[What do English farmers name as the profits of under-draining?

What stand has been taken by the English government with regard to under-draining?]

Of the precise profits of under-draining this is not the place to speak: many of the agricultural papers contain numerous accounts of its success. It may be well to remark here, that many English farmers give it, as their experience, that under-drains pay for themselves every three years, or that they produce a perpetual profit of 33-1/3 per cent., or their original cost. This is not the opinion of theorists and book farmers. It is the conviction of practical men, who know, from experience, that under-drains are beneficial.

The best evidence of the utility of under-draining is the position, with regard to it, which has been taken by the English national government, which affords much protection to the agricultural interests of her people—a protection which in this country is unwisely and unjustly withheld.

In England a very large sum from the public treasury has been appropriated as a fund for loans, on under-drains, which is lent to farmers for the purpose of under-draining their estates, the only security given being the increased value of the soil. The time allowed for payments is twenty years, and only five per cent. interest is charged. By the influence of this patronage, the actual wealth of the kingdom is being rapidly increased, while the farmers themselves, can raise their farms to any desired state of fertility, without immediate investment.

[How does under-draining affect the healthfulness of marshy countries?

Describe the sub-soil plow.]

The best proof that the government has not acted injudiciously in this matter is, that private capitalists are fast employing their money in the same manner, and loans on under-drains are considered a very safe investment.

There is no doubt that we may soon have similar facilities for improving our farms, and when we do, we shall find that it is unnecessary to move West to find good soil. The districts nearer market, where the expense of transportation is much less, may, by the aid of under-drains, and a judicious system of cultivation, be made equally fertile.

One very important, though not strictly agricultural, effect of thorough drainage is its removal of certain local diseases, peculiar to the vicinity of marshy or low moist soils. The health-reports in several places in England, show that where fever and ague was once common, it has almost entirely disappeared since the general use of under-drains in those localities.



CHAPTER IV.

SUB-SOIL PLOWING.

[Describe the Mapes plow.

Why is the motion in the soil of one and a half inches sufficient?

How does the oxidation of the particles of the soil resemble the rusting of cannon balls in a pile?]

The sub-soil plow is an implement differing in figure from the surface plow. It does not turn a furrow, but merely runs through the subsoil like a mole—loosening and making it finer by lifting, but allowing it to fall back and occupy its former place. It usually follows the surface plow, entering the soil to the depth of from twelve to eighteen inches below the bottom of the surface furrow.

The best pattern now made (the Mapes plow) is represented in the following figure.



The sub-soil plows first made raised the whole soil about eight inches, and required very great power in their use often six, eight, or even ten oxen. The Mapes plow, raising the soil but slightly, may be worked with much less power, and produces equally good results. It may be run to its full depth in most soils by a single yoke of oxen.

Of course a motion in the soil of but one and a half inches is very slight, but it is sufficient to move each particle from the one next to it which, in dry soils, is all that is necessary. Whoever has examined a pile of cannon-balls must have observed that at the points where they touch each other, there is a little rust. In the soil, the same is often the case. Where the particles touch each other, there is such a chemical change produced as renders them fit for the use of plants. While these particles remain in their first position, the changed portions are out of the reach of roots; but, if, by the aid of the sub-soil plow, their position is altered, these parts are exposed for the uses of plants. If we hold in the hand a ball of dry clay, and press it hard enough to produce the least motion among its particles, the whole mass becomes pulverized. On the same principle, the sub-soil plow renders the compact lower soil sufficiently fine for the requirements of fertility.

[Why are the benefits of sub-soiling not permanent on wet lands?

Does sub-soiling overcome drought?

How does it deepen the surface soil?]

Notwithstanding its great benefits on land, which is sufficiently dry, sub-soiling cannot be recommended for wet lands; for, in such case, the rains of a single season would often be sufficient to entirely overcome its effects by packing the subsoil down to its former hardness.

On lands not overcharged with water, it is productive of the best results, it being often sufficient to turn the balance between a gaining and a losing business in farming.

It increases nearly every effect of under-draining; especially does it overcome drought, by loosening the soil, and admitting air to circulate among the particles of the subsoil and deposit its moisture on the principle described in the chapter on under-draining.

It deepens the surface-soil, because it admits roots into the subsoil where they decay and leave carbon, while the circulation of air so affects the mineral parts, that they become of a fertilizing character. The deposit of carbon gives to the subsoil the power of absorbing, and retaining the atmospheric fertilizers, which are more freely presented, owing to the fact that the air is allowed to circulate with greater freedom. As a majority of roots decay in the surface-soil, they there deposit much mineral matter obtained from the subsoil.

[Why is the retention of atmospheric manures ensured by sub-soiling?

Why are organic manures plowed deeply under the soil, less liable to evaporation than when deposited near the surface?

How does sub-soiling resemble under-draining in relation to the tillering of grasses?

When the subsoil consists of a thin layer of clay on a sandy bed, what use may be made of the sub-soil plow?]

The retention of atmospheric manures is more fully ensured by the better exposure of the clayey portions of the soil.

Those manures which are artificially applied, by being plowed under to greater depths, are less liable to evaporation, as, from the greater amount of soil above them, their escape will more probably be arrested; and, from the greater prevalence of roots, they are more liable to be taken up by plants.

The subsoil often contains matters which are deficient in the surface-soil. By the use of the sub-soil plow, they are rendered available.

Sub-soiling is similar to under-draining in continuing the tillering of grasses, and in getting rid of the poisonous excrementitious matter of plants.

When the subsoil is a thin layer of clay on a sandy bed (as in some plants of Cumberland Co. Maine), the sub-soil plow, by passing through it, opens a passage for water, and often affords a sufficient drainage.

[To how great a depth will the roots of plants usually occupy the soil?

What is the object of loosening the soil?

How are these various effects better produced in deep than in shallow soils?]

If plants will grow better on a soil six inches deep than on one of three inches, there is no reason why they should not be benefited in proportion, by disturbing the soil to the whole depth to which roots will travel—which is usually more than two feet. The minute rootlets of corn and most other plants, will, if allowed by cultivation, occupy the soil to the depth or thirty-four inches, having a fibre in nearly every cubic inch of the soil for the whole distance. There are very few cultivated plants whose roots would not travel to a depth of thirty inches or more. Even the onion sends its roots to the depth of eighteen inches when the soil is well cultivated.

The object of loosening the soil is to admit roots to a sufficient depth to hold the plant in its position—to obtain the nutriment necessary to its growth—to receive moisture from the lower portions of the soil—and, if it be a bulb, tuber, or tap, to assume the form requisite for its largest development.

It must be evident that roots, penetrating the soil to a depth of two feet, anchor the plant with greater stability than those which are spread more thinly near the surface.

The roots of plants traversing the soil to such great distances, and being located in nearly every part, absorb mineral and other food, in solution in water, only through the spongioles at their ends. Consequently, by having these ends in every part of the soil, it is all brought under contribution, and the amount supplied is greater, while the demand on any particular part may be less than when the whole requirements of plants have to be supplied from a depth of a few inches.

[May garden soils be profitably imitated in field culture?]

The ability of roots, to assume a natural shape in the soil, and grow to their largest sizes, must depend on the condition of the soil. If it is finely pulverized to the whole depth to which they ought to go, they will be fully developed; while, if the soil be too hard for penetration, they will be deformed or small. Thus a carrot may grow to the length of two and a half feet, and be of perfect shape, while, if it meet in its course at a depth of eight or ten inches a cold, hard subsoil, its growth must be arrested, or its form injured.

Roots are turned aside by a hard sub-soil, as they would be if received by the surface of a plate of glass.

Add to this the fact that cold, impenetrable subsoils are chemically uncongenial to vegetation, and we have sufficient evidence of the importance, and in many cases the absolute necessity of sub-soiling and under-draining.

