Hitherto there had been only one way of restoring fertility to land; converting it to pasture and leaving it under grass for a prolonged period. Now it could be speedily improved and used intensively. Arthur Young describes the modern method of improvement in his account of the changes made in Norfolk husbandry before 1771:

From forty to fifty years ago, all the northern and western and a great part of the eastern tracts of the county were sheep walks, let so low as from 6 d. to 1s. 6 d. and 2 s. an acre. Much of it was in this condition only thirty years ago. The improvements have been made by the following circumstances.

First. By enclosing without the assistance of Parliament.

Second. By a spirited use of marl and clay.

Third. By the introduction of an excellent course of crops.

Fourth. By the introduction of turnips well hand-hoed.

Fifth. By the culture of clover and ray-grass.

Sixth. By the lords granting long leases.

Seventh. By the country being divided chiefly into large farms.[147]

The evidence which has been examined in this monograph reveals the far-reaching influence of soil exhaustion in English agrarian history in the centuries before the introduction of these new crops. As the yield of the soil declined, the ancient arable holdings proved incapable of supporting their cultivators, and a readjustment had to be made. The pressure upon subsistence was felt while villainage was still in force, and the terms upon which serfdom dissolved were influenced by this fact to an extent which has hitherto not been recognized. The economic crisis involved in the spread of the money economy threw into relief the destitution of the villains; and the easy terms of the cash payments which were substituted for services formerly due, the difficulty with which holders for land could be obtained on any terms, the explicit references to the poverty of whole communities at the time of the commutation of their customary services, necessitate the abandonment of the commonly accepted view that growing prosperity and the desire for better social status explain the substitution of money payments for labor services in the fourteenth century. The spread of the money economy was due to the gradual integration of the economic system, the establishment of local markets where small land holders could sell their produce for money. Until this condition was present, it was impossible to offer money instead of labor in payment of the customary dues; as soon as this condition was present, the greater convenience of the use of money made the commutation of services inevitable. In practise money payments came gradually to replace the performance of services through the system of "selling" works long before any formal commutation of the services took place. But, whatever the explanation of the spread of the money economy in England during this period, it is not the prosperity of the villains, for, at the moment when the formal change from payments in labor to money payments was made, the poverty and destitution of the landholders were conspicuous. That this poverty was due to declining fertility of the soil cannot be doubted. Land in demesne as well as virgate land was showing the effects of centuries of cultivation with insufficient manure, and returned so scant a crop that much of it was withdrawn from cultivation, even when serf labor with which to cultivate it was available. Exhaustion of the soil was the cause of the pauperism of the fourteenth century, as it was also of the enclosure and conversion to pasture of arable land in the fifteenth, sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Systematic enclosure for the purpose of sheep-farming on a large scale was but the final step in a process of progressively less intense cultivation which had been going on for centuries. The attention of some historians has been devoted too exclusively to the covetous sheep-master, against whom contemporary invective was directed, and the process which was going on in fields where no encloser was at work has escaped their notice. The three-field system was breaking down as it became necessary to withdraw this or that exhausted plot from cultivation entirely for a number of years. The periodic fallow had proved incapable of keeping the land in proper condition for bearing crops even two years out of three, and everywhere strips of uncultivated land began to appear in the common fields. This lea land—waste land in the midst of the arable—was a common feature of sixteenth and seventeenth century husbandry. The strips kept under cultivation gave a bare return for seed, and the profit of sheep-raising need not have been extraordinarily high to induce landowners to abandon cultivation entirely under these conditions. A great part of the arable fields lay waste, and could be put to no profitable use unless the whole was enclosed and stocked with sheep. The high profit made from sheep-raising cannot be explained by fluctuations in the price of wool. The price of wool fell in the fifteenth century. Sheep-farming was comparatively profitable because the soil of the ancient fields was too barren to repay the costs of tillage. Land which was in part already abandoned, was turned into pasture. The barrenness and low productivity of the common fields is explicitly recognised by contemporaries, and is given as the reason for the conversion of arable to pasture. Its use as pasture for a long period of years gave it the needed rest and restored its fertility, and pasture land which could bear crops was being brought again under cultivation during the centuries in which the enclosure movement was most marked.

Footnotes:

[112] Lamond, op. cit., p. 49.

[113] 4 H. 4, c. 2. Miss Leonard calls attention to this statute. "Inclosure of Common Land in the Seventeenth Century." Royal Hist. Soc. Trans., New Series, vol. xix, p. 101, note 2.

[114] Cf. supra, p. 27.

[115] Gonner, Common Land and Inclosure, p. 162.

