokyo: 1916, 13 yen 76 sen; 1917, 19 yen 84 sen; 1918, 32 yen 75 sen; 1919, 45 yen 99 sen.

In the spring of 1921 the League for the Prevention of Sales of Rice at a Sacrifice proposed that rice should not be sold under 35 yen per koku. The price passed the figure of 35 yen in July 1918. At the time the League's proposals were made the Ministry of Agriculture was quoted as stating that the cost of producing rice "is now 40 yen per koku." The accuracy of the figures on which the Ministry's estimates are made is frequently called in question.

CULTIVATED AREA IN JAPAN AND GREAT BRITAIN [XVIII]. In 1919 there were in Great Britain (England, Scotland, Wales, the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands) 15,808,000 acres of arable, 15,910,000 of pasture and 13,647,000 of grazing, or a total of 45,365,000 acres out of a total area of 56,990,000 acres. In Japan there were 15,044,202 acres of paddy and of cultivated upland, 46,958,000 acres of forest and 8,773,000 acres of waste; total 70,775,000, out of 90,880,000 acres. The area of the United Kingdom without Ireland is 56,990,080 acres; that of Japan Proper, 75,988,378 acres. The population of the United Kingdom without Ireland (in 1911) was 41,126,000, and of Japan Proper (in 1911) 51,435,000. (See also Appendix XXX.)

HUMAN LABOUR v. CATTLE POWER [XIX]. The Department of Agriculture stated in 1921 that "from 200 to 300, sometimes more than 500 days' labour [of one man] are required to grow a cho of rice." The area of paddy which is ploughed by horse or cattle power was 61.89 per cent. The area of upland so cultivated was only 38.97 per cent. The "average year's work of the ordinary adult farmer" was put at 200 days. The Department estimated an average man's day's work (10 hours) as follows:

- Nature of Work Tools used Output by one Man per Day - hectare Tillage of paddy Kuwa (mattock) 0.06 " " " Fumi-guwa (heavy spade) 0.1-0.15 Transplanting rice Hand work 0.07-0.1 Weeding Sickle and weeding tools 0.1 Cutting the rice crop Sickle 0.1-0.15 Mowing grass Sickle (long handle) 0.5 " " Scythe 0.5 -

But I have never seen a scythe in use in Japan!

MANURE [XX]. The value of the manure used in Japan in a year has been estimated at about 220 million yen, but for the three years ending 1916 it averaged 241 millions, as follows:

Produced or obtained by the Farmer Purchased yen yen Compost 63,500,000 Bean cake 32,000,000 Human waste 54,000,000 Mixed 17,000,000 Green manure 9,600,000 Miscellaneous 16,000,000 Rice chaff 5,000,000 Sulphate of ammonia 15,000,000 Superphosphate 12,000,000 Fish waste 12,000,000

Dr. Sato puts the artificial manure used per tan at a sixth of that of Belgium and a quarter of that of Great Britain and Germany. See also Appendix IV. An agricultural expert once said to me, "Japanese farmer he keep five head of stock, his own family."

SOWING OF RICE [XXI]. A common seeding time is the eighty-eighth day of the year according to the old calendar, say May 1 or 2. Transplanting is very usual at the end of May or early in June. In Kagawa, Shikoku, I found that rice was sown at the beginning of May or even at the end of April, the transplanting being done in mid-June. The harvest was obtained 10 per cent. about September 10th, 30 per cent. in October and 60 per cent. about the beginning of November. The winter crop of naked barley was sown in the first quarter of December and was harvested late in May or early in June, so there was just time for the rice planting in mid-June.

In Kochi the first crop is sown about March 15, the seedlings are put out in mid-May and the harvest is ready about August 10. The second crop, which has been sown in June, is ready with its seedlings from August 13 to August 15, and the harvest arrives about November 1 and 2. The first crop may yield about 3 koku, the second 1-1/2 koku.

A good deal depends in raising a big crop on a good seed bed. This is got by reducing the quantity of seed used and by applying manure wisely. Whereas formerly as much as from 5 to 7 go of seed was sown per tsubo, the biggest crops are now got from 1 go.

The Japanese names of the most widely grown varieties are Shinriki, Aikoku, Omachi, Chikusei and Sekitori. At an experiment station I copied the names of the varieties on exhibition there: Banzai, Patriotism, Japanese Embroidery, Good-looking, Early Power of God, Bamboo, Small Embroidery, Power of God, Mutual Virtue, Yellow Bamboo, Late White, Power of God (glutinous), Silver Rice Cake and Eternal Rice Field.

There are several thousand cho in the vicinity of Tokyo where, owing to the low temperature of the marshy soil, the seed is sown direct in the paddies, not broadcast but at regular intervals and in thrice or four times the normal quantities.

RATE OF PLANTING [XXII]. I have been told that an adult who has the seedlings brought to his or her hand can stick in a thousand an hour. The early varieties may be set in clumps of seven or eight plants; middle-growth sorts may contain from five to six; the latest kind may include only three or four. The number of clumps planted may be 42 per tsubo, which, as a tsubo is nearly four square yards, is about ten per square yard. The clumps are put in their places by being pushed into the mud. A straight line is kept by means of a rope. The success of the crop depends in no small degree on skilful planting.

HOW MUCH RICE DOES A JAPANESE EAT? [XXIII]. The daily consumption of rice per head, counting young and old, is nearly 3 go. (A go is roughly a third of a pint.) A sturdy labourer will consume at least 5 go in a day, and sometimes 7 or even 10 go. The allowance for soldiers is 6 go. These quantities represent the rice uncooked. In recent years more and more rice has been eaten by those who formerly ate barley or mainly barley. And some who once ate a good deal of millet and hiye are now eating a certain amount of rice. The average annual consumption per head of the Japanese population (Korea and Formosa excluded from the calculation) was: 1888-93, 948 go; 1908-13, 1,037 go; 1913-18, 1,050 go. The averages of 25 years (1888-1912) were: production, 42,756,584 koku; consumption, 44,410,725 koku; deficit, 1,984,970 koku; population, 45,140,094; per head, 0.980 koku. In 1921 the Department of Agriculture, estimating a population of 55,960,000 (see Appendix XXX) and an annual consumption per head of 1.1 koku per year, put the national consumption for a year at about 61,550,000 koku. See also Appendix XXVI.

IMPORTED AND EXPORTED RICE [XXIV]. "Good rice" is imported from Korea and Formosa. The objection is to "Rangoon" rice. But most of the imported rice does not come from Rangoon but from Saigon. The figures for 1919 were in yen: China, 283,011; British India, 1,012,979; Kwantung, 15,053,977; Siam, 29,367,430; French Indo-China, 116,313,525; other countries, 39,918; total, 162,070,840. The exports in 1919 were in yen: China, 1,354; Australia, 6,570; Asiatic Russia, 165,463; Kwantung, 213,633; British America, 356,600; United States, 476,756; Hawaii, 3,046,598; other countries, 60,707—all obviously in the main for Japanese consumption. The total imports and exports were in koku and yen over a period of years:

Imports Exports Year - - - Koku Value (yen) Koku Value (yen) 1909 1,325,243 13,585,817 422,513 5,867,290 1910 918,627 8,644,439 429,251 5,900,477 1911 1,719,566 11,721,085 216,198 3,940,541 1912 2,234,437 30,193,481 208,423 4,367,824 1913 3,637,269 48,472,304 204,002 4,372,979 1914 2,022,644 24,823,933 260,738 4,974,108 1915 457,606 4,886,125 662,629 9,676,969 1916 309,158 3,087,616 686,479 11,197,356 1917 564,376 6,513,373 769,129 14,662,546 1918 4,647,168 89,755,678 264,565 8,321,965 1919 4,642,382 162,070,840 95,219 4,327,690 1920 471,083 18,059,194 116,249 5,897,675

The twenty-five years' average (1888-1912) of excess of import over export was 1,339,493 koku. See also Appendix XXVIII.

INCREASE OF RICE YIELD AND OF POPULATION [XXV].

- Percentage Percentage 1882 1913 of 1918 of Increase Increase[*] - Population 36,700,000 53,362,000 45 66,851,000 55 Rice crop 30,692,000 50,222,000 63 53,893,000 75 (koku) -

* 1882-1918. The degree to which the increase in production will be maintained is of course a matter for discussion. As far as rice is concerned, it must be borne in mind that there is an increasing consumption per head.

FARMERS' DIET [XXVI]. It is officially stated in 1921 that "the common farm diet consists of a mixture of cooked rice and barley as the principal food with vegetables and occasionally fish." The barley is what is known as naked barley. Ordinary barley is eaten in northern Japan, but two-thirds of the barley eaten elsewhere is the wheat-like naked barley, which cannot be grown in Fukushima and the north. The husking of ordinary barley is hard work. The young men do it during the night when it is cool. They keep on until cock-crow. Their songs and the sound of their mallets make a memorable impression as one passes through a village on a moonlight night. Another substitute for rice beyond millet is hiye (panic grass). In the south it is regarded as a weed of the paddies, but in the north many tan are planted with this heavy-yielding small grain.

TAXATION [XXVII]. Before 1906 national taxation was 2.5 per cent. of the legal price of land. In 1900 it was 3.3 per cent., in 1904 5.5 per cent., in 1911 4.7 per cent, and in 1915 4.5 per cent. But local taxation increased in greater proportion.

FLAVOUR OF RICE AND PRICE FLUCTUATIONS [XXVIII]. Japanese rice has a fatty flavour which the people of Japan like. Therefore the native rice commands a higher price in Japan than Chinese or Indian rice. With the exception of a small quantity exported to Japanese abroad, Japanese rice is consumed in Japan. The supply of it and the demand for it are exclusively a Japanese affair. Naturally, when the crop fails the price soars, and when there is a superabundant harvest the price comes down to the level of foreign rice. Here is the secret of the enormous fluctuations in the price of Japanese rice with which the authorities have so often endeavoured to cope.

The Government granary plan is the third big effort of authority to manage rice prices. The Okuma Government, under the administration of which rice went down to 14 yen per koku, had a Commission to raise prices. The Terauchi Ministry, at a time when prices rose, touching 55 yen, had a Commission to bring prices down.