It is unnecessary to urge the fact that a garden soil of two feet is more productive than a field soil of six inches; and it is certain that proper attention to these two modes of cultivation will in a majority of cases make a garden of the field—more than doubling its value in ease of working, increased produce, certain security against drought, and more even distribution of the demands on the soil—while the outlay will be immediately repaid by an increase of crops.

[Is the use of the sub-soil plow increasing?

Will its use ever injure crops?]

The subsoil will be much improved in its character the first year, and a continual advancement renders it in time equal to the original surface-soil, and extending to a depth of two feet or more.

The sub-soil plow is coming rapidly into use. There are now in New Jersey more foundries casting sub-soil plows than there were sub-soil plows in the State six years ago. The implement has there, as well as in many other places, ceased to be a curiosity; and the man who now objects to its use, is classed with him who shells his corn on a shovel over a half-bushel, instead of employing an improved machine, which will enable him to do more in a day than he can do in the "good old way" in a week.

Had we space, we might give many instances of the success of sub-soiling, but the agricultural papers of the present day (at least one of which every farmer should take) have so repeatedly published its advantages, that we will not do so.

In no case will its use be found any thing but satisfactory, except in occasional instances where there is some chemical difficulty in the subsoil, which an analysis will tell us how to overcome.

As was before stated, its use on wet lands is not advisable until they have been under-drained, as excess of water prevents its effects from being permanent.



CHAPTER V.

PLOWING AND OTHER MODES OF PULVERIZING THE SOIL.

[May the satisfaction attending labor be increased by an understanding of the natural laws which regulate our operations?

On what depends the kind of plow to be used?]

The advantages of pulverizing the soil, and the reasons why it is necessary, are now too well known to need remark. Few farmers, when they plow, dig, or harrow, are enabled to give substantial reasons for so doing. If they will reflect on what has been said in the previous chapters, concerning the supply of mineral food to the plant by the soil, and the effect of air and moisture about roots, they will find more satisfaction in their labor than it can afford when applied without thought.

PLOWING.

[What is a general rule with regard to this?

Should deep plowing be immediately adopted? Why?

Why is this course of treatment advisable for garden culture?]

The kind of plow used in cultivating the surface-soil must be decided by the kind of soil. This question the practical, observing farmer will be able to solve.

As a general rule, it may be stated that the plow which runs the deepest, with the same amount of force, is the best.

We might enter more fully into this matter but for want of space.

The advantages of deep plowing cannot be too strongly urged.

The statement that the deeper and the finer the soil is rendered, the more productive it will become, is in every respect true, and which no single instance will contradict.

It must not be inferred from this, that we would advise a farmer, who has always plowed his soil to the depth of only six inches, to double the depth at once. Such a practice in some soils would be highly injurious, as it would completely bury the more fertile and better cultivated soil, and bring to the top one which contains no organic matter, and has never been subject to atmospheric influences. This would, perhaps, be so little fitted for vegetation that it would scarcely sustain plants until their roots could reach the more fertile parts below. Such treatment of the soil (turning it upside down) is excellent in garden culture, where the great amount of manures applied is sufficient to overcome the temporary barrenness of the soil, but it is not to be recommended for all field cultivation, where much less manure is employed.

[How should field plowing be conducted?

How does such treatment affect soils previously limed?

How may it sometimes improve sandy or clay soils?]

The course to be pursued in such cases is to plow one inch deeper each year. By this means the soil maybe gradually deepened to any desired extent. The amount of uncongenial soil which will thus be brought up, is slight, and will not interfere at all with the fertility of the soil, while the elevated portion will become, in one year, so altered by exposure, that it will equal the rest of the soil in fertility.

Often where lime has been used in excess, it has sunk to the subsoil, where it remains inactive. The slight deepening of the surface plowing would mix this lime with the surface-soil, and render it again useful.

When the soil is light and sandy, resting on a heavy clay subsoil, or clay on sand, the bringing up of the mass from below will improve the texture of the soil.

As an instance of the success of deep plowing, we call to mind the case of a farmer in New Jersey, who had a field which had yielded about twenty-five bushels of corn per acre. It had been cultivated at ordinary depths. After laying it out in eight step lands (24 feet), he plowed it at all depths from five to ten inches, on the different lands, and sowed oats evenly over the whole field. The crop on the five inch soil was very poor, on the six inch rather better, on the seven inch better still, and on the ten inch soil it was as fine as ever grew in New Jersey; it had stiff straw and broad leaves, while the grain was also much better than on the remainder of the field.

[What kind of soils are benefited by fall plowing?]

There is an old anecdote of a man who died, leaving his sons with the information that he had buried a pot of gold for them, somewhere on the farm. They commenced digging for the gold, and dug over the whole farm to a great depth without finding the gold. The digging, however, so enriched the soil that they were fully compensated for their disappointment, and became wealthy from the increased produce of their farm.

Farmers will find, on experiment, that they have gold buried in their soil, if they will but dig deep enough to obtain it. The law gives a man the ownership of the soil for an indefinite distance from the surface, but few seem to realize that there is another farm below the one they are cultivating, which is quite as valuable as the one on the surface, if it were but properly worked.

Fall plowing, especially for heavy lands, is a very good means of securing the action of the frosts of winter to pulverize the soil. If it be a stiff clay, it may be well to throw the soil up into ridges (by ridging and back furrowing), so as to expose the largest possible amount of surface to the freezing and thawing of winter. Sandy soils should not be plowed in the fall, as it renders them too light.

DIGGING MACHINES.

[What is the digging machine?]

A recent invention has been made in England, known as the digging machine or rotary spade, which—although from having too much gearing between the power and the part performing the labor, it is not adapted to general use—has given such promise of future success, that Mr. Mechi (an agricultural writer of the highest standing) has said that "the plow is doomed." This can hardly be true, for the varied uses to which it may be applied, will guarantee its continuance in the favor of the farmer.

Already, in this country, Messrs. Gibbs & Mapes, have invented a digging machine of very simple construction, which seems calculated to serve an excellent purpose, even in the hands of the farmer of limited means.

Its friends assert that, with one pair of oxen, it will dig perfectly three feet wide, and for a depth of fifteen inches. An experiment with an unperfected machine, in the presence of the writer, seemed to justify their hopes.

This machine thoroughly pulverizes the soil to a considerable depth, and for smooth land must prove far superior to the plow.

THE HARROW AND CULTIVATOR.

[Why is the harrow a defective implement?

Why is the cultivator superior to the harrow?]

The harrow, an implement largely used in all parts of the world, to pulverize the soil, and break clods, has become so firmly rooted in the affections of farmers, that it must be a very long time before they can be convinced that it is not the best implement for the use to which it is devoted. It is true that it pulverizes the soil for a depth of two or three inches, and thus much improves its appearance, benefiting it, without doubt, for the earliest stages of the growth of plants. Its action, however, is very defective, because, from the wedge shape of its teeth, it continually acts to pack the soil; thus—although favorable for the germination of the seed—it is not calculated to benefit the plant during the later stages of its growth, when the roots require the soil to be pulverized to a considerable depth.

The cultivator may be considered an improved harrow. The principal difference between them being, that while the teeth of the harrow are pointed at the lower end, those of the cultivator are shaped like a small double plow, being large at the bottom and growing smaller towards the top. They lift the earth up, instead of pressing it downwards, thus loosening instead of compacting the soil.

Many styles of cultivators are now sold at agricultural warehouses. A very good one, for field use, may be made by substituting the cultivator teeth for the spikes in an old harrow frame.



CHAPTER VI.

ROLLING, MULCHING, WEEDING, ETC.

ROLLING.

[Name some of the benefits of rolling?]