[116] Leonard, op. cit., p. 140, note 2.

[117] Lamond, op. cit., p. 90.

[118] Ibid., pp. 56-57.

[119] Description of Britain (Holinshed Chronicles, London, 1586), p. 189.

[120] Leonard, op. cit., vol. xix, p. 120.

[121] Surveyinge, ch. 28.

[122] Ibid., ch. 32.

[123] Denton, England in the Fifteenth Century, p. 150.

[124] "Rome's Fall Reconsidered," Political Science Quarterly, vol. xxxi, pp. 217, 220.

[125] Lamond, Common Weal of this Realm of England, pp. 19-20.

[126] Tawney, Agrarian Problem in the Sixteenth Century, pp. 254-255.

[127] Tawney, op. cit., p. 256.

[128] Carew, as quoted by Leonard, op. cit., vol. xix, p. 137.

[129] "Enclosures in England," Quarterly Journal of Ec., vol. xvii, p. 595.

[130] Lennard, Rural Northamptonshire, pp. 73-4.

[131] The reason stated in the preamble of many of the Durham decrees granting enclosure permits (Leonard, op. cit., p. 117).

[132] 5 & 6 Ed. 6, c. 5. Re-enacted by 5 El., c. 2.

[133] Memorandum addressed by Alderman Box to Lord Burleigh in 1576, Gonner, op. cit., p. 157.

[134] 39 El., ch. 2, proviso iii.

[135] Ibid., proviso iv.

[136] Bland, Brown & Tawney: Select Documents, p. 272.

[137] Cunningham, Growth of English Industry and Commerce, Modern Times, part ii, p. 99.

[138] Ibid., p. 99.

[139] Lamond, op. cit., p. lxiii.

[140] Cullum, Hawsted, pp. 235-243.

[141] Leonard, "Inclosure of Common Fields in the Seventeenth Century," Royal Hist. Soc. Trans., N. S., vol. xix, p. 141, note.

[142] For this controversy see, "The Inquisitions of Depopulation in 1517 and the 'Domesday of Inclosures,'" by Edwin F. Gay and I. S. Leadam, Royal Hist. Soc. Trans., 1900, vol. xiv, pp. 231-303.

[143] Simkhovitch, Political Science Quarterly, vol. xxviii, pp. 400, 401.

[144] Board of Agriculture Report, Norfolk, ch. vi.

[145] Ibid., ch. vi.

[146] Ibid.

[147] Bland, Brown and Tawney, op. cit., pp. 530-531.



INDEX

Abbot's Ripton, 61

Arable, 11; area reduced, 22, 24, 27, 54-56, 70, 80; barren, 12, 16-17, 23, 47, 49, 55-56, 58, 62, 70, 72, 79, 81, 97-99, 101, 106; fertility restored, 13, 41-42, 46-47, 81-82, 98-99, 101, 103; converted to pasture, 11-12, 14, 18-19, 23, 27-28, 30, 32, 35-36, 58, 71, 84, 88, 90, 99; cultivation resumed, 12, 15-16, 31, 33, 84, 99-101; lea strips, 41, 79-84, 87, 106; enclosed, 83-84, 102

Ashley, 33

Bacon, 99

Bailiff-farming, 50, 70, 73-74

Ballard, 20, 50, 59-60, 63, 70, 77

Barley, 37, 56

Beggars, 70

Berkeley estates, 23, 27, 58, 63, 83

Black Death, 16, 18-23, 38, 41, 56-57, 60, 67

Bolam, 80

Bond land deserted, 16, 21, 56-57, 60-61, 66, 70, 72; refused, 59; no competition for, 21; vacant, 22-23, 57-58, 62, 66, 72; compulsory holding of, 21, 57, 59-60, 62, 72; leased, 23, 57, 62, 75-76; rents of, 16, 20-21, 57-58, 63, 66-68

Brightwell, 68

Burwell, 61

Cattle, 48-49, 69, 91, 102

Carew, Survey of Cornwell, 33

Chatteris, 70

Clover, 102, 104

Combe, 51

Commissions on enclosure, engrossing, etc., 15, 30, 84

Common-field system, 11, 48, 85; stability of, 82, 85, 87, 103; disintegration of, chapter III

Commutation of villain services, 19, 56-57, 64-69, 73, 105

Concessions to villains, 57, 59, 62-64, 66, 69; see villain services, rents

Conversion, arable to pasture, 11-12, 14, 18-19, 23, 27-28, 30, 32, 35-36, 39-43, 58, 71, 84, 88, 90, 99; pasture to arable, 19, 31, 34-36, 39-43, 84; both, 19, 35-36, 39-43, 84; reconversion of open-field land formerly laid to grass, 13, 15-16, 31, 33, 84, 99-101