AREA AND CLIMATE [XXIX]. Japan Proper comprises a main island, three other large islands in sight of the main island, and archipelagos—4,000 islets have been counted. The main island, Honshu, with Shikoku behind it, lies off the coast of Korea; the next largest and northernmost island, Hokkaido, off the coast of Siberia, and the remaining sizeable island and the southernmost, Kyushu, off the coast of China over against the mouth of the Yangtse. The area of this territory, that is of Japan before the acquirement of Formosa, Korea, southern Saghalien and part of Manchuria, is about 142,000 square miles in area, which is that of Great Britain in possession not of one Wales but of four, or nearly 1 per cent. of the area of Asia. But there are several million more people in Japan than there are inhabitants of Great Britain and thrice as many as there are Britons in Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and India. (See also Appendix XXX.) Japan, which lies between the latitudes of Cairo and the Crimea, may be said to consist of mountains, of which fifty are active volcanoes, with some land, either hilly or boggy, at the foot of them. It is nowhere more than 200 miles across and in one place is only 50. A note on the ocean currents which exercise an influence on agriculture will be found on page 195. The protection afforded to the eastern prefectures by mountain ranges is obvious. Generally the summer temperature of Japan is higher and the winter temperature is lower than is recorded in Europe and America within the same latitudes.

"The mild climate and abundant rainfall," says the Department of Agriculture, "stimulate a luxuriant forest development throughout the country which in turn provides ample fountain heads for rivers. The rivers and streams run in all directions, affording opportunity for irrigation all over the country. The insular position of the country renders its humidity high and its rainfall abundant when compared with Continental countries. The rainy season prevails during the months of June and July, making this season risky for the harvest of wheat and barley; on the other hand it affords a beneficent irrigation supply to paddy-grown rice, which is the most important crop. The characteristic feature of the climate in the greater part of the islands is the frequency of storms in the months of August and September. As the flowers of the rice plant commence to bloom during the same period, these late summer storms cause much damage."

The weather in Tokyo in 1918 was as follows:

- Jan. Feb. Mar. Apl. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. - Rain and snow (mm.) 10 65 163 108 123 149 82 78 202 135 142 80 Temp. (C.) 1.6 3.6 6.7 11.7 16.7 20.2 26.0 26.0 22.6 16.0 10.4 3.9 -

The varied climate of Japan is indicated by the following statistics for centres as far distant as Nagasaki in the extreme south-west and Sapporo in Hokkaido:

- Nagasaki Kyoto Tokyo Niigata Aomori Sapporo - - - Days of rain or snow 179 176 144 218 229 216 Average temp. (C.) 14.9 13.6 13.8 12.5 9.4 7.3 Maximum 36.7 37.2 36.6 39.1 36.0 33.4 Minimum 5.6 11.9 8.1 9.7 19.0 25.6 -

The italicised temperatures are below zero. Average dates of last frost: Tokyo, April 6; Nagoya, April 13; Matsumoto, May 17.

POPULATION OF JAPAN, MANCHURIA AND MONGOLIA [XXX]. The population of the Empire according to the 1920 census was 77,005,510, which included Korea, 17,284,207; Formosa, 3,654,398; Saghalien, 105,765; and South Manchuria (that is, the Kwantung Peninsula), 80,000. In Old Japan (Honshu, Shikoku and Kyushu with the near islands, and Loo-choos and Bonins) there were 53,602,043, and in Hokkaido (including Kuriles) 2,359,097.

Tokyo is the largest city, 2,173,000, followed by Osaka, 1,252,000. Kobe and Kyoto have a little more than half a million; Nagoya and Yokohama four hundred thousand apiece. Ten other cities have a hundred thousand odd.

In the following table the populations and areas of Japan, Great Britain and the United States are compared:

Country Area Population Population per sq. mile Japan (excluding Korea, Formosa and Saghalien) 142,000 55,961,140 394 (1920) British Isles 121,636 47,306,664[*] 388 (1921) United States (excluding Alaska and oversea possessions) 3,000,000 105,683,108 35 (1920)

* Ireland taken at 1911 census figures.

Japan's 394 per square mile is lowered by the population of Hokkaido (2,359,097), which is only 66 per square mile. The population of the three chief Japanese islands is: Honshu, the mainland (41,806,930), 471; Shikoku (3,066,890), 423; and Kyushu (8,729,088), 511. (These figures are for 1920.) "As regards density per square kilometre," writes an official of the Imperial Bureau of Statistics in the Japan Year-book, with the figures antecedent to the 1920 census before him, "it is calculated at 140 for Japan and this compares as follows with Belgium (1910) 252, England and Wales (1911) 239, Holland (1909) 171, Italy (1911) 121, Germany (1910) 120 and France 44. When comparison is made on the basis of habitable area Japan may be considered to surpass all as to density, for while in Japan it constitutes only 19 per cent, of the total area, the ratio is as high as 74 for Belgium, 73 for England and Wales, 67 for Holland, 76 for Italy, 65 for Germany and 70 for France." The Professor of Agricultural Science at Tokyo University says: "The area under cultivation, even in the densely populated parts, is comparatively smaller than in any other country."

In a statement issued in 1921 the Department of Agriculture reckoned the population at 145 per square kilometre and recorded the mean rate of increase "in recent years" as 12.06 per 1,000. It stated that the density of the rural population was 44 per square kilometre or 9.42 per hectare of arable, in other words that the density "is higher than that of France, Belgium, Switzerland and some other countries where the agriculture is marked by fairly intensive methods." Mr. Nikaido, of the Bureau of Statistics, writes in the Japan Year-book that the annual increase of Japan's population was 14.78 per 1,000 for 1909-13 and 12.06 for 1914-18, "a rate greater than in any civilised country, with the exception of Germany and Rumania in the pre-War years."

The birth rate is high, but so is the mortality. The death rate of minors is thrice that of Germany and Great Britain. Here the increasing industrialisation of the country is no doubt playing its part. The ratio of still births has steadily risen since the eighties. The ratio of births, other than still births, per 1,000 of population, which in 1889-93 was 28.6, increased by 1909-13 to 33.7; but the death rate fell only from 21.1 to 20.6. The ratio of unmarried, 63.22 in 1893, was 66.22 in 1918.

The following figures for Japan Proper are printed by the Financial and Economic Annual, issued by the Department of Finance:

- Year. Total. Annual Increase Average Increase per of Population. 1,000 Inhabitants. - 1910 50,716,600 14.09} 1911 51,435,400 718,800 14.17} 1912 52,167,000 731,600 14.22} 14.21 1913 52,911,800 744,800 14.28} 1914 53,668,600 756,800 14.30} 1915 54,448,200 779,600 14.53} 1916 55,235,000 786,800 14.45} 1917 56,035,100 800,100 14.49} 14.50 1918 56,851,300 816,200 14.57} 1919 57,673,938 822,638 14.47} 1920 55,961,140 -

It will be seen that for the year 1920 there was a big drop. The population of 55,961,140 for the year 1920 is the actual population as returned by the census; the figures of the preceding years are "based," it is explained to me, "on the local registrars' entries. The national census has demonstrated that the figures were larger than the actual number of inhabitants, the discrepancies being partly due to erroneous and duplicate registration and partly to the exodus of persons to the colonies or foreign countries whilst retaining their legal domiciles at home. But the table serves to show the rate of increase." A million and three-quarters is a substantial figure, however, to account for in this way. It would seem reasonable to suppose that the increased cost of living, marriage at a later age than formerly and increased mortality due directly or indirectly to the factory system have arrested the rate of increase of the population in recent years. For trustworthy figures of the Japanese population we must await the next census and compare its figures with those of the 1920 census, the first to be taken scientifically.

A considerable part of Japan is uninhabitable. Of how much of the British Isles can this be said? The fact that there are in Japan fifty more or less active volcanoes, about a thousand hot springs and two dozen mountains between 12,000 and 8,000 ft. high speaks for itself. Ben Nevis is only 4,400, Snowdon only 3,500 ft.

The population of Korea in 1920 (17,284,207) was 239 per square mile. According to Whitaker for 1921 the population of Manchuria (11 millions) is 30 per square mile, and of Mongolia (3 millions) 2.8.

SMALL FARMS DECREASING [XXXI].

Year Below 5 Over 5 Over 5 Over 2 Over 3 Over 5 tan tan cho cho cho cho 1908 37.28 32.61 19.51 6.44 3.01 1.15 1912 37.14 33.25 19.61 5.96 2.83 1.21 1918 35.54 33.30 20.70 6.33 2.82 1.31 1919 35.36 33.18 20.68 6.21 2.83 1.74

See also Appendix XLVII.

FORESTS [XXXII]. The following figures for 1918 show, in thousand cho, the ownership of forests (bared tracts in brackets): Crown, 1,303 (89); State, 7,288 (392); prefectures, cities, towns and villages, 2,894 (1,383); temples and shrines, 111 (15); 7,186 (1,630); total, 18,782 (3,509). The largest yield is from sugi (cryptomeria), pine and hinoki (Charmae-cyparis obtusa).

ARMAMENTS [XXXIII]. 1,505 million yen of the national debt is for armaments and military purposes against 923 million yen for reproductive undertakings (railways, harbours, drainage, roads, steelworks, mining, telephones, etc.), 143 million for exploitation of Formosa, Korea and Saghalien, 123 million for financial adjustment and 98 million for feudal pensions and feudal debt. Of the expenditure for 1920-1, 846 million, some 395 million were for the army and navy. During a period of 130 years the United States Government has spent nearly four-fifths of its revenue on war or objects related to war.

LANDOWNING AND FARMING [XXXIV]. Before the Restoration the farmers were the tenants of the daimyos' vassals, the samurai, or of the daimyos direct. When the daimyos gave up their lands the Crown made the farmers the owners of the land they occupied. Its legal value was assessed and the national land tax was fixed at 3 per cent, and the local tax at 1 per cent. Various adjustments have since taken place.

The Japanese Constitutional Labour Party has insisted in a communication to the International Labour Conference at Geneva that Japanese tenant farmers are not properly called farmers but that they are "labourers pure and simple." See Appendix LXXVI.

STATE RAILWAYS [XXXV]. The railways, which were nationalised in 1907, extended in 1919 to 6,000 miles. There were also nearly 2,000 miles of light railways (in addition to 1,368 of electric street cars). Most of the lines are single track. The gauge is 3 ft. 6 in. The Government has proposed gradually to electrify the whole system.