Rolling the soil with a large roller, arranged to be drawn by a team, is in many instances a good accessory to cultivation. By its means, the following results are obtained:—

1. The soil at the surface is pulverized without the compacting of the lower parts, the area of contact being large.

2. The stones on the land are pressed down so as to be out of the way of the scythe in mowing.

3. The soil is compacted around seeds after sowing in such a manner as to exclude light and to touch them in every part, both of which are essential to their germination and to the healthfulness of the plants.

[Under what circumstances should the roller be used?]

4. The soil is so compacted at the surface, that it is less frequented by grubs, etc., than when it is more loose.

5. When the soil is smoothed in this manner, there is less surface exposed for the evaporation of water with its cooling effect.

6. Light sandy lands, by being rolled in the fall, are rendered more compact, and the loosening effects of frequent freezing and thawing are avoided.

Although productive of these various effects, rolling should be adopted only with much care, and should never be applied to very heavy lands, except in dry weather when lumpy after plowing, as its tendency in such cases would be to render them still more difficult of cultivation. Soils in which air does not circulate freely, are not improved by rolling, as it presses the surface-particles still more closely together, and prevents the free admission of the atmosphere.

If well under-drained, a large majority of soils would doubtless be benefited by a judicious use of the roller.[AL]

MULCHING.

[What is mulching?

What are some of its benefits?]

Mulching (called Gurneyism in England) consists in covering the soil with salt hay, litter, seaweed, leaves, spent tanbark, chips, or other refuse matter.

Every farmer must have noticed that, if a board or rail, or an old brush-heap be removed in spring from soil where grass is growing, the grass afterwards grows in those places much larger and better than in other parts of the field.

This improvement arises from various causes.

1. The evaporation of water from the soil is prevented during drought by the shade afforded by the mulch; and it is therefore kept in better condition, as to moisture and temperature, than when evaporation goes on more freely. This condition is well calculated to advance the chemical changes necessary to prepare the matters—both organic and mineral—in the soil for the use of plants.

2. By preventing evaporation, we partially protect the soil from losing ammonia resultant from decaying organic matter.

3. A heavy mulch breaks the force of rains, and prevents them from compacting the soil, as would be the result, were no such precaution taken.

4. Mulching protects the surface-soil from freezing as readily as when exposed, and thus keeps it longer open for the admission of air and moisture. When unprotected, the soil early becomes frozen; and all water falling, instead of entering as it should do, passes off on the surface.

[Why does mulching take the place of artificial watering?

Why is the late sowing of oats beneficial?

From what arises the chief benefit of top dressing the soil with manure in autumn?]

5. The throwing out of winter grain is often prevented, because this is due to the freezing of the surface-soil.

6. Mulching prevents the growth of some weeds, because it removes from them the fostering heat of the sun.

Many of the best nursery-men keep the soil about the roots of young trees mulched continually. One of the chief arguments for this treatment is, that it prevents the removal of the moisture from the soil and the consequent loss of heat. Also that it keeps up a full supply of water for the uses of the roots, because it keeps the soil cool, and causes a deposit of dew.

7. It also prevents the "baking" of the soil, or the formation of a crust.

It is to be recommended in nearly all cases to sow oats very thinly over land intended for winter fallow after the removal of crops, as they will grow a little before being killed by the frost, when they will fall down, thus affording a very beneficial mulch to the soil.

When farmers spread manure on their fields in the fall to be plowed under in the spring, they benefit the land by the mulching more than by the addition of fertilizing matter, because they give it the protecting influence of the straw, etc., while they lose much of the ammonia of their manure by evaporation. The same mulching might be more cheaply done with leaves, or other refuse matter, and the ammonia of the manure made available by composting with absorbents.

[Why is snow particularly beneficial?]

It is an old and true saying that "snow is the poor man's manure." The reason why it is so beneficial is, chiefly, that it acts as a most excellent mulch. It contains no more ammonia than rain-water does; and, were it not for the fact that it protects the soil against loss of heat, and produces other benefits of mulching, it would have no more advantageous effect. The severity of winters at the North is partially compensated by the long duration of snow.

It is a well known fact that when there is but little snow in cold countries, wheat is very liable to be winter killed. The same protection is afforded by artificial mulching.

This treatment is peculiarly applicable to the cultivation of flowers, both in pots and in beds out of doors. It is almost indispensable to the profitable production of strawberries, and many other garden crops, such as asparagus, rhubarb, etc. Many say that the best treatment for trees is to put stones about their roots. This is simply mulching them, and might be done more cheaply by the use of leaves, copying the action of nature in forests;[AM] for, unless these stones be removed in spring, they will sink and compact the soil in part during open weather.

WEEDING.

[What are some of the uses of weeds? Their disadvantages?]

If a farmer were asked—what is the use of weeds? he might make out quite a list of their benefits, among which might be some of the following:—

1. They shade tender plants, and in a measure serve as a mulch to the ground.

2. Some weeds, by their offensive odor, drive away many insects.

3. They may serve as a green crop to be plowed into the soil, and increase its organic matter.

4. They make us stir the soil, and thus increase its fertility.

Still, while thinking out these excuses for weeds, he would see other and more urgent reasons why they should not be allowed to grow.

1. They occupy the soil to the disadvantage of crops.

2. They exclude light and heat from cultivated plants, and thus interfere with their growth.

3. They take up mineral and other matters from the soil, and hold them during the growing season, thus depriving crops of their use.

It is not necessary to argue the injury done by weeds. Every farmer is well convinced that they should be destroyed, and the best means of accomplishing this are of the greatest importance.

[How may we protect ourselves against their increase?

Why is it especially important for this purpose to maintain the balance of the soil?]

In the first place, we should protect ourselves against their increase. This may be done:—

By decomposing all manures in compost, whereby the seeds contained will be killed by the heat of fermentation; or, if one bushel of salt be mixed through each cord of compost (as before recommended), it will kill seeds as well as grubs,—

By hoeing, or, otherwise, destroying growing weeds before they mature their seeds, and

By keeping the soil in the best chemical condition.

This last point is one of much importance. It is well known that soils deficient in potash, will naturally produce one kind of plants, while soils deficient in phosphoric acid will produce plants of another species, etc. Many soils produce certain weeds which would not grow on them if they were made chemically perfect, as indicated by analysis. It is also believed that those weeds, which naturally grow on the most fertile soils, are the ones most easily destroyed. There are exceptions (of which the Thistle is one), but this is given as a general rule.

[How much salt may be used with advantage?

Why is the scuffle-hoe superior to the common hoe?]

By careful attention to the foregoing points, weeds may be kept from increasing while those already in the soil may be eradicated in various ways, chiefly by mechanical means, such as hoeing, plowing, etc.[AN]

Prof. Mapes says that six bushels of salt annually sown broadcast over each acre of land, will destroy very many weeds as well as grubs and worms.

The common hoe is a very imperfect tool for the purpose of removing weeds, as it prepares a better soil for, and replants in a position to grow, nearly as many weeds as it destroys.

The scuffle-hoe (or push-hoe) is much more effective, as, when worked by a man walking backwards, and retiring as he works, it leaves nearly all of the weeds on the surface of the soil to be killed by the sun. When used in this way, the earth is not trodden on after being hoed—as is the case when the common hoe is employed. This treading, besides compacting the soil, covers the roots of many weeds, and causes them to grow again.

[How may much labor be saved in removing weeds?

What is the Langdon horse-hoe?

Describe the universal cultivator?]

Much of the labor of weeding usually performed by men, might be more cheaply done by horses. There are various implements for this purpose, some of which are coming, in many parts of the country, into very general use.