Convertible husbandry, 41-42, 81-82, 84, 102

Corbett, 78

Corn-laws, 33-34

Cornwall, 33

Cost of living, 92

Crawley, 59

Crops, 48, 102-104

Cross-plowing, 78

Cunningham, 32

Curtler, 13

Demesne, leased, 19-20, 57, 73; intermixed with tenant land, 94-95

Denton, 13, 27, 91

Depopulation, 27-30, 94, 96

Desertion, 16, 21, 56-57, 60-61, 66, 70, 72

Downton, 50, 68

East Brandon, 79

Emparking, 27

Enclosed land, pasture, 33, 87; tilled, 83-84, 102; convertible husbandry, 41-42, 81, 84, 101-102

Enclosure, defined, 11-12; progress of, 27-43, 87-88; early, 16, 18-19, 22-23, 27, 58; seventeenth century, 12, 17, 31, 35-37, 39, 88; eighteenth century, 31, 103-104; causes, see productivity, soil-exhaustion, prices; social consequences, 15, 29-30, 97, see depopulation, unemployment, eviction; literature of, 14-15; opposition to, 82, 93; effect on quality of wool, 33; for sheep-farming, 12, 19, 22, 24, 28, 37, 42-44, 83-84, 87-88, 90, 96, 98; enclosed land cultivated, 83-84, 102

Engrossing, 75; see holdings, amalgamation of

Eviction of tenants, 12, 15, 27, 30, 38, 90, 94, 96

Fallow, 11, 47, 85, 87, 106; see pasture, lea land

Fertility, see productivity, soil-exhaustion; fertility restored, 13, 41-42, 46-47, 81-82, 98-99, 101, 103

Fines, 59

Fitzherbert, 41, 77-79, 81-82, 91

Forage, 49, 91, 102

Forncett, 51, 61, 63, 84

Gay, Professor E. F., 15, 96, 102

Gonner, E. C. K., 13, 88

Gorleston, 77

Grafton Park, 34

Gras, Norman, 51

Gray, H. L., 79

Grazing, 11, 18, 46; profits from, 80; see sheep-farming, pasture

Hales, John, 86, 89, 92, 100

Harrison, Description of Britain, 89

Hasbach, 13

Hawsted, 100

Hay, 48-49, 91, 102

Heriots, 69

Holdings, deserted, 16, 21, 56-57, 60-61, 66, 70, 72; refused by heir, 59; vacant, 22-23, 57-58, 62, 66, 72; intermixed, 11, 77-78, 85, 94-95; amalgamated, 12, 56, 74-75; divided, 76

Holway, 41

Houses, destruction of, 90

Husbandry, Anonymous, 51

Innes, 32

Isle of Wight, 28, 76

Labor, supply of, 18, 22-23, 38, 41; see wages, unemployment

Landlords, enclosure by, 12, 96, 100, 106

Leadam, 102

Lea-land, 41, 79, 80-84, 87, 106

Lee, Joseph, 101

Leicestershire, 15

Leonard, E. M., 15, 27, 35-36, 40, 88

Levett, A. E., 20, 50, 59-60, 63, 70, 77

Manorial system, readjustments in fourteenth century, 19 et seq.

Manure, 41-42, 46-50, 78, 90, 102; see sheep-fold, marl

Markets, local, 105

Marl, 46, 50, 90-91, 104

Meadow, 48-49

Meredith, 32

Merton College, 51

Money-economy, 105; see commutation of services

Monson, Lord, 34

More, Sir Thomas, 29-30

Nailesbourne, 60, 64

North, Lord, 90

Northwald, 104

Open-field land, see common-field system, enclosures, lea-land

Page, 60-61, 68

Pasture, waste, 46, 49, 93; fallow pasture, 11, 49, 82, 85, 93; lea strips, 41, 79-84, 87, 106; enclosed, 33, 82, 87; converted to arable, 19, 31, 34, 36, 39-43, 84; profits of, 12, 18, 30, 32-33, 107; leased, 100

Pauperism, see poverty

Pembroke, 41

Population, 34

Poverty, villains, 16, 21, 56, 59, 67-69, 72, 106; small tenants, 87, 90-91, 97

Prices, sixteenth century, 92; wool and wheat, 12, 17-19, 24-33, 36-37, 40, 53; seventeenth century, 36-37