ILLEGITIMACY [XXXVI]. In Japan illegitimacy is a question not of morals but of law. That is to say, it is a question of registration. If a husband omits to register his marriage he is not legally married. Thus it is possible for there to be born to a married pair a child which is technically illegitimate. If the child should die at an early age it is equally possible for it to appear on the official records as illegitimate. A birth must be registered within a fortnight. It may be thought perhaps that it is practicable for the father to register his marriage after the birth of the child and within the time allowed for registration. It is possible but it is not always easy. An application for the registration of the marriage of a man under twenty-five must bear the signature of his parents and the signature of two persons who testify that the required consent has been regularly obtained. In the event of a man's father having "retired," the signature of the head of the family must be secured. If a man is over twenty-five, then the signatures of his parents or of any two relatives will suffice. Now suppose that a man is living at a distance from his birthplace or suppose that the head of his family is travelling. Plainly, there may be a difficulty in securing a certificate in time. Therefore, because, as has been explained, no moral obloquy attaches to unregistered marriage or to unregistered or legally illegitimate children, registration is often put off. When a man removes from one place to another and thereupon registers, it may be that his marriage and his children may be illegitimate in one place and legitimate in another. There is a difference between actual and legal domicile. A man may have his domicile in Tokyo but his citizen rights in his native village.

SAKE AND BEER [XXXVII]. Sake is sold in 1 or 2 go bottles at from 10 to 25 sen for 2 go. As it is cheaper to buy the liquor unbottled most people have it brought home in the original brewery tub. There are five sorts of sake: seishu (refined), dakushu (unrefined or muddy), shirozake (white sake), mirin (sweet sake) and shochu (distilled sake). Sake may contain from 10 to 14 per cent. of alcohol; shochu is stronger; mirin has been described as a liqueur. Japanese beers contain from 1 to 2 per cent. less alcohol than English beers and only about a quarter of the alcohol in sake. More than four-fifths of it is sold in bottles. Beer is replacing sake to some extent, but owing to the increase in the population of Japan the total consumption of sake (about 4,000,000 koku) remains practically the same. In 1919 beer and sake were exported to the value of 7,200,000 and 4,500,000 yen respectively.

MINERAL PRODUCTION [XXXVIII]. In 1919 the production was as follows: gold, 1,938,711 momme, value 9,681,494 yen; silver, 42,822,160 momme, value 11,131,861 yen; copper, 130,737,861 kin, value 67,581,475 yen; iron, steel and iron pyrites, 169,545,050 kwan, the value of the steel being 72,666,867 yen; coal, 31,271,093 metric tons, value 442,540,941 yen.

JAPAN AS SILK PRODUCER [XXXIX], In exportation of silk, Japan, which in 1919 had under sericulture 8.6 of her total cultivated area and 17.1 per cent, of her upland, passed Italy in 1901 and China in 1910. Her exportation is now twice that of China. In production her total is thrice that of Italy. France is a long way behind Italy. The production of China is an unknown quantity.

As to the advantages and drawbacks of Japan for sericulture the Department of Agriculture wrote in 1921: "Japan is not favourably placed, inasmuch as atmospheric changes are often very violent, and the air becomes damp in the silk-culture seasons. This is especially the case in the season of spring silkworms, for the cold is severe at the beginning and the air becomes excessively damp as the rainy season sets in. The intense heat in July and August, too, is very trying for the summer and autumn breeds. Compared with France and Italy, Japan seems to be heavily handicapped, but the abundance of mulberry leaves all over the land and the comparatively rich margin of spare labour among the farmers have proved great advantages."

The length of the sericultural season ranges from 54 days in spring to 31 or 32 days in autumn, but there are variations according to weather, methods and seed. The season begins with the incubation period. Then follows the rearing. Last is the period in which the caterpillars mount the little straw stacks provided for them in order that they may wind themselves into cocoons. I do not enter into the technics of the retardation and stimulation of seed in order to delay or to hasten the hatch according to the movements of the market. Hydrochloric and sulphuric-acid baths and electricity are used as stimulants; storage in "wind holes" is practised to defer hatching.

Cocoons are reckoned both by the kwan of 8-1/4 lbs. and by the koku of approximately 5 bushels. The cocoon production in 1918 worked out at about 16-1/2 bushels per acre of mulberry or 18 bushels per family engaged in sericulture. About 34 million bushels of cocoons are produced. In 1919 the production was 270,800,000 kilos. The average production of a tambu of mulberry field was 1.356 koku. In 1919 a koku was worth on the average 106.81 yen (including double and waste cocoons). The cost of producing cocoons rose from 4.105 yen per kwamme in 1916 to 11.284 yen in 1920. The daily wages of labourers employed by the farmers rose from 62 sen for men and 47 sen for women in 1910 to 1 yen 93 sen for men and 1 yen 44 sen for women in 1920. With the slump, the price of cocoons fell below the cost of production and there was trouble in several districts when wages were due. The labourers engaged for the silk seasons of 1916 numbered 341,577, of whom 30,000 came from other than their employers' prefectures. These people migrate from the early to the late districts and so manage to provide themselves with work during a considerable period. As many as 5-1/2 per cent, of the persons engaged in the industry are labourers. Many employment agencies are engaged in supplying labour.

It has been estimated that the labour of 19.8 persons (200 per hectare) is needed for a tambu of mulberry field. The silkworms hatched from a card of eggs (laid by 100 moths) are supposed to call for the labour of 49.2 persons (1,456 per kilo, 2.204 lbs.)

The production of cocoons rose from 0.866 koku per card in 1914 to 1.105 in 1918, or from 4,412,000 to 6,832,000.

More than three-quarters of the raw silk produced used to be exported. Now, with the increase of factories in Japan (the figures are for 1918), only 67 per cent, goes abroad, the bulk of it to the United States, which obtained from Japan, in 1917-18, 75 per cent., and in 1919, it has been stated, 90 per cent, of its total supply. About 28 per cent, of the world's consumption is supplied by Japan. Whereas in 1915 the output of raw silk was 5,460,000 kwan valued at 217,746,000 yen, it was in 1918 7,891,000 kwan valued at 546,543,000 yen. While in 1915-16 the percentage of Japanese exporters to foreign exporters was 64-4, it had risen in 1919-20 to 77.5. Against 450 cho of mulberries in 1914 there were in 1918 508,993 cho. The total export of raw silk and silk textiles to all countries in 1920 was 382 and 158 million yen respectively. In 1919, 96 per cent. of the raw silk Japan exported went to the United States and 46 out of 101 million yens' worth of exported silk textiles (habutal). Japan's whole trade with the United States is worth 880 million yen a year. But the proportion of basins in the factories steadily increases. There are nearly five thousand factories, big and little. A well-informed correspondent writes to me: "You know of course of the big organisation subsidised by the Government to control prices and not to make too much silk. The truth is the silk interest became too powerful and the Government is not a free agent."

TUBERCULOSIS [XL]. Phthisis and tuberculosis sweep off 22 per cent, and bronchitis and inflammation of the lungs 18 per cent., or together more than a third of the population. See also Appendix LXIX.

WOMEN WORKERS [XLI]. In addition to women and girls working in agriculture, in the mines, in the factories and & trades there are said to be 1,200,000 in business and the public services. Teachers number about 52,000, nurses 33,000, midwives 28,000 and doctors 700.

FACTORY FOOD AND "DEFIANCE OF HYGIENIC RULES" [XLII]. Dr. Kuwata says in the Japan Year-book (1920-1) that "in cotton mills where machinery is run day and night it is not uncommon when business is brisk to put operatives to 18 hours' work. In such cases holidays are given only fortnightly or are entirely withheld. The silk factories in Naganoken generally put their operatives to 14 or 16 hours' work and in only a small portion are the hours 13."

Summarising a report of the Department of Agriculture and Commerce, he says of the factory workers: "The bulk of workers are female and are chiefly fed with boiled rice in 43 per cent. of the factories. In other factories the staple food is poor, the rice being mixed with cheaper barley, millet or sweet potato in the proportion of from 20 to 50 per cent. In most cases subsidiary dishes consist of vegetables, meat or beans being supplied on an average only eight times a month. Dormitories are in defiance of hygienic rules. In most cases only half to 1 tsubo (4 square yards) are allotted to one person." See also Appendix LXIX.

CHINESE COMPETITION WITH JAPAN [XLIII]. The Jiji called attention in the spring of 1921 to the way in which spinning mills in China were an increasing menace to Japanese industry. There were in China 810,000 spindles under Chinese management, 250,000 under European and 340,000 under Japanese, a total of 1,430,000, which will shortly be increased to 1,150,000 against 3,000,000 in Japan only 1,800,000 of which are at work. The 1919 return was: China, 1,530,000; Japan, 3,200,000.

HOODWINKING THE FOREIGNER [XLIV] In the Manchester Guardian Japan Number, June 9, 1921, the managing director of a leading spinning company, in a page and a half article, states that among the reasons why a large capitalisation is needed by Japanese factories, beyond the fact of higher cost of machinery, is the "special protection needed for Japanese operatives and the special consideration given by the spinners to the happiness and welfare of their operatives." When will Japanese believe their best friends when they tell them that such attempts to hoodwink the foreigner achieve no result but to cover themselves with ridicule?

TOBACCO [XLV]. In 1918-19 there was produced on 24,439 cho 10,308,089 kwan of tobacco. During the same period 9,681,274 kwan were taken by the Government, which paid 19,114,803 yen or 1.974 per kwan. In 1919 there was imported leaf tobacco to the value of 5,288,918 yen. Cigarettes to the value of 589,744 yen were exported. The profits of the Tobacco Monopoly, estimated at 71 millions for 1919-20, were estimated at 88 millions for 1920-1.

ELECTORAL OFFENCES [XLVI]. There were candidates at the 1920 election who spent 50,000 yen. It is not uncommon for the number of persons charged with election offences to reach four figures. The qualification for a vote (law of 1918) is the payment of 3 yen of national tax. Under the old law there were about 25 voters per 1,000 inhabitants; now there are 54.

SMALLNESS OF ESTATES [XLVII]. The number of men holding from 5 to 10 cho was, in 1919, 121,141 and between 10 and 50 cho, 45,978. The number holding 50 cho (125 acres) and upwards was only 4,226, and 400 or so of these were in Hokkaido. See also Appendix XXXI.