One of the best of these is the Langdon Horse Hoe, which is a shovel-shaped plow, to be run one or two inches deep. It has a wing on each side to prevent the earth from falling on to the plants in the rows. At the rear, or upper edge, is a kind of rake or comb, which allows the earth to pass through, while the weeds pass over the comb and fall on the surface of the soil, to be killed by the heat of the sun. It is a simple and cheap tool, and will perform the work of twenty men with hoes. The hand hoe will be necessary only in the rows.

CULTIVATOR.

The cultivator, which was described in the preceding chapter, and of which there are various patterns in use, is excellent for weeding, and for loosening the soil between the rows of corn, etc. The one called the universal cultivator, having its side bars made of iron, curved so that at whatever distance it is placed the teeth will point straight forward, is a much better tool than those of the older patterns, which had the teeth so arranged that when set for wide rows, they pointed towards the clevis. It is difficult to keep such a cultivator in its place, while the "universal" is as difficult to move out of a straight line.

IMPROVED HORSE-HOE.

[What is the improved horse-hoe?]

The improved horse-hoe is a combination of the "Langdon" horse hoe and the cultivator, and is the best implement, for many purposes, that has yet been made.[AO]



HARVESTING MACHINES.

Until within a comparatively short period, but little attention has been paid to the production of machines for harvesting the various crops.

During the past few years, however, many valuable inventions have appeared. Among these we notice Ketchum's mower, Hussey's mower and reaper, and Wagener's grain and grass seed harvester. The latter machine gathers only the grain and seeds of the crop, leaving the straw to be plowed under the soil, thus maintaining its supply of soluble silicates, and increasing its amount of organic matter. After taking the seed heads from the standing straw and grasses, it thrashes them, blows out the chaff, separates the different kinds of seeds, and discharges them into bags ready for market. It consists of a car containing the machinery; to this may be attached any required number of horses. The inventor affirms that it has harvested the grain of two acres in one hour, performing the work with accuracy.[AP]

* * * * *

There is much truth in the following proverbs:

"A garden that is well kept, is kept easily."

"You must conquer weeds, or weeds will conquer you."

[What are the two great rules in mechanical cultivation?]

It is almost impossible to give a recapitulation of the matters treated in this section, as it is, itself, but an outline of subjects which might occupy our whole book. The scholar and the farmer should understand every principle which it contains, as well as they understand the multiplication table; and their application will be found, in every instance, to produce the best results.

The two great rules of mechanical cultivation are—

THOROUGH UNDER-DRAINING.

DEEP AND FREQUENT DISTURBANCE OF THE SOIL.

FOOTNOTES:

[AL] Field rollers should be made in sections, for ease of turning.

[AM] The beneficial effects of mulching is so great as to lead us to the conclusion that it has other means of action than those mentioned in this book. Future experiments may lead to more knowledge on this subject.

[AN] It is possible that the excrementitious matter thrown out by some plants may be sufficiently destructive to other kinds to exterminate them from the soil—thus, farmers in Maine say that a single crop of turnips will entirely rid the soil of witch grass. This is, undoubtedly, the effect of the excrementitious matter of the turnips. This subject is one of practical importance, and demands close investigation by farmers, which may lead to its being reduced to a system.

[AO] The improved horse-hoe is made and sold by Ruggles, Nourse & Mason, of Worcester, Mass., and Quincy Hall, Boston.

[AP] This machine is more fully noticed in the advertising pages.



SECTION FIFTH.

ANALYSIS.



CHAPTER I.

[Why does true practical economy require that the soil should be analyzed?]

At the present time, when such marked improvements have been, and are still being made, in the practice of agriculture, the farmer cannot be too strongly advised to procure an analysis of his soil, and for obvious reasons.

It has been sufficiently proved that the plant draws from the soil certain kinds of mineral matter, in certain proportions; also, that if the soil do not contain the constituents required, the plants cannot obtain them, and consequently cannot grow. Furthermore, in proportion to the ability of the soil to supply these materials, in exactly the same proportion will it, when under good treatment, produce good and abundant crops.

[Can each farmer make his own analyses?

Why will not travelling chemists answer the purpose?

How must an analysis be used?]

All admit the value and the necessity of manures; they are required to make up deficiencies in the soil, and consequently, they must supply to it the matters which are wanting. In order to know what is wanting, we must know the composition of the soil. This can be learned only by accurate chemical analysis. Such an analysis every farmer must possess before he can conduct his operations with true practical economy.

An important question now arises as to whether each farmer can make his own analyses. He cannot do so without long study and practice. The late Prof. Norton said that, at least two years' time would be necessary to enable a man to become competent to make a reliable analysis. When we reflect that a farmer may never need more than five or six analyses, we shall see that the time necessary to learn the art would be much more valuable than the cost of the analyses (at $5 or $10 each), setting aside the cost of apparatus, and the fact that while practising in the laboratory, he must not use his hands for any labor that would unfit them for the most delicate manipulations.

Neither will travelling chemists be able to make analyses as accurately and as cheaply as those who work in their own laboratories, where their apparatus is not liable to the many injuries consequent on frequent removal. The cost of sending one hundred samples of soil to a distant chemist, would be much less than the expense of having his apparatus brought to the town where his services are required.

[How may a farmer obtain the requisite knowledge?

When are the services of a consulting agriculturist required?]

The way in which an analysis should be used is a matter of much importance. To a man who knows nothing of chemistry (be he ever so successful a farmer), an analysis, as received from a chemist, would be as useless and unintelligible as though it were written in Chinese; while, if a chemist who knew nothing of farming, were to give him advice concerning the application of manures, he would be led equally astray, and his course would be any thing but practical. It is necessary that chemical and practical knowledge should be combined, and then the value of analysis will be fully demonstrated. The amount of knowledge required is not great, but it must be thorough. The information contained in this little book is sufficient, but it would be folly for a man to attempt to use an analysis from reading it once hurriedly over. It must be studied and thought on with great care, before it can be of material assistance. The evenings of one winter, devoted to this subject, will enable a farmer to understand the application of analysis to practical farming, especially if other and more compendious works are also read. A less time could hardly be recommended.

[Is there any doubt as to the practical value of analysis?

How should samples of soil for analysis be selected?]

Where this attention cannot be given to the subject, the services of a Consulting Agriculturist should be employed to advise the treatment necessary to render fertile the soil analyzed.

Every farmer, however, should learn enough of the principles of agriculture to be able to use an analysis, when procured, without such assistance.[AQ]

Nearly all scientific men (all of the highest merit) are unanimous in their conviction of the practical value of an analysis of soils; and a volume of instances of their success, with hardly a single failure, might be published.

Prof. Mapes says, in the Working Farmer, that he has given advice on hundreds of different soils, and not a single instance can be found where he has failed to produce a profit greater than the cost of analysis and advice. Dr. T. C. Jackson, of Boston, the late Prof. Norton, of Yale College, and others, have had universal success in this matter.

Analysis must be considered the only sure road to economical farming.

To select samples of soil for analysis, take a spadeful from various parts of the field—going to exactly the depth to which it has been plowed—until, say a wheel-barrow full, has been obtained. Mix this well together, and send about a quart or a pint of it (free from stones) to the chemist. This will represent all of that part of the farm which has been subject to the same cultivation, and is of the same mechanical character. If there are marked differences in the kinds of soil, separate analyses will be necessary.

[Give an instance of the success of treatment according to analysis?]

When an analysis is obtained, a regular debtor and creditor account may be kept with the soil; and the farmer may know by the composition of the ashes of his crops, and the manures supplied, whether he is maintaining the fertility of his soil.

Prof. Mapes once purchased some land which could not produce corn at all, and by applying only such manures as analysis indicated to be necessary, at a cost of less than $2 per acre, he obtained the first year over fifty bushels of shelled corn per acre. The land has since continued to improve, and is as fertile as any in the State. It has produced in one season a sufficient crop of cabbages to pay the expense of cultivation, and over $250 per acre besides, though it was apparently worthless when he purchased it.