Productivity, 14, 38, 41, 44-48, 50-56, 90; see soil-exhaustion

Profits, tillage, 22, 34, 39, 41, 58, 70, 72, 89-92; pasture, 12, 18, 30, 32-33, 96, 107

Protests against enclosures, 14-15, 38

Prothero, 13

Reconversion, pasture to arable, 12, 15-16, 31, 33, 84, 90, 101

Rents, 16, 20-21, 57-58, 63, 66-68, 73, 89-90, 95

Rogers, J. T., 17, 26, 31, 39

Rotation of crops, 11, 103-104

Rothamsted Experiment Station, 44

Rous, 27, 88

Russell, 44, 46-47, 49

Seager, 17

Seligman, 17

Sheep, 12, 29

Sheep-farming, 12, 19, 22, 24, 28, 37, 42-44, 83-84, 87-88, 90, 96, 98

Sheep-fold, 49-50

Simkhovitch, 13, 17, 47-48, 91

Smyth, John, 23, 58

Soil-exhaustion, 12, 16-17, 23, 47, 49, 55-56, 58, 62, 70, 72, 79-81, 97-99, 101, 106

Statutes of husbandry, 28, 30, 39-40, 75-76, 88, 97-99

Stiffkey, 103

Stock and land lease, 73

Strips, 11, 85, 94-95; exchanged, 77

Tawney, 77

Tenants, elimination of, 87; evicted, 12, 15, 27, 30, 38, 90, 94, 96; poverty, 87, 90-91, 97; enclosure by, 15, 82-87; opposition to enclosure, 82, 93; rents of, 89-90, 95

Therfield, 60, 61

Turf-borders, 11; plowed under, 78

Turnips, 102-104

Tusser, 41, 79, 82

Twyford, 59

Unemployment, 28, 30, 38

Utopia, 29-30

Villains, poverty, 16, 21, 56, 59, 67-69, 72, 106; compelled to take land, 21, 57, 59-60, 62, 72; desertion of, 16, 21, 56-57, 60-61, 66, 70, 72; social status with relation to commutation, 20, 57, 65, 67-68

Villain-services, 58-59; reduced, 21, 62-64, 72; commuted, 19-20, 56-57, 62, 64-69, 73, 105; sold, 64, 66, 105; excused, 70-71; leased, 73; retained, 67

Vinogradoff, 65-66

Virgate, 74; value of services, 62-63

Wages, 18, 36-39, 72-73

Walter of Henley, 51, 53

Waste, 12, 46, 49, 93, 98

Westmoreland, Countess of, 36

Weston, 61, 68

Westwick, 80

Wheat, yield, 47, 50-56, 90; prices, 12, 17-19, 24-31, 32-33, 36-37, 40, 53

Whorlton, 80

Winchester, Bishopric of, 20, 50, 51-54, 60-61, 63, 70, 77

Witney, 51-53, 55-56, 67-68

Wool, demand for, 12, 22, 24-25, 29, 32, 42, 43; price of, 12, 17-19, 22, 24-33; quality, 33

Woollen industry, expansion of, 12, 22, 24-25

Woolston, 59

Young, Arthur, 104



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HENRY RAYMOND MUSSEY

The Quarterly follows the most important movements of foreign politics but devotes chief attention to questions of present interest in the United States. Every article is signed and expresses simply the personal view of the writer. Scholarly reviews and brief book notes are published and an annual Supplement gives a valuable record of political events throughout the world. Address editorial communications to the Political Science Quarterly; business communications to the Academy of Political Science, Columbia University, New York.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF POLITICAL SCIENCE

The Proceedings, now in their seventh volume, give detailed treatment to special subjects of importance. The issues of the present year are The Foreign Relations of the United States, 454 pages, $1.50, and Economic Conditions of Winning the War, $1.50. A full list of the numbers thus far issued will be sent on request. Address Academy of Political Science, Columbia University, New York.



Transcriber's Notes:

Passages in italics indicated by underscore italics.

The following printing errors were corrected: "it" corrected to "is" (page 16/172) ' corrected to " (page 27/183) "villians" corrected to "villains" (page 67/223) missing closing quotation mark added (page 69/225) "sieze" corrected to "seize" (page 69/225) "demense" corrected to "demesne" (page 73/229, 3 times) missing "to added (page 78/234) (although not [to] be ignored) "and and" corrected to "and" (page 80/236)

Footnote [38] has no corresponding marker in the text.

Page 78 contains three footnote markers (two of which are marked with the same number - [99]) but only two footnotes.

Additional spacing after some of the block quotes is intentional to indicate both the end of a quotation and the beginning of a new paragraph as is in the original text.