VEGETABLE WAX MAKING [XLVIII]. The wax-tree berries are flailed and then pounded. Next comes boiling. The mush obtained is put into a bag and that bag into a wooden press. The result is wax in its first state. A reboiling follows and then—the discovery of the method was made by a wax manufacturer while washing his hands—a slow dropping of the wax into water. What is taken out of the water is wax in a flaked state. It is dried, melted and poured into moulds. The best berries yield 13 per cent. of fine wax. The variety of wax grown was oro (yellow wax). There is another variety. The sort I saw is grafted at three years with its own variety. The fruitful period lasts for a quarter of a century. Roughly, the yield is 100 kwan per tan. Formerly, wax was made from wild trees.

NAMES FOR ETA [XLIX]. Eta (great defilement) is an offensive name. The phrase tokushu buraku (special villages), applied to Eta hamlets, is also objected to. Heimin is the official name, but the Eta are generally termed shin heimin (new common people), which is again regarded as invidiously distinguishing them. The name chiho is now officially proposed for Eta villages. The fact that many Eta have made large sums during the war has somewhat improved the position of their class. Some Eta are well satisfied with their name and freely acknowledge their origin. Year by year intermarriage increases in Japan. A Home Department official has been quoted as saying that in 1918 as many as 450 marriages were registered between Eta and ordinary Japanese.

The population of the village I visited, 1,900 in 300 families, was getting its living as follows: farming 682, trade 185, industry 31, day labour 97, travelling players 180, not reported 180. The Parliamentary voters were 10, prefectural 17, county 19 and village 57. There were 98 ex-soldiers in the community and one man was a member of the local education committee. The birth rate was above the local average. The crimes committed during the year were: theft 2, gambling 2, assault 1, police offences 3. Of the 300 families only one was destitute, and it had been taken care of by the young women's society.

A considerable proportion of the early emigrants to America were Eta. It is now recognised that it was a short-sighted policy on the part of the authorities to allow them to go.

PAPER MAKING [L]. A paper-making outfit may cost from 60 to 70 yen only. The shrubs grown to produce bark for paper making are kozo (the paper mulberry), mitsumata (Edgworthia chrysantha) and gampi (Wilkstroemia sikokiana). Someone has also hit on the idea of turning the bark of the ordinary mulberry to use in paper making.

LIBRARIES, THE PRESS AND THE CENSORSHIP [LI]. There are 1,200 libraries in the country with 4 million books and 8 million visitors in the year. About 47,000 books are published in a year, of which less than half, probably, are original works. From one to two hundred are translations, usually condensed translations. The largest number deal with politics. There are about 3,000 newspapers and periodicals. In 1917 some 1,200 issues of newspapers and periodicals attracted the attention of the censor and the sale of 600 books was prohibited. Some sixty foreign books were stopped.

JAPANESE IN BRAZIL [LII]. Emigration to South America has latterly been arrested through the rise in wages at home. During the past four years an average of about 3,000 families has gone every twelve months to Brazil, where about a quarter of a million acres are owned and leased by Japanese. The Japanese Government spends 100,000 yen a year on giving a grant of 50 yen to each emigrating family up to 2,000 in number, through the Overseas Colonisation Company. The Brazilian Government also offers a gratuity.

CATTLE KEEPING IN SOUTH-WESTERN JAPAN [LIII]. Tajima, the old province which comprises about four counties in Tottori, is a large supplier of "Kobe beef," but it is a cattle-feeding not a grazing district. The number of cattle in Hyogo is double the cattle population of Tottori, but no cattle keeper has more than a score of beasts. The usual thing is for farmers to have two or three apiece. Some of the "Kobe beef" comes from the prefectures of Hiroshima and Okayama. It is in the north of Japan, where the people are not so thick on the ground and cultivation is less intense, that cattle production has its best chance.

VALUE OF LAND [LIV]. The value of land in the hill-village in which I stayed necessarily varied, but the average price of paddy was given me as 250 yen per tan. Dry land was half that. Open hill land, that is the so-called grass land, might be worth 120 yen. The rise in values which has taken place is illustrated by the following table of farm-land values per tan in 1919, published by the Bank of Japan:

Paddy Upland Good Ordinary Bad Good Ordinary Bad Hokkaido 231 158 95 115 62 26 {North } 802 579 366 477 295 170 Honshu {Tokyo } 863 607 406 673 442 272 (main {middle} 1,226 834 523 875 565 313 island){west } 1,226 840 525 727 443 244 Shikoku 1,120 784 470 752 450 225 Kyushu 960 652 416 538 300 175 -

FRUIT PRODUCTION [LV]. The Japanese when they do not eat meat do not feel the need of fruit which is experienced in the West. But there is now a steady increase in the fruit crops. For 1918 the figures were (in thousands of kwan): persimmons, 43,620; pears, 27,730; oranges, 73,660; peaches, 12,810; apples, 6,695; grapes, 6,240; plums (largely used pickled), 6,190.

JAPANESE STUDENTS ABROAD [LVI]. During 1921 more than 200 young professors or candidates for professorships were sent to Europe and America by the Ministry of Education. Probably another 300 were studying on funds (L450 for a year plus fares is the grant which is made by the Ministry of Education) supplied by the Ministries of Agriculture, of Railways and of the Army and Navy (often supplemented, no doubt, by money furnished by their families). If to these students are added those sent by independent Universities, institutions, corporations and private firms, the total cannot be fewer than 1,000. The students stay from six months to two or three years, and when they return others take their places. Counting diplomatists, business men, tourists and students there are, of course, more Japanese in Great Britain than there are British in Japan. There are fifteen hundred Japanese in London alone.

TEA PRODUCTION [LVII]. Every prefecture but Aomori produces some tea, but very little is grown in the prefectures of the extreme north. The largest producers are in order: Shidzuoka, Miye, Nara, Kyoto, Kumamoto, Gifu, Kagoshima, Shiga, Saitama, Osaka and Ibariki. In 1919 Shidzuoka produced 4 million kwan, valued at nearly 13 million yen. But the statistics of tea production are unsatisfactory. Much tea is produced and sold locally which is unreported. A great deal of this is of inferior quality and produced from half-wild bushes. The 1919 figures are: area, 48,843 cho; number of factories, 1,122,164; green tea—sencha, 7,205,886 kwan; bancha, 2,580,035 kwan; gyokuro, 75,826 kwan; black, 50,756 kwan; others, 234,868 kwan; sencha dust, 249,862 kwan; other dust, 486 kwan. Total, 10,397,719 kwan; value, 33,377,460 yen. There was exported green tea (pan fired), 12,420,000 yen; green tea (basket fired), 4,575,000 yen; others, 1,405,000 yen. Of this there went to the United States consignments to the value of 15,600,000 yen and to Canada of 1,700,000 yen. In 1918 the export to America was 50,000 tons; in 1919, 30,000; and in 1920, 23,000; and a further decline is expected in 1921. The total exports, which were, in 1909, 62 per cent, of the production, were, in 1918, only 57 per cent, and, in 1919, 37 per cent.

THEINE PERCENTAGES.—The following percentages of theine in black and green tea were furnished me by the Department of Agriculture:

- Green Green Black Oolong (Basket Fired) (Pan Fired) - Theine 2.81 2.22 2.26 2.35 Tannin 15.08 14.29 7.32 16.15 -

Theine or caffeine is a feathery-looking substance which resembles the material of a silk-worm's cocoon. There is more theine or caffeine in tea leaves than in coffee.

MISTAKES IN CROP STATISTICS [LVIII]. Generally speaking, it may be said that cereals are under-estimated and cocoons over-estimated. Cereals may be 20 per cent. under-estimated. The under-estimation may no doubt be traced back to the time when taxation was on the basis of the grain yield.

OCCUPATIONS FOR THE BLIND [LIX]. A third of the 70,000 sightless are amma, about a quarter as many practise acupuncture and the application of the moxa, while nearly the same number are musicians or storytellers. The blind have petitioned the Diet to restrict the calling of amma to men and women who have lost their sight.

WELL SINKING FOR GAS [LX]. The presence of gas, which is odourless, is betrayed by the discoloration of the water from which it emanates and by bubbles.

HEALTH, HEIGHTS AND WEIGHTS OF SCHOOL CHILDREN [LXI]. In 1917-18 the constitutions of 1,193,000 elementary school boys were reported as 53 per cent. robust, 48 per cent. medium and 4 per cent. weak. The constitutions of 1,016,000 elementary school girls were reported 49 per cent. robust, 48 per cent. medium and 3 per cent. weak. Just as women are often underfed in Japan, girls may frequently be less well fed than boys. Elementary school boys of 16 averaged 4.84 shaku in height and 10.85 kwan in weight. The average height and weight of 512 elementary school girls of the same age were 4.71 shaku and 10.83 kwan.

HEIGHT AND WEIGHT OF WRESTLERS [LXII]. In a list of ten famous wrestlers the tallest is stated to be 6.30 shaku (a shaku is 11.93 inches) and the heaviest as 33.2 kwan (a kwan is 8.267 lbs.). The average height and weight of these men work out at 5.84 shaku and 28.4 kwan. By way of comparison it may be mentioned that the percentage of conscripts in 1918 over 5.5 shaku was 2.58 per cent. The average weight of Japanese is recorded as 13 kwan 830 momme.

EXEMPTION FROM AND AVOIDANCE OF CONSCRIPTION [LXIII]. The age is 20 and the service two years (with four years in reserve and ten years depot service). The only son of a parent over 60 unable to support himself or herself is released. Middle school boys' service is postponed till they are 25. Students at higher schools and universities need not serve till 26 or 27. The service of young men abroad (i.e. elsewhere than China) is similarly postponed. (If still abroad at 37, they are entered in territorial army list and exempted.) Young men of education equal to that of middle-school graduates can volunteer for a year and pay 100 yen barracks expenses and be passed out with the rank of non-commissioned officers and be liable thereafter for only two terms of three months in territorial army. There are about half a million youths liable to conscription annually. To this number is to be added about 100,000 postponed cases. (In 1917, 47,324 students, 32,263 abroad, 15,920 whereabouts unknown, 5,069 ill, 3,147 criminal causes, 2,477 absentees, family reasons or crime.) Evasions in 1917: convicted, 234; suspected, 1,582. There are two conscription insurance companies with policies issued for 69 million yen. In one place charms against being conscripted are sold—at a shrine. Desertions in 1916 (7 per cent, officers) 956, of which 258 received more than "light punishment." The conscripts suffering from trachoma were 15.3 per cent. and from venereal diseases 2.2 per cent. Heights (1918): under 5 shaku, 10.95 per cent.; 5-5.3 shaku, 53.34 per cent.; 5.3-5.5 shaku, 33.13 per cent.; above 5.5 shaku, 2.58 per cent. In these four classes there was a decrease in height in the first two of .39 per cent. and .57 per cent. respectively and an increase in the second two of .80 per cent. and 15 per cent. respectively.