These are strong facts, and should arouse the farmers of the whole country to their true interests. Let them not call the teachings of science "book-farming," but "prove all things—hold fast that which is good."

FOOTNOTES:

[AQ] See Author's card in the front of the book.



CHAPTER II.

TABLES OF ANALYSIS.

ANALYSES OF THE ASHES OF CROPS.

No. I.

- - - Wheat. Wheat Rye. Rye Straw. Straw. - - - Ashes in 1000 dry parts 20 60 24 40 - - - Silica (sand) 16 654 5 645 Lime 28 67 50 91 Magnesia 120 33 104 24 Peroxide of Iron 7 13 14 14 Potash 237 124 221 174 Soda 91 2 116 3 Chlorine 11 5 Sulphuric Acid 3 58 10 8 Phosphoric Acid 498 31 496 38 - - -

No. II.

- - - - Corn. Corn Barley. Barley Stalks. Straw. - - - - Ashes in 1000 dry parts. 15 44 28 61 - - - - Silica (sand) 15 270 271 706 Lime 15 86 26 95 Magnesia 162 66 75 32 Peroxide of Iron 3 8 15 7 Oxide of Manganese 1 Potash 261 96 136 62 Soda 63 277 81 6 Chlorine 2 20 1 10 Sulphuric Acid 23 5 1 16 Phosphoric Acid 449 171 389 31 - - - -

No. III.

- Oats. Oat Buck Potatoes. Straw. Wheat. - Ashes in 1000 dry parts 20 51 21 90 - Silica (sand) 7 484 7 42 Lime 60 81 67 21 Magnesia 99 38 104 53 Peroxide of Iron 4 18 11 5 Potash {262} 191 87 557 Soda { } 97 201 19 Chlorine 3 32 43 Sulphuric Acid 104 33 22 137 Phosphoric Acid 438 27 500 126 Organic Matter 750 Water. - -

No. IV.

- Peas. Beans. Turnips. Turnip Tops. - Ashes in 1000 dry parts 25 27 76 170 - Silica (sand) 5 12 71 8 Lime 53 58 128 233 Magnesia 85 80 48 31 Peroxide of Iron 10 6 9 8 Potash 361 336 398 286 Soda 91 106 108 54 Chlorine 23 7 37 160 Sulphuric Acid 44 10 131 125 Phosphoric Acid 333 378 67 93 Organic Matter 870 Water. -

No. V.

Flax. Linseed. Meadow Red Hay. Clover. Ashes in 1000 dry parts 50 46 60 75 Silica (sand) 257 75 344 48 Alumina (clay) 37? Lime 148 83 196 371 Magnesia 44 146 78 46 Peroxide of Iron 36? 9 7 2 Potash 117 240 236 267 Soda 118 45 19 71 Chlorine 29 2 28 48 Sulphuric Acid 32 23 29 60 Phosphoric Acid 130 365 58 88

No. VI.

Amount of Inorganic Matter removed from the soil by ten bushels of grains, etc., and by the straw, etc., required in their production—estimated in pounds:

- - 1200 lbs. 1620 lbs. Wheat. Wheat Rye. Rye Straw. Straw. - - Potash 2.86 8.97 2.51 11.34 Soda 1.04 .12 1.33 .20 Lime .34 4.84 .56 5.91 Magnesia 1.46 2.76 1.18 1.58 Oxide of Iron .08 .94 .15 .88 Sulphuric Acid .03 4.20 .11 .05 Phosphoric Acid 6.01 2.22 5.64 2.49 Chlorine .79 .30 Silica .14 47.16 .05 42.25 - - Pounds carried off 12 72 11-1/2 66 - -

No. VII.

- - - 1620 lbs. 700 lbs. Corn. Corn Oats. Oat Stalks. Straw. - - - Potash 2.78 6.84 1.69 12.08 Soda 19.83 Lime .12 6.02 .39 3.39 Magnesia 1.52 4.74 .64 1.59 Oxide of Iron .57 .02 .78 Sulphuric Acid .36 .66 1.41 Phosphoric Acid 4.52 12.15 2.80 1.07 Chlorine 1.33 .02 1.36 Silica .06 19.16 .18 20.32 - - - Pounds carried off 9 71 6-1/2 42 - - -

No. VIII.

- - Buck 660 lbs. 2000 lbs. Wheat. Barley. Barley Flax. Straw. - - Potash 1.01 1.90 2.57 11.78 Soda 2.13 1.18 .23 11.82 Lime .78 .96 3.88 11.85 Magnesia 1.20 1.00 1.31 9.38 Oxide of Iron .14 .20 .90 7.32 Sulphuric Acid .25 .01 .66 3.19 Phosphoric Acid 5.40 5.35 1.25 13.05 Chlorine .01 .40 2.90 Silica .09 3.90 28.80 25.71 - - Pounds carried off 11 14 40 100 - -

No. IX.

- 1120 lbs. 1366 lbs. Beans. Bean Field Pea Straw. Peas. Straw. - Potash 5.54 36.28 5.90 3.78 Soda 1.83 1.09 1.40 Lime 98.98 13.60 .81 43.93 Magnesia .28 4.55 1.30 5.50 Oxide of Iron .10 .20 .15 1.40 Sulphuric Acid .16 .64 .64 5.43 Phosphoric Acid 7.80 5.00 5.50 3.86 Chlorine .13 1.74 .23 .08 Silica .18 4.90 .7 16.02 - Pounds carried off 17 68 16 80 -

No. X.

- - 635 lbs. 2000 lbs. 1 Ton Turnip 1 Ton Red Turnips. Tops. Potatoes. Clover. - - Potash 7.14 4.34 27.82 31.41 Soda .86 .84 .93 8.34 Lime 2.31 3.61 1.03 43.77 Magnesia .91 .48 2.63 5.25 Oxide of Iron .23 .13 .26 .23 Sulphuric Acid 2.30 1.81 6.81 7.05 Phosphoric Acid 1.29 1.31 6.25 10.28 Chlorine .61 2.35 2.13 5.86 Silica 1.36 .13 2.14 5.81 - - Pounds carried off 17 15 50 118 - -

No. XI.

- 2000 lbs. 2000 lbs. Meadow Cabbage Hay. Water 9-10 - Potash 18.11 5.25 Soda 1.35 9.20 Lime 22.95 9.45 Magnesia 6.75 2.70 Oxide of Iron 1.69 .25 Sulphuric Acid 2.70 9.60 Phosphoric Acid 5.97 5.60 Chlorine 2.59 2.60 Silica 37.89 .35 - Pounds carried off 100 45 -

No. XII.

Composition of Ashes, leached and unleached, showing their manurial value:

- - - - Oak Oak Beech Beech unleached. leached. unleached. leached. - - - - Potash 84 158 Soda 56 29 Lime 750 548 634 426 Magnesia 45 6 113 70 Oxide of Iron 6 8 15 Sulphuric Acid 12 14 Phosphoric Acid 35 8 31 57 Chlorine 2 - - - -

No. XIII.

+ -+ + Birch Seaweed Bituminous leached. unleached. Coal unleached. + -+ + Potash 180 2 Soda 210 2 Lime 522 94 21 Magnesia 30 99 2 Oxide of Iron 5 3 40 Sulphuric Acid 248 9 Phosphoric Acid 43 52 2 Chlorine 98 1 + -+ +

No. XIV.

TOBACCO.

Analysis of the ash of the PLANT [Will & Fresedius]—

Potash 19.55 Soda 0.27 Magnesia 11.07 Lime 48.68 Phosphoric Acid 3.66 Sulphuric Acid 3.29 Oxide of Iron 2.99 Chloride of Sodium 3.54 Loss 6.95 ——— 100.00

Analysis of the ash of the ROOT [Berthier]—

Soluble Matter 12.3 Insoluble 87.7

The Soluble parts consist of nearly—

Carbonic Acid 10.0 Sulphuric Acid 10.3 Muriatic Acid (Chlorine, &c.) 18.26 Potash and Soda 61.44 ——— 100.00

No. XV.