HOKKAIDO HOLDINGS [LXIV]. There are only 28 holdings of more than 1,000 cho, 62 of over 500 cho, 161 over 100 cho and 80 over 50 cho. These large holdings are used for cattle breeding alone. There are no more than 620 holdings over 20 cho and only 6,756 over 10. The number over 5 cho is 51,877, and over 2 cho 62,015. Under the area of 2 cho there are as many as 40,928. Few of the largest holdings are worked as single farms. They are let in sections to tenants.

CLAUSES IN A TENANT'S CONTRACT [LXV]. (1) The tenant must make at least 1 cho of paddy every year. (2) Rent rice must be the best of the harvest, but the tenant may pay in money. (3) In the following cases the owner will give orders to the tenants: (a) If tenants do not use enough manure, (b) If there is disease of plants or insect pests, (c) If the tenant neglects to mend the road or other necessary work is neglected. (4) The owner will dismiss a tenant: (a) If the tenant does not pay his rent without reason, (b) If the tenant is neglectful of his work or is idle, (c) If the tenant is not obedient to the owner and does not keep this contract faithfully. (d) If the tenant is punished by the law. (5) When tenants leave without permission of absence more than twenty days the owner can treat as he will crops or buildings. (6) In the following cases the tenant must provide two labourers to the owner: mending road, drainage canal or bridges; mending water gate and irrigation canal; when necessary public works must be undertaken.

CULTIVATED AREA AND LIVESTOCK [LXVI]. The area of cultivated land in Japan (counting paddy and arable) was, in 1919, 15,179,721 acres (6,071,888 cho). The number of animals kept for tillage purposes was 1,199,970 horses and 1,036,020 homed cattle. The total number of horses in the country was only 1,510,626 and of horned cattle, excluding 207,891 returned as "calving" and 12,761 as "deaths," 1,307,120. Sheep, 4,546; goats, 91,777; swine, 398,155. The number of horned cattle slaughtered in the year was 226,108. Some 86,800 horses were also slaughtered. In Great Britain (arable, pasture and grazing area, 63 million acres) there were, in 1919, 11 million cattle, 25 million sheep, 3 million pigs and 1-3/4 million horses.

EGGS AND POULTRY [LXVII]. Even with the assistance of a tariff on Chinese eggs and of a Government poultry yard, which distributes birds and sittings at cost price, there were in 1919 14,105,085 fowls and 11,278,783 chickens. There was an importation of 3-1/2 million "fresh" eggs.

MEAT CONSUMPTION [LXVIII]. The present meat consumption by Japanese is uncertain, for there were in 1920[A] 3,579 foreign residents and 22,104 visitors, and there is an exportation of ham and tinned and potted foods. The number of animals slaughtered in 1918 was: cattle and calves, 226,108; horses, 86,800; sheep and goats, 9,587; swine, 327,074. Someone said to me that "the nutritious flesh of the horse should not be neglected, for the farmer is able to digest tough food."

[Footnote A: In 1921 as many as 24,000 foreigners landed in nine months.]

TUBERCULOSIS IN THE MILLS [LXIX]. When we remember early and mid-Victorian conditions in English mills and the conditions of the sweat shops in New York and other American cities (vide "Susan Lenox"), we shall be less inclined to take a harsh view of industrial Japan during a period of transition. But it is to the interest of the woollen industry no less than that of its workers that the fact should be stated that a competent authority has alleged that 50 per cent. of the employees in the mills suffer from consumption and that many girls sleep ten in a room of only ten-mat size. Improvements have been made lately under the influence of legislation and enlightened self-interest—the president of the largest company is a man of foresight and public spirit—but when I was in Japan, as I recorded in the New East at the time, girls of 13 and 14 were working 11-hour day and night shifts in some mills.

WOOLLEN FACTORIES [LXX]. In the Japanese woollen factory the cost of the hands is low individually, but expensive collectively. An expert suggested that it takes half a dozen of the unskilled girls to do the work of an English mill-girl. It is much the same with male labour. "An English worker may be expected to produce work equal to the output of four Japanese hands." Labour for heads of departments is also difficult to get. There are textile schools and probably a hundred men are graduated yearly. But the men are not all fitted for the jobs which are vacant. Therefore, one finds a man acting as an engineer who, because of his lack of technical experience, is unable to exercise sufficient control over the men in his charge. A curiosity of the industry is the high wages which many men of this sort command. They are really being paid better for inferior work than skilled men in England. The capital of the factories in 1918 was 46-1/2 million yen with 32-3/4 million paid up. Before the War the companies made 8 per cent, as against the 2-1/2 per cent, which contents the English manufacturer, who has often side lines to help his profits. There was more than 100 million yen invested in the woollen textile business, manufacturing and retail. The industry did well during the War by supplies of cloth to Russia and of yarn and muslin to countries which ordinarily are able to supply themselves. In 1918 the production (woollen fabrics and mixtures) was valued at 85 million yen (muslin, 32; cloth, 21; serges, 19; blankets, 3; flannel, 1; others, 8). The imports of wool were 60 million and of yarn 251,000. In 1919 the figures were 61 million and 710,000 respectively. In 1920 the exports were: woollen or worsted yarns, 1,437,926 yen; woollen cloth and serges, 3,019,382 yen; blankets, 1,024,540 yen; other woollens, 548,922 yen. The Nippon Wool Weaving Company, which in 1921 distributed a 20 per cent, ordinary and 20 per cent. extraordinary dividend, has 15 foreign experts.

POPULATION OF HOKKAIDO [LXXI]. In 1869, 58,467; has risen as follows:

Year Population

1874 174,368 1884 276,414 1894 616,650 1904 1,233,669 1914 1,869,582 1919 2,137,700 1920 2,359,097

EXTENSION OF CROP-BEARING AREA OF JAPAN [LXXII]. There is normally added to the crop-bearing area about 53,000 cho (132,000 acres) a year. From the new crop-bearing area every year is deducted the loss of arable land from floods, the extension of cities and towns and railways and the building of factories and institutions. This is reckoned at nearly 8,000 cho in the year. One computation is that there are 2 million cho (5 million acres) available for addition to the crop-bearing area, of which 1 million cho would be convertible into paddies. A decision was taken by the Government in 1919 to bring 250,000 cho under cultivation within nine years from that date, and by 1920 some 20,000 cho had been reclaimed. Persons who reclaim more than 5 cho receive 6 per cent, of their expenditure.

The increase in the area of cultivation has been as follows (in cho):

Year Paddy Upland Farm Total 1905 2,841,471 2,540,906 5,382,378 1906 2,849,288 2,551,170 5,400,459 1907 2,858,628 2,639,680 5,498,309 1908 2,882,426 2,684,531 5,566,958 1909 2,902,899 2,777,453 5,680,352 1910 2,910,970 2,804,434 5,715,405 1911 2,923,520 2,836,002 5,759,522 1912 2,939,445 2,880,301 5,819,756 1913 2,953,947 2,902,445 5,856,392 1914 2,961,639 2,916,569 5,878,208 1915 2,974,042 2,948,075 5,922,118 1916 2,987,579 2,971,800 5,959,379 1917 3,005,679 3,012,685 6,018,364 1918 3,011,000 3,070,000 6,081,000 1919 3,021,879 3,050,008 6,071,887

Whereas the percentage of cultivated land to uncultivated was in 1909 14.6 per cent., it was in 1918 15.6 per cent.

USE TO WHICH THE LAND IS PUT [LXXIII]. Here are the details of the division of the land in 1909 and 1918:

Division of the Land Years Area in cho Percentage of in 000 's Total Area Total area 1909 38,847 100.0 1918 38,864 100.0 Paddy fields 1909 2,903 7.5 1918 3,011 7.7 Upland fields 1909 2,777 7.1 3,070 7.9 Total arable as above 1909 5,680 14.6 1918 6,081 15.6 Meadows and pastures 1909 39 0.1 1918 43 0.1 Grass lands and heather 1909 1,941 5.0 (excluding pastures) 1918 3,509 9.0 Forests 1909 22,072 56.8 1918 18,783 48.3 Dwellings, factories, 1909 9,115 23.5 roads, railways, 1918 10,448 27.0 institutions, etc.



Crop Cho Yield - Rice (1919) 3,104,611 60,818,163 koku; value, 2,891,397,063 yen Mulberry (1918) 508,993 6,832,000 koku; raw silk, 7,891,000 kwan; value, 546,543,000 yen Tea (1919) 48,843 10,397,719 kwan value, 33,377,460 yen Barley (1919) 534,279 9,664,000 koku Naked Barley (1919) 646,362 7,995,000 koku Wheat (1919) 548,508 5,611,000 koku Soy Bean (1918) 432,207 3,451,320 koku Other Beans (1918) 1,237,000 koku Peas (1918) 536,000 koku Millets (1918) 2,903,000 koku Buckwheat (1918) 136,313 852,000 koku Sweet Potato (1918) 314,012 918,328,000 kwan Irish Potato (1918) 132,090 323,930,000 kwan Rape Seed (1918) 116,300 856,880 kwan Sugar Cane (1918) 29,367 316,745,596 kwan Indigo (1918) 5,570 2,717,757 kwan Hemp (1918) 11,821 2,564,114 kwan Cotton (1918) 2,930 681,021 kwan -

Radish (1917), 576,746,000 kwan; taro (1917), 159,168,000 kwan; burdock (1917), 43,424,000 kwan; turnip (1917), 41,527,000 kwan; onion (1917), 37,601,000 kwan; carrot (1917), 26,976,000 kwan; cabbage (1917); 19,951,000 kwan; wax-tree seed (1918), 13,761,000 kwan; rush for matting, (1918), 10,442,000 kwan; flax (1918), 17,300,000 kwan; ginger (1918), 8,189,000 kwan; paper mulberry (1918), 6,964,000 kwan; peppermint (1918), 3,380,000 kwan; lily (1917), 682,000 kwan; chillies (1918), 441,000 kwan.

EMIGRANTS AND RESIDENTS ABROAD (LXXIV). The latest official figures as to Japanese resident abroad, supplied in 1921 and probably gathered in 1920, are:

Asia China 200,740 Kwantung 79,307 Tsingtao 23,555 Philippines 11,156 Strait Settlements 10,828 Russian Asia 7,028 Dutch India 4,436 Hongkong 3,083 India 1,278 Burma 680 Indo-China 371

Europe England 1,638 Germany 409 Holland 375 France 342 Switzerland 87 Italy 34 Belgium 12 Sweden 10

North America U.S.A. 115,186 Hawaii 112,221 Canada 17,716 Mexico 2,198 Panama 225

South America Brazil 34,258 Peru 10,102 Argentine 1,958 Chile 484 Bolivia 145

Africa South Africa 38 Egypt 35

Oceania Australia 5,274 South Seas 3,399

Total 648,915

(The comparable return for 1918 was 493,845.) It has been suggested that these official statistics are incomplete; 7,000 as the number of Japanese in Russian territory seems low. Even during the War, in 1917, passports were issued to 62,000 Japanese going abroad. Of these, according to the Japan Year-book, 23,000 were made out for Siberia. Professor Shiga has stated that "no small number" of Japanese leave their country as stowaways.

RISE IN PRODUCTION PER "TAN" OF PADDY [LXXV]. The 3 or 4 koku is reached in favourable circumstances only. The average is far below this, but it rises, as shown in Appendix XV.

Between 1887 and 1915 the area under barley and wheat rose from 1,591,000 cho to 1,812,000 cho, the yield from 15,822,000 koku to 23,781,000 koku and the yield per tan from .994 koku to 1.313. Between 1882 and 1914 the increase in the crops of the three varieties of millet averaged .515 koku per tan. The increased yield of soy beans was .229 koku per tan, of sweet potatoes 138 kwamme per tan and of Irish potatoes 138 kwamme.

LABOURERS [LXXVI]. When hired labour is required on farms it is supplied either by relatives and neighbours or by the surplus labour of strangers who are small farmers or members of a small farmer's family. According to the Department of Agriculture: "Ordinary fixed employees are upon an equal social footing. Apprentice labourers are very numerous. No working class holds a special social position as such. This is the greatest point of difference between the Japanese agricultural labour situation and that of Europe." The number of labourers in October 1920 was:

Day Seasonal All the year round Total - - - - Labourers living { male 119,676 52,007 49,110 220,793 solely on wages, { female 80,870 42,193 23,862 146,925 agricultural and { other { 200,546 94,200 72,972 367,718 Labourers who are { male 949,266 407,596 188,369 1,546,231 labourers part { female 646,720 405,131 116,152 1,168,003 of their time 1,595,986 813,727 304,521 2,714,234 Total . . . . . 1,796,532 907,927 377,493 3,081,952 -

In addition to the total of 3,081,952 "there are 32,973 agricultural labourers who are boys and girls under 14."

DECREASE OF FARMERS TILLING THEIR OWN LAND [LXXVII]. In 1914 the number of farmers owning their own land was 1,731,247; in 1919 it had fallen to 1,700,747. In 1914 the number of tenants was 1,520,476; in 1919 it had increased to 1,545,639. That is, there were 30,500 fewer landowners and 25,163 more tenants. During the period between 1914 and 1919 the number of farmers (landowners and tenants) increased 30,293. While from 1909 to 1914 the percentage of landowners fell from 33.27 to 31.73, the percentage of tenant farmers rose from 27.69 to 27.87 and the percentage of persons partly owner and partly tenant from 39.04 to 40.40. See Appendix XXXIV.

RURAL AND URBAN POPULATIONS [LXXVIII]. The following table shows the percentage of the population living in communes under 5,000 and 10,000 inhabitants in 1913 and 1918:

Year Percentage of Population living in Percentage of Families Communities engaged in Agricultural to Total Families in under 5,000 under 10,000 Japan Proper - 1913 50.44 72.39 57.6 1918 46.23 67.71 52.3 - -4.21 -4.68 -5.3

These figures clearly indicate the decrease of the rural population. To take 10,000 inhabitants as the demarcation line between urban and rural population is probably less correct than to take a demarcation line of 7,500 inhabitants. A mean of the two percentages of populations living in communities under 5,000 and under 10,000 inhabitants shows 61.41 per cent, in 1913 and 56.97 per cent, in 1918, a decrease of 4.44 per cent. The variation between this result and the preceding one has a simple explanation. About 30 per cent, of the families engaged in agriculture carry on their farming as an accessory business. Teachers, priests and mechanics may all have patches of land. On the other hand, a small number of people have no land. Therefore, the percentage of the rural population is only slightly higher than that of the families engaged in agriculture. In 1918 there were 5,476,784 farming families (to 10,460,440 total families or 52.3 per cent.), and if we multiply by 5-1/3—the average number of persons per family in Japan is 5.317 (1918)—to find the population dependent on agriculture, the number is 29,209,514. The total population of Japan in 1918 was 55,667,711. The Department of Agriculture has stated that on the basis of the census of 1918 the number of persons in households engaged in agriculture was 52 per cent. of the population. According to one set of statistics the percentage of farming families to non-farming families fell from 64 per cent, in 1904 to 60.3 per cent. in 1910 and 56 in 1914. We shall probably not be far wrong in supposing the rural population to be at present about 55 per cent, of the population. The percentage of persons actually working on the farms is another matter. As has been seen, some 30 per cent, of the 5-1/2 million farming families are engaged in agriculture as a secondary business only. It may be, therefore, that the 5-1/2 million families do not actually yield more than 10 million effective farm hands.

IS RICE THE RIGHT CROP FOR JAPAN [LXXIX]. Mr. Katsuro Hara, of the College of Literature, Kyoto University, asks, "Is Japan specially adapted for the production of rice?" and answers: "Southern Japan is of course not unfit. But rice does not conform to the climate of northern Japan. This explains the reason why there have been repeated famines. By the choice of this uncertain kind of crop as the principal foodstuff the Japanese have been obliged to acquiesce in a comparatively enhanced cost of living. The tardiness of civilisation may be perhaps partly attributed to this fact. Why did our forefathers prefer rice to other cereals? Was a choice made in Japan? If the choice was made in this country the unwisdom of the choice and of the choosers is now very patent."

Along with this expression of opinion may be set the following figures, showing the total production of rice and of other grain crops during the past six years, in thousands of koku:

- - - Year Barley Naked Barley Wheat Barley and Rice Wheat - - - 1915 10,253 8,296 5,231 23,781 55,924 1916 9,559 7,921 5,869 23,350 58,442 1917 9,169 8,197 6,786 24,155 54,658 1918 8,368 7,777 6,431 22,576 54,699 1919 9,664 7,995 5,611 23,271 60,818 - - -

From 1910 to 1919 the areas under barleys and wheat were, in cho, 1,771,655-1,729,148, and under rice 2,949,440-3,104,611.

INNER COLONISATION v. FOREIGN EXPANSION [LXXX]. An Introduction to the History of Japan (1921), written by an Imperial University professor and published by the Yamato Society, the members of which include some of the most distinguished men in Japan, says: "It is doubtful whether the backwardness of the north can be solely attributed to its climatic inferiority. Even in the depth of winter the cold in the northern provinces cannot be said to be more unbearable than that of the Scandinavian countries or of north-eastern Germany. The principal cause of the retardation of progress in northern Japan lies rather in the fact that it is comparatively recently exploited.... The northern provinces might have become far more populous, civilised and prosperous than we see them now. Unfortunately for the north, just at the most critical time in its development the attention of the nation was compelled to turn from inner colonisation to foreign relations. The subsequent acquisition of dominions oversea made the nation still more indifferent."

According to a report of the Hokkaido Government in 1921, the number of immigrants during the latest three year period was 90,000, and one and a half million acres are available for cultivation and improvement.

AGRICULTURE v. COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY [LXXXI]. There is supposed to be more money invested in land than in commerce or industry. Comprehensive figures of a trustworthy kind establishing the relative importance of agriculture, commerce and industry are not readily obtained. "This is a question," writes a Japanese professor of agriculture to me, "which we should like to study very much." Industrial and commercial figures at the end of and immediately after the War are not of much use because of the inflation of that period. The annual value of agricultural production before the War was about 1,800 million yen; it must be by now about 2,500 or 3,000. In 1912, according to the Department of Finance, the debt of the agricultural population was 740 million yen. In 1916 the Japan Mortgage Bank and the prefectural agricultural and industrial banks had together advanced to agricultural organisations 110 millions and to other borrowers 273 millions. In 1915 co-operative credit associations had advanced 45 millions to farmers and 11 millions to other borrowers. The paid-up capital of companies, was, in 1913, 1,983 million, of which 27 million was agricultural, and in 1916, 2,434 million, of which 31 million was agricultural. The reserves were, in 1913, 542 million, of which 1 million was agricultural, and in 1916, 841 million, of which 3 were agricultural. (For some reason or other, "fishing" is included under "agricultural." On careful dissection I find that of the 45 million of investments credited to agriculture in 1918, only 28 million are purely agricultural.) The land tax is estimated to yield 73 million yen in 1920-1. It is 2-1/2 per cent. on residential land, 4.5 per cent. on paddy and cultivated land—3.2 per cent, in Hokkaido—and 5.5 per cent. on other land—4 per cent. in Hokkaido.



INDEX

This Index may be regarded as a Glossary inasmuch as every Japanese word which occurs in the book will be found in it. The meaning is usually given on the page the number of which comes first.

132 (2) signifies that there are two references on page 132 to the subject indexed.

Such subjects as Agriculture, Hokkaido, Labour, Paddies, Rice and Sericulture are indexed at length, but some matters which relate to them and are of general interest appear in the body of the Index.