Composition of some of the more common Compounds of Acids and Alkalies.

100 Parts of Contain of the Contain of the Alkalies Acids Carbonate of Potash (Pearlash) Potash 68.09 Carbonic 31.91 Bi-Carbonate of Potash (Saleratus) do. 51.62 Carbonic 48.38 Nitrate of Potash (Saltpetre) do. 46.56 Nitric 53.44 Silicate of Potash do. 50.54 Silicic 49.46 Carbonate of Soda Soda 58.58 Carbonic 41.42 Bi-Carbonate of Soda (Common Soda)[AR] do. 41.42 Carbonic 58.58 Nitrate of Soda do. 36.60 Nitric 63.40 Sulphate of Soda (Glauber Salts)[AR] do. 19.38 Sulphuric 24.85 Silicate of Soda do. 40.37 Silicic 59.63 Carbonate of Lime (Limestone) Lime 56.29 Carbonic 43.71 Sulphate of Lime (Plaster Paris)[AR] do. 32.90 Sulphuric 46.31 Sulphate of Lime (Burned) do. 41.53 Sulphuric 58.47 Phosphate of Lime do. 54.48 Phosphoric 45.52 Super-Phosphate of Lime do. 28.52 Phosphoric 71.48 Silicate of Lime do. 38.15 Silicic 61.85 Carbonate of Magnesia Magnesia 48.31 Carbonic 51.69 Sulphate of Magnesia (Epsom Salts)[AR] do. 16.70 Sulphuric 32.40 Silicate of Alumina Alumina 17.05 Silicic 72.95 Sulphate of Iron (Green Vitriol)[AR] Oxide of Sulphuric 31.03 Iron 27.19

No. XVI.

Proximate Analyses of Crops, showing the amount of the different Organic Compounds contained in Grain, Roots, Hay, etc.—estimated in pounds:

+ + -+ -+ + Water. Husk or Starch, Gluten, Fatty Woody Gum and Albumen, Matter. Fibre. Sugar. Legumin. + + -+ -+ + 10 Bushels. Wheat 600 lbs. 90 90 330 87 18 Barley 515 lbs. 77 77 309 70 13 Oats 425 lbs. 68 85 255 70 25 Rye 520 lbs. 62 78 312 65 18 Indian Corn 600 lbs. 84 36 420 72 42 Buck Wheat 425 lbs. 64 106 212 34 2? Beans 640 lbs. 90 61 256 166 16 Peas 640 lbs. 90 58 320 154 14 2000 lbs. Potatoes 1500 80 360 40 6 Turnips 1760 40 180[AS] 30 6 Carrots 1700 60 200[AS] 30 8 Mangold Wurtzel 1700 40 220[AS] 40 ? Meadow Hay 280 600 800 140 70 Clover Hay 280 500 800 186 80 Pea Straw 250 500 900 246 30 Rye Straw 270 900 760 26 ? Corn Stalks 240 500 1040 60 34 100 lbs. Fine Wheat Flour 10 79 11 100 lbs. Wheat Bran 13 55 19 5 + + -+ -+ +

No. XVII.

Amount of Ash left after burning 1000 lbs. of various plants, ordinarily dry—

Wheat 20 its straw 50 Barley 30 " 50 Oats 40 " 60 Rye 20 " 40 Indian Corn 15 " 50 Pea 30 " 50 Bean 30 Meadow Hay 50 to 100 Clover " 90 Rye Grass " 95 Potato 8 to 15 Turnip 5 to 8 Carrot 15 to 20 ———————————————————————————————

No. XVIII.

MANURES.

HORSE MANURE.

Solid Dung— Combustible Matter 19.68 Ash 3.07 Water 77.25 ——— 100.00

Composition of the Ash—

Silica 62.40 Potash 11.30 Soda 1.98 Oxide of Iron 1.17 Lime 4.63 Magnesia 3.84 Oxide of Manganese 2.13 Phosphoric Acid 10.49 Sulphuric Acid 1.89 Chlorine 0.03 Loss 0.14 ——— 100.00

No. XIX.

NIGHT SOIL.

Solid (Ash)— Earthy Phosphates and a trace of Sulphate of Lime 100 Sulphate of Soda and Potash, and Phosphate of Soda 8 Carbonate of Soda 8 Silica 16 Charcoal and Loss 18 —- 150

Urine Urea[AT] 30.10 Uric Acid 1.00 Sal Ammoniac[AT] 1.50 Lactic Acid, etc. 17.14 Mucus .32 Sulphate of Potash 3.71 Sulphate of Soda 3.16 Phosphate of Ammonia[AT] 1.65 Earthy Phosphates 3.94 Salt (Chloride of Sodium) 4.45 Silica 0.03 ——— 67.00 Water 933.00 ——— 1000.00

No. XX.

COW MANURE.

Solid (Ash)— Phosphates 20.9 Peroxide of Iron 8.8 Lime 1.5 Sulphate of Lime (Plaster) 3.1 Chloride of Potassium trace Silica 63.7 Loss 2.0 ——- 100.0

No. XXI.

COMPARATIVE VALUE OF THE URINE OF DIFFERENT ANIMALS.

Solid Matter. Organic. Inorganic. Total. Man 23.4 7.6 31 Horse 27. 33. 60 Cow 50. 20. 70 Pig 56. 18. 74 Sheep 28. 12. 40

No. XXII.

GUANO.

Water 6.40 Ammonia 2.71 Uric Acid 34.70 Oxalic Acid, etc. 26.79 Fixed Alkaline Salts. Sulphate of Soda 2.94 Phosphate of Soda .48 Chloride of Sodium (salt) .86 Earthy Salts. Carbonate of Lime 1.36 Phosphates 19.24 Foreign Matter. Silicious grit and sand 4.52 ——— 100.00

For the analysis of fertile and barren soils, see page 72.

FOOTNOTES:

[AR] Contain a large amount of Water.

[AS] Pectic Acid.

[AT] Supply Ammonia.



THE PRACTICAL FARMER.

Who is the practical farmer? Let us look at two pictures and decide.

Here is a farm of 100 acres in ordinary condition. It is owned and tilled by a hard-working man, who, in the busy season, employs one or two assistants. The farm is free from debt, but it does not produce an abundant income; therefore, its owner cannot afford to purchase the best implements, or make other needed improvements; besides, he don't believe in such things. His father was a good solid farmer; so was his grandfather; and so is he, or thinks he is. He is satisfied that 'the good old way' is best, and he sticks to it. He works from morning till night; from spring till fall. In the winter, he rests, as much as his lessened duties will allow. During this time, he reads little, or nothing. Least of all does he read about farming. He don't want to learn how to dig potatoes out of a book. Book farming is nonsense. Many other similar ideas keep him from agricultural reading. His house is comfortable, and his barns are quite as good as his neighbors', while his farm gives him a living. It is true that his soil does not produce as much as it did ten years ago; but prices are better, and he is satisfied.

Let us look at his premises, and see how his affairs are managed. First, examine the land. Well, it is good fair land. Some of it is a little springy, but is not to be called wet. It will produce a ton and a half of hay to the acre—it used to produce two tons. There are some stones on the land, but not enough in his estimation to do harm. The plowed fields are pretty good; they will produce 35 bushels of corn, 13 bushels of wheat, or 30 bushels of oats per acre, when the season is not dry. His father used to get more; but, somehow, the weather is not so favorable as it was in old times. He has thought of raising root crops, but they take more labor than he can afford to hire. Over, in the back part of the land there is a muck-hole, which is the only piece of worthless land on the whole farm.