Abbot and Ronin 333

Abiko 105

Ability 66

Abortion 65, 303; Abortifacient 332

Abroad, first, 235

Accommodation with the West 363

Acreage, see Agriculture

Acting 115 (2), 320

Adjustment 85, 186, 194, 197, 210, 232, 365, 370, 380; Cost 72; Cottages 72; Graves 72; Method and Results 71-2; Statistics 72

Admonition, see Police, 54

Adoption 21, 328

Adulteration 356

AE 99, 321

Aerated waters 119

Aeroplanes 31

Aestheticism 203

Affection, Question by a Japanese, 144

Affinity 272

Afforestation, see Deforestation, Floods, Tree planting; 23, 92-3, 97, 152, 177, 194, 197, 228, 233, 240, 260, 318, 370

Africa 410

Agriculture, see Adjustment, Animals under different names, Area, Cattle, Crops under different names, Cultivation, Farmers, Grain, Hokkaido, Implements under different names, Land new, Land available, Land utilised, Manure, Milk, Paddies, Peasant Proprietors, Tenants, Tools, Rice and other crops, Sericulture, Upland; Advantages 365, 367; Accessory business 412; American, proposed study of, vii; Arable 409, (British) 385; Areas 394, 400, quarter acre 89, one and a quarter acre to five acres 89, two 210, two and a half 9, 284, three 10, five 284, seven and a half 89, 373, ten 10, twelve and a half 207, fifteen 10, twenty-five 213, one tan 232, five 184, six 302, eight 304, 383, twelve 270, fifteen and a half 373, one cho 220, 304, 377 (3), 379, 380, 385, one and a half 379, two 380, two and a half, see Hokkaido, three 373, 380, four 10, four to four and a half 338, four to five 207, five 310, 337-8, seven 10, 338, 373, eight 310, 373, ten 28, ten to fifteen 28, 338, thirty 338, sixty-two 374; Associations against landlords 88; v. Armaments 93, 359; an Author on viii; Based on rice 343; Basis of nation ix, 92; Calendar of operations 136; Compared with British 390; Capitalisation 368-9; College 195; Criticism of 362, 365, (backbreaking) 75; v. Commerce and industry 180, 414; Commercial side 65; Company 207; Consolidation of holdings 364; Crop statistics errors 404; "Encourager" 176; Experiment station 158, 176-7, 207, 370; Experts 207, 283, (respect for) 54; Foundation and means to an end ix, 27; Foreign 365, 367; v. "Foreign relations" 414; and Family system 330; Faults of 65; like Gardening 307; God of 145; Goddess of 312; Helpful 180; Holdings, Consolidation of 368; How to teach 27; Grazing 240, (British) 385; Hydraulic engineering 149; Industry and Commerce 284; Implements 268; Improvement, Principles of 370; Land, how used, 408; Machinery 365, 367-8-9; in praise of 10; Methods 208; Limitations imposed on 365 (2), 367; Merits 365; National Agricultural Society 378; Night work 359; Number of families engaged in 412; Relations to national welfare 369, 370-1; Pasture 111, 409, (British) 385; Petite Culture 346; Production not final aim 367; Profitable 232, 373; Progress 261; Remedies 368-9, 370; Revolutionising 367; and Religion 231; Schools, see Schools, 176, 375; Shortcomings 365; Strikes 88; Students not leaving land 285; Subsistence provided by 365; Small farms decreasing 394; Tenants' Movement, see Landlords; Without rice 381 (2)

Aichi 1-67, 84, 345

"Aiming at being Distinguished" 124

Ainu x, 25

Akagi 315

Akita 189, 190, 193

Alimentary tract, 348, 351

Allah 98

"All family smiling" 137

Alpinist 290

Alps, 127, 152, 262

Amado 277

"A man's a man," etc. 95

Ame 191

America, see Hokkaido, 137, 141, 288, 290, 363 (2); Rice culture 365-6

Amida xxx, 129

Amma 108, 133

Ammonia water 177, 251

Amphibious labour 358

Amusements, see Farmers, 180, 287, 374, 378

Ancestors 19, 26, 33, 38 (3), 58, 61, 67, 94, 178

Anchors 211

Angelo, Michael, 103

Angling 245

Anglo-Japanese Alliance xv; Anglo-Saxons 203

Animals Bird artists 344; Buddhism and 59; Food, see Meat, 349; Industry 346, 348; Knack of looking after 343; Liking for 221, 343; Power 365, 370; Tillage 406

Anjo 57

Anniversaries 50

Antelopes 110

Anti-Landlord movement 37, 88

Ants 47

Aomori 189, 194, 195, 334, 354, 391

Aoyama 66

"A plain householder" 150

Apostle and artist 90

Appetiser 268

Apples, see Hokkaido, 194, 289, 402

Appointments 125; Tax 21

Apprentices 411

Apricots 289

Aqueduct 64

Archery 39, 40, 159

Architecture 198

Ardour 124

Area 65, 390; and Habitable compared with other countries 385, 392; per Family 42, 89 (2)

Armaments 93, 97, 394; U.S. expenditure 394

Armour 36, 40

Arm rest 246, 319

Army 202, 346, 350, 360 (2), 403; Discipline 361; and Farmer ix; Officers and Agriculture 362; Railway service 297

Arnold, Matthew, 24, 272

Arrests postponed 280

Arson 56, 280, 282

Art 99, 214, 369; Degenerated 99; and Farmer ix; Hills in 120; Korean 103; Influence of Western 103-4; Artists 99, 100; Sketches at festivals 193; Artistry 317; Artistic treasures 369; Artistic world 102-3-4-5, 328

Artificials, see Manure

Artisans 317; with land and houses 268; see Farmers

"Asahi" 90, 109

Asama, Mt., 143

Asceticism 101

Asia, see West and East, 202; Residents in 410; Asiatic Mainland 351, 363; Asiatic Society of Japan 364 "Aspiring" young men 135

Assaults 282

Assentation 14

Associations against Landlords 88; for Economical agricultural Students 176; Spirit of 16

"At twenty I found" 150

Athletics, see under different names, 159

Attempts to deceive the West 174

Attitude for foreign student 254; of world, 371; to something higher; see Materialism, Spirituality

Attorney-General, 345

Audience, 24

Australia, 127, 352-3, 363 (2), 388; Might have possessed, 363

Author Attitude towards Japan, xii; before domestic shrine, 33; Carried, 308; Chats in trains, 176; "Fortune", 138; First Englishman in place, 126; Governor and, 84; on Hearn, 254; Some Conclusions, see Hokkaido, 369; and Police, 53; Reception at Shinto Shrine, 45; Shinto address to, 46; Speeches, 6, 26, 31, 254; Tree planting, 45; Welcome, 22; at Wrestling match, 297

Authority Disobedience to, 285; Power going, 330

Autobiography of a Farmer-Egotist, 61

Autographs, 38, 324

Automobile, see Chauffeur, 205

Autumn, 214

"Average workers", 62, 377

Awakening, 324

Axholme, Isle of, 71

Aza xxv, 15, 16, 262, 315

Azaleas, 316

Babies, 285

Backbreaking, 75, 208

Back to the Land, 88

Backwardness of North, see Japan, Northern

Bacon, 347

Bacon, Lord, xii, 309

Bactericides, 60

"Bad tea has its tolerable," etc., 123

Bag and string, 312

Balls, Black and red, 19

Bamboo, 48, 318, 244, 248; Grass, 70, 108, 352, 368; and Mice, 108; Rate of growth, 242; Shoots, 136; Work, 248

Bancha, 294, 403

Bankruptcy, 138

Banks, 205, 303, 402, 414

Banqueting, 357

Banzai, 43

Barbers, 224, 267

Barefoot, 64

Bark strips, 190

Barley, 146, 175, 196, 307, 313 (3), 349, 351, 386, 389, 391, 409, 410; Big crop, 313; Husking, 389; Naked, 409; with and without Rice, 47, 80, 85, 383, 387; Production compared with Wheat, 413

Barons x, 204

Barriers ix, 104

Barter, 122

Barton, Sir E., 9

Basha, see Hokkaido, 244; story, 217

Baskets, 177, 215

Baths x, 17, 50, 82, 109, 112, 116-7, 190, 203, 215, 256, 277, 314, 354; "A moral bath", 94; Bathing, 125, 152, 186

Battleship, 235

Bayonets, Imitation, 282

Bazin Rene, 141

Beans, see Soya, 147, 199, 307, 383, 409; Cake, 386

Beardsley, Aubrey, 98, 103

Bears, see Hokkaido, 110

Beauty, see Hokkaido, 104, 127, 298

"Be diligent", 158; "Be serious", 112

Beef, see Kobe beef, 259, 349, 350; Essence, 158

Beer, see Hokkaido, 119, 396

Bees, 196, 348

Beggars, 265, 324

Begonia, 213

Behaviour, Training in good, 259

Belgium, 386

Beliefs, see Customs, 310, 331;

Believers, 63; Believer and ne'er do well, 5

Belly cloths, 269

Benjo, 151, 192, 374

Ben Nevis, 394

Bento 110, 268, 279

Bergson, 99

Beri beri, 79

Berry, Sir G., 9

Better living, 370; Better world, 90

Bi, 126

Bible, 95

Bicycles, 18, 150, 220

Binyon, L., 292

Birches, 316

Birds, 25, 117, 344

Births, see Still; Celebration of, 302; Forbidden, 236; Rate, 392; Tax, 21

Biscuits, 270

Biwa, 289

Black and white company, 187

Black Country, 132

"Black sake", 79

Blacksmith, 264

Blake, William, 98, 103, 105-6

Blind, see Amma, 192, 300; Advantage of Blindness, 232; Blind guides, 369; Headman, 229

Blood and thunder stories 121

Boar day 126

Boasting 17

Boat, sacred, 257

Body 226

Boehme 99

Bog 390

"Bold is the donkey driver" 98

Bolting ideas 331

Bon 180, 190, 265, 267, 271-2, 302, 361; Songs and dances 189, 190, 197 (2), 274

Bonins 391

Bonito 297

Books 159, 190, 319, 401; Cheap 212; Faults of many about Japan 254; Foreign 141, 196, 248; In demand 60; In a Village Library 60; Shops 244

Booths 115

Boots 236, 284, 346

Borneo 127

Borrow vi, 119, 283

Borrowing, see Credit, Ko, Tanomoshi; 125, 183

Boswell, 140, 175

Bottles, tied with rope, 119

Bowing 44 (2), 46, 83, 121, 286, 313

Bowels 348, 351

Bowls, Turning, 111; at shrine 303

Box for letters for Police 111

Boy Growth of 113; Labour 411; Tradesmen's 315; Reformation of 178; Running away 322; Stolen 286; "Boy San" 103