Now, let us look at the barns and barn-yards. The stables are pretty good. There are some wide cracks in the siding, but they help to ventilate, and make it healthier for the cattle. The manure is thrown out of the back windows, and is left in piles under the eaves on the sunny side of the barn. The rain and sun make it nicer to handle. The cattle have to go some distance for water; and this gives them exercise. All of the cattle are not kept in the stable; the fattening stock are kept in the various fields, where hay is fed out to them from the stack. The barn-yard is often occupied by cattle, and is covered with their manure, which lies there until it is carted on to the land. In the shed are the tools of the farm, consisting of carts, plows—not deep plows, this farmer thinks it best to have roots near the surface of the soil where they can have the benefit of the sun's heat,—a harrow, hoes, rakes, etc. These tools are all in good order; and, unlike those of his less prudent neighbor, they are protected from the weather.

The crops are cultivated with the plow, and hoe, as they have been since the land was cleared, and as they always will be until this man dies.

Here is the 'practical farmer' of the present day. Hard working, out of debt, and economical—of dollars and cents, if not of soil and manures. He is a better farmer than two thirds of the three millions of farmers in the country. He is one of the best farmers in his town—there are but few better in the county, not many in the State. He represents the better class of his profession.

With all this, he is, in matters relating to his business, an unreading, unthinking man. He knows nothing of the first principles of farming, and is successful by the indulgence of nature, not because he understands her, and is able to make the most of her assistance.

This is an unpleasant fact, but it is one which cannot be denied. We do not say this to disparage the farmer, but to arouse him to a realization of his position and of his power to improve it.

But let us see where he is wrong.

He is wrong in thinking that his land does not need draining. He is wrong in being satisfied with one and a half tons of hay to the acre when he might easily get two and a half. He is wrong in not removing as far as possible every stone that can interfere with the deep and thorough cultivation of his soil. He is wrong in reaping less than his father did, when he should get more. He is wrong in ascribing to the weather, and similar causes, what is due to the actual impoverishment of his soil. He is wrong in not raising turnips, carrots, and other roots, which his winter stock so much need, when they might be raised at a cost of less than one third of their value as food. He is wrong in considering worthless a deposit of muck, which is a mine of wealth if properly employed. He is wrong in ventilating his stables at the cost of heat. He is wrong in his treatment of his manures, for he loses more than one half of their value from evaporation, fermentation, and leaching. He is wrong in not having water at hand for his cattle—their exercise detracts from their accumulation of fat and their production of heat, and it exposes them to cold. He is wrong in not protecting his fattening stock from the cold of winter; for, under exposure to cold, the food, which would otherwise be used in the formation of fat, goes to the production of the animal heat necessary to counteract the chilling influence of the weather, p. 50. He is wrong in allowing his manure to lie unprotected in the barn-yard. He is wrong in not adding to his tools the deep surface plow, the subsoil plow, the cultivator, and many others of improved construction. He is wrong in cultivating with the plow and hoe, those crops which could be better or more cheaply managed with the cultivator or horse-hoe. He is wrong in many things more, as we shall see if we examine all of his yearly routine of work. He is right in a few things; and but a few, as he himself would admit, had he that knowledge of his business which he could obtain in the leisure hours of a single winter. Still, he thinks himself a practical farmer. In twenty years, we shall have fewer such, for our young men have the mental capacity and mental energy necessary to raise them to the highest point of practical education, and to that point they are gradually but surely rising.

Let us now place this same farm in the hands of an educated and understanding cultivator; and, at the end of five years, look at it again.

He has sold one half of it, and cultivates but fifty acres. The money for which the other fifty were sold has been used in the improvement of the farm. The land has all been under-drained, and shows the many improvements consequent on such treatment. The stones and small rocks have been removed, leaving the surface of the soil smooth, and allowing the use of the sub-soil plow, which with the under-drains have more than doubled the productive power of the farm. Sufficient labor is employed to cultivate with improved tools, extensive root crops, and they invariably give a large yield. The grass land produces a yearly average of 2-1/2 tons of hay per acre. From 80 to 100 bushels of corn, 30 bushels of wheat, and 45 bushels of oats are the average of the crops reaped. The soil has been analyzed, and put in the best possible condition, while it is yearly supplied with manures containing every thing taken away in the abundant crops. The analysis is never lost sight of in the regulation of crops and the application of manures. The worthless muck bed was retained, and is made worth one dollar a load to the compost heap, especially as the land requires an increase of organic matter. A new barn has been built large enough to store all of the hay produced on the farm. It has stables, which are tight and warm, and are well ventilated above the cattle. The stock being thus protected from the loss of their heat, give more milk, and make more fat on a less amount of food than they did under the old system. Water is near at hand, and the animals are not obliged to over exercise. The manure is carefully composted, either under a shed constructed for the purpose with a tank and pump, or is thrown into the cellar below, where the hogs mix it with a large amount of muck, which has been carted in after being thoroughly decomposed by the lime and salt mixture.

They are thus protected against all loss, and are prepared for the immediate use of crops. No manures are allowed to lie in the barn-yard, but they are all early removed to the compost heap, where they are preserved by being mixed with carbonaceous matter. In the tool shed, we find deep surface-plows, sub-soil plows, cultivators, horse-hoes, seed-drills, and many other valuable improvements.

This farmer takes one or more agricultural papers, from which he learns many new methods of cultivation, while his knowledge of the reasons of various agricultural effects enables him to discard the injudicious suggestions of mere book farmers and uneducated dreamers.

Here are two specimens of farmers. Neither description is over-drawn. The first is much more careful in his operations than the majority of our rural population. The second is no better than many who may be found in America.

We appeal to the common sense of the reader of this work to know which of the two is the practical farmer—let him imitate either as his judgment shall dictate.

FINIS.



EXPLANATION OF TERMS.

ABSORB—to soak in a liquid or a gas.

ABSTRACT—to take from.

ACID—sour; a sour substance.

AGRICULTURE—the art of cultivating the soil.

ALKALI—the direct opposite of an acid, with which it has a tendency to unite.

ALUMINA—the base of clay.

ANALYSIS—separating into its primary parts any compound substance.

CARBONATE—a compound, consisting of carbonic acid and an alkali.

CAUSTIC—burning.

CHLORIDE—a compound containing chlorine.

CLEVIS—that part of a plow by which the drawing power is attached.

DECOMPOSE—to separate the constituents of a body from their combinations, forming new kinds of compounds.

DIGESTION—the decomposition of food in the stomach and intestines of animals (agricultural).

DEW—deposit of the insensible vapor of the atmosphere on cold bodies.

EXCREMENT—the matter given out by the organs of plants and animals, being those parts of their food which they are unable to assimilate.

FERMENTATION—a kind of decomposition.

GAS—air—aeriform matter.

GURNEYISM—see Mulching.

INGREDIENT—component part.

INORGANIC—mineral, or earthy.

MOULDBOARD—that part of a surface plow which turns the sod.

MULCHING—covering the soil with litter, leaves, or other refuse matter. See p. 247.

NEUTRALIZE—To overcome the characteristic properties of.

ORGANIC MATTER—that kind of matter which at times possesses an organized (or living) form, and at others exists as a gas in the atmosphere.

OXIDE—a compound of oxygen with a metal.

PHOSPHATE—a compound of phosphoric acid with an alkali.

PROXIMATE—an organic compound, such as wood, starch, gum, etc.; a product of life.

PUNGENT—pricking.

PUTREFACTION—rotting.

SATURATE—to fill the pores of any substance, as a sponge with water, or charcoal with ammonia.

SILICATE—a compound of silica with an alkali.

SOLUBLE—capable of being dissolved.

SOLUTION—a liquid containing another substance dissolved in it.