Brazil 401

Bread 80 (2), 346 (2), 350-1 (2), 383

Bream 297

Breath 117

Brewing, see Hokkaido, 119

Bribery 208, 400; 123, 303

Bride 21; Chest 129, 379

Bridges 128, 132, 240; Mysteriously repaired, 287; Suspension 209

Briefness 292

Bright, John, 203

Britons, see Hokkaido, 403

Broadmindedness 326

Bronte, E., 99

Brothels 56, 222, 243

Brother, Eldest, 19, 329

Brotherly union 94-5

Buckwheat, see Hokkaido; 111, 122, 243, 264, 381, 409; "As white as snow" 111

Buddha 1, 3, 4, 5, 19, 26 (2), 51, 58 117, 125, 142, 205-6; Inferior 139; Heads 310. —Buddhism 19, 30, 42, 57 (2), 63 (3), 96, 101, 197, 205, 210, 212, 322, 324; and Animal life 59, 345, 347; behind the age 6; without Buddha 322, 327; and Christianity 59, 100-1, 324, 362; Definition of 93; Difficulty of getting a general view of 327, 321; England and 100; of old time 258; Too aristocratic 1 Buddhist 91, 96, 129; Gatherings 231; Influence 259; Literature 327, 331; Real 63; Sects, under names; Services 3, 205 (2), 270; Strict 30; Y.M.A. 124; Y.W.A. 124. —Buddhist Priests, see Bon; 1-7, 96, 113, 118, 134, 142, 194, 231, 240, 258, 264, 269, 270 (2)-1-2, 302, 314; Priest's man 270-1; Succession to 135; Wives 6, 270; Shrines 220, Value of 273; Temples, 113, 123, 134, 142, 176, 180, 211, 244, 249, 258-9, 269, 310, 327; Architecture 134, "Church" 134, New, 313, Sleeping in x; Two months in 262, Underground passage 142

Buffoon 276

Bugles 15-17

Bulls 18, 249, 250; Fighting 228

Burden of the Old 100

Burdock 48, 146, 410

Bureau of Horse Politics 195; of Hygiene 350

Burials, see Graves, 121, 267, 306; at Sea 225

Burnham, Lord, 9

Burns, Robert, 107, 288

Bushido 25, 140

Businesses, linked, 315; "Business, My," 326

Butter 142, 270, 346

Butterflies 127, 287

Cabbage 53, 213, 440

Caffeine 292, 403

Cairo 390

Calendar 136

California 290, 363, 365-6

Camphor trees 219

Canada 388

Cancer 268

Candles 340

Canning, see Hokkaido, 368; Canned meat and fish 268

Cape 267, 270

Capes 47

Cape Wrath 358

Capitalism 368-9

Caps 114, 301

Caramels 272

Carbon bisulphide 60

"Carelessness" 54

Carlyle, T., 90-1, 94, 99

Carp, 39, 158, 210, 299

Carpenter 99, 267, 317

Carrier's conversation 109

Carrot 410

Carts 209; Push 194

Carving 269

"Case for the Goat, The," 347

Cast 94

Cats 47, 131, 221, 345

Cattle, see Cow, Oxen, Bulls, Hokkaido; 23, 194-5, 230, 240, 243, 316, 347, 381, 406; Keeping 194, 259, 402; Thieves 195

Cedar wood 211

Cells 116, 143

Censorship 401

Census 393-4

Cereals 367, 404

Certificate of merit 213

Cezanne 98, 103

Chadai 148

Chaff 386

Chainmakers 170

Chairman 24

Champagne 140

Changes, seeming, 331

Cha-no-yu 31, 214, 319

Character 88, 151, 201, 203-4-5-6-7 258, 259, 269, 288, 290, 311, 317, 323, 331-2; Nature and 99; Weakness of 101; Wish to give before have anything 102; Chinese 39

Charcoal 111, 122-3, 196

Charitable Institutions 59, 376

Charms 41, 47, 121, 125, 223, 245

Charring 227

Chastity 114, 139, 149

Chauffeur 240, 246

Chavannes, Puvis de, 98, 103

Cheek-binding 286

Cheerfulness 304, 317

Cheese 345

Chemist, Distinguished, 10

Chenille 142

Cherries 295, 319; Poems 288; Refineries 226

Chestnuts 121

Chiba 268, 297, 309, 321

Chicken 110, 349

Chief Constable, Influence of, 118

Chiho 400

Children 110, 112, 117, 203, 216, 323, 377; Childbirth 268; Ages of 113; Assaults on 229; British exploitation of 170; Charm to obtain 314; Contracts 286; Crimes against 114; Marriage 197; Politeness 121; Services for 130; and Temple 58; What will he become? 60; Workers, see Labour, 314

Chillies 41

Chimneys 147, 151

China 110, 127, 143, 214, 256, 306, 344, 347, 388, 390, 396-7, 404; War 85, 311; Chinaman in Formosa story 96; Tea 296; Relations with 91; Chinese competition 399; Labour 363; Prisoners 307; Scriptures not understood 331; Sheep and wool 353-4-5-6

Cho xxiv; Cho xxv

Chokai, Mount, 182

Chopsticks 81

Chosen, see Korea

Christ 55, 95, 96, 127; Christianity, see Hokkaido, 96, 99, 101, 198, 205, 324; Christian, 99, 203, 362 (3); a Japanese question 144; and Buddhism 101, 108, 324, 327, 362; Conceptions 96, Early 91; Essence of 94 (2); Ethics of 362; Influence of 94; Japanese 83, 135, 261; and Personality 362; and Social reform 362; Temperament 327; Christmas 318; Churches 96, 362

Chrysanthemum 318

Cicada 344

Cider champagne 119

Cigarettes 82, 288, 400

Cimabue 106

Cities xxv; workers 87

Civilisation 96, 141, 216, 229

Clan 188

Classes 94, 251

Cleanliness 326, 354

Clerks 205

Climate, see Hokkaido, Weather; 88, 140, 195-6, 197, 198, 299, 309, 327, 358, 363, 365, 372, 390, 413

Cloak 47, 76

Clock 252

Clothing, see Farmers, 19, 30, 74, 125, 193, 307, 312, 317, 321, 323, 330, 346, 355-6-7, 374, 378, 380, 382; Advantages and Disadvantages of 356; Cotton and Silk v. Wool 356; Foreign 283, 346, 352

Clover 263

Clubhouse 305

Coal, see Hokkaido, 226, 396

Coasting steamers 209; coastwise traffic 256

Coat 47

Cobbett, William, ix

Cockfighting 228

Coffin 121, 248

Cold 261; Catching 312

Collectors, Boy, 230

Colleges 158

Colony 207

Colouring 295

Comeliness 204

Comfort 201, 203; Bags 58

Comic interlude 84

Commerce, 414; Uselessness of some, 369; Commercial crash 87

Common good, Work for, 19; Common humanity 34; "Common people at the gateway" 252; Common purpose in mankind 56

Commune 268; Communal labour 263; Communistic 212

Communities under 5,000 and 10,000 population 412

Companies 414

Complaint boxes 18

Concentration 206, 317

Concrete 22, 214, 325

Concubines 95, 322

Conduct 200, 361

Coney Island 325

Confucianism 91, 96, 101, 205 (3), 214, 322

Confusion 101

Conscience 201

Conscription, see Soldiers, 19, 65, 123, 284, 311 (2), 327, 331, 364; Statistics 404

Conservative view 331

Consolation 201, 321

Constitutional Party 395

"Contagion of foreigners" 117

Contentment 7, 259, 264, 302, 323

Contracts 194, 286

Controversy 48

Conversation, Subjects of, 129, 282

Conviction 37, 331

Cooking 350 (2)

Coolies 345

Co-operation, see Cocoons, Hokkaido, Ko, Tanomoshi, 7, 28-9 (2), 37 (2), 43, 47, 50, 58, 64, 85, 118, 124, 133, 136, 150, 185, 187, 194, 230, 305 (2), 364, 414; Capital for 48; More 370

Copper 92, 124, 226, 396

Coronation 21; Rice Ceremony 82; Millet 213

Corruption 208, 400

Cosmos 202, 206

Cottages, see Houses

Cotton, 132, 137, 223, 258, 404; Clothing 346; Chinese competition 399; Factories 174; Industry 354; Loom 220; Factory Manager's Manchester Guardian article 399; Silk v. Wool 366

Couch grass 265

Counsel 187

Countess 213

Country folk xiv, Countryman ix, xiv, 107, 141, 192, 233, 283, 302, 324, 331; Countryside 148, contrasted with Western 298, 313; County families and Country-house life 34

County Agricultural Association 150 (2)

Courage, Moral, 327

Courbet 103

Court lady 108

Courtesy, see Politeness, 36

Cows, see Paddies; First milking 235; Oxen, 209, 235, 381 (2)

Crab, Land, 249

Cradle 279

Craftsmanship 314, 317, 369

Crashaw 99

Crater 108-9

Credit, see Cheap money; Cooperation 181, 370, 414

Crematoria 48, 177

Crest, see Mon

Crime, see Police, 54, 279, 303; Charges not proceeded with 113; Table of crimes 376; Ex-criminals 143

Crimea 390

Crisis, Industrial and Commercial, 87

Crops 313, 380-1; see Agriculture, Paddies, Upland; Area devoted to each 408-9; Better 19, 370; Competitions to increase 58; Drying 208; Increase compared with area 364

Crow 320

Crowds 250, 259

Crown Prince 282

Cruelty to Animals 344-5

Cryptomeria 6, 40, 45, 61-2, 117, 121, 131-2, 190, 316, 394

Cuckoo 315

Cucumbers 146, 322

Cultivation, see Agriculture, Backbreaking, Cows, Harrowing, Hoes, Horses, Mattock, Paddy, Pony, Ploughing, Rice, Seed, Spade; Area compared with Great Britain 89; Area under 223; Doubling population 97; Increase of area 364, 414; Two or three crops 364; Japan and Great Britain 305; in relation to Stock 406; Methods to be reported 188; in proportion to Wild 408; Prizes 58; Too intensive 233; yearly increase of 408