SATURATED SOLUTION—one which contains as much of the foreign substance as it is capable of holding.

SPONGIOLES—the mouths at the ends of roots.

SULPHATE—a compound of sulphuric acid with an alkali.

VAPOR—gas.



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PATENT MOWING MACHINES



The greatest Improvement ever made for Simplicity, Durability, and Ease of Action.

It is now beyond a question, from the complete triumph over all other machines this season, that this is the only successful Grass Cutter known. It is in fact the only machine that has ever cut all kinds of grass without clogging or interruption. More than 1000 have been sold the present season under the following warranty, and not in a single instance have we been called on to take one back.

(Warranty:) That said machines are capable of Cutting and Spreading, with one span of horses and driver, from ten to fifteen acres per day, of any kind of grass, heavy or light, wet or dry, lodged or standing, and do it as well as is done with a scythe by the best mowers.

The price of our machine, with two sets of knives and extras, is $110, cash, delivered on board of cars or boat, free of charge.

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Buffalo, Aug. 1, 1853.

RUGGLES, NOURSE, MASON & Co., Manufacture Ketchum's Mower for New England.

WARDER & BROKAW, Springfield, Ohio; for Southern Ohio and Kentucky.

SEYMOUR & MORGAN, Brockport, N. Y.; for Michigan and Illinois.



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MODERN ATLAS OF THE EARTH.

With an Alphabetical Index of the Latitudes and Longitudes of 18,000 places. Thirty-four beautifully engraved and colored maps, with Temperature Scales. 4to. size, bound in 1 vol., royal 8vo. Price $3.50.

This is the only complete portable Modern Atlas yet published. The maps are engraved on steel, and executed with great clearness, distinctness and accuracy. The delineations of mountainous districts, the sources of rivers and boundary lines, have been made with great care. It is designed for the table of the Student and the office of the Professional Man, and is issued in a very finished and elegant style, and embraces extensive details of all the important parts of the Earth.



D. APPLETON AND CO.'S PUBLICATIONS.

Popular Science.

The Chemistry of Common Life.

BY JAMES F. W. JOHNSTON, M.A., F.R.S.S. L. & E., &c.

Author of "Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry and Geology," a "Catechism of Agricultural Chemistry and Geology," &c.

ADVERTISEMENT.

The common life of man is full of wonders, Chemical and Physiological. Most of us pass through this life without seeing or being sensible of them, though every day our existence and our comforts ought to recall them to our minds. One main cause of this is, that our schools tell us nothing about them—do not teach those parts of modern learning which would fit us for seeing them. What most concerns the things that daily occupy our attention and cares, are in early life almost sedulously kept from our knowledge. Those who would learn any thing regarding them, must subsequently teach themselves through the help of the press: hence the necessity for a Popular Chemical Literature.

It is with a view to meet this want of the Public, and at the same time to supply a Manual for the Schools, that the present work has been projected. It treats, in what appears to be their natural order, of THE AIR WE BREATHE and THE WATER WE DRINK, in their relations to human life and health—THE SOIL WE CULTIVATE AND THE PLANT WE REAR, as the sources from which the chief sustenance of all life is obtained—THE BREAD WE EAT AND THE BEEF WE COOK, as the representatives of the two grand divisions of human food—THE BEVERAGES WE INFUSE, from which so much of the comfort of modern life, both savage and civilized, is derived—THE SWEETS WE EXTRACT, the history of which presents so striking an illustration of the economical value of chemical science—THE LIQUORS WE FERMENT, so different from the sweets in their action on the system, and yet so closely connected with them in chemical history—THE NARCOTICS WE INDULGE IN, as presenting us with an aspect of the human constitution which, both chemically and physiologically, is more mysterious and wonderful than any other we are acquainted with—THE ODOURS WE ENJOY AND THE SMELLS WE DISLIKE; the former because of the beautiful illustration it presents of the recent progress of organic chemistry in its relations to comforts of common life, and the latter because of its intimate connection with our most important sanitary arrangements—WHAT WE BREATHE FOR and WHY WE DIGEST, as functions of the body at once the most important to life, and the most purely chemical in their nature—THE BODY WE CHERISH, as presenting many striking phenomena, and performing many interesting chemical functions not touched upon in the discussion of the preceding topics—and lastly, THE CIRCULATION OF MATTER, as exhibiting in one view the end, purpose, and method of all the changes in the natural body, in organic nature, and in the mineral kingdom, which are connected with and determine the existence of life.

It has been the object of the Author in this Work to exhibit the present condition of chemical knowledge and of matured scientific opinion upon the subjects to which it is devoted. The reader will not be surprised, therefore, should he find in it some things which differ from what is to be found in other popular works already in his hands or on the shelves of his library.

The Work is being published in 5 or 6 NUMBERS, price 25 cents each, in the following order, forming 1 vol. 12mo. of about 400 pages.

1. The AIR we Breathe and 2. The WATER we Drink. 3. The SOIL we Cultivate and 4. The PLANT we Rear. 5. The BREAD we Eat and 6. The BEEF we Cook. 7. The BEVERAGES we Infuse. 8. The SWEETS we Extract. 9. The LIQUORS we Ferment. 10. The NARCOTICS we Indulge in. 11. The ODOURS we Enjoy and 12. The SMELLS we Dislike. 13. What we BREATHE and BREATHE FOR, and 14. What, How, and Why we DIGEST 15. The BODY we Cherish, and 16. The CIRCULATION of MATTER, a Recapitulation.



WORKS ON AGRICULTURE, THE HORSE, & DOG.

Published by D. Appleton, & Co.

THE FARMER'S HAND-BOOK

Being a Full and Complete Guide for the Farmer and Emigrant. Comprising—The Clearing of Forest and Prairie Lands; Gardening; Farming Generally; Farriery; The Management and Treatment of Cattle; Cookery; The Construction of Dwellings; Prevention and Cure of Disease; with copious Tables, Recipes, Hints, &c., &c. By JOSIAH T. MARSHALL. One volume, 12mo., illustrated with numerous wood engravings. Neatly bound. Price $1; paper cover, 62-1/2 cents.

"One of the most useful books we ever saw."—Boston Post.

RURAL ECONOMY,

In its relations with Chemistry, Physics, and Meteorology; or, Chemistry applied to Agriculture. By J. B. BOUISSANGAULT. Translated, with Notes, etc., by George Law, Agriculturist. 12mo, over 500 pages, $1 50.

"The work is the fruit of a long life of study and experiment, and its perusal will aid the farmer greatly in obtaining a practical and scientific knowledge of his profession."—American Agriculturist.

THE FARMER'S MANUAL:

A Practical Treatise on the Nature and Value of Manures, founded from Experiments on various Crops, with a brief account of the most Recent Discoveries in Agricultural Chemistry. By F. FALKNER and the Author of "British Husbandry." 12mo, 50 cts.

THE FARMER'S TREASURE:

Containing "Falkner's Farmer's Manual," and "Smith's Productive Farming," bound together. 12mo, 75 cents.

STABLE ECONOMY:

A Treatise on the Management of Horses, in relation to Stabling, Grooming, Feeding, Watering, and Working. By JOHN STEWART, Veterinary Surgeon. With Notes and Additions, adapting it to American Food and Climate, by A. B. ALLEN. 12mo, illustrated with 23 Engravings, $1.

"No one should build a stable or own a horse without consulting the excellent directions for stabling and using the horse, in this book of Stewart's. It is an invaluable vade mecum for all who have the luxury of a stable."—Eve. Mirror.

THE HORSE'S FOOT; AND HOW TO KEEP IT SOUND.

With Illustrations by WILLIAM MILES, Esq., from the Third London Edition, with 23 plates. Price 25 cents.

This work has received the unqualified recommendation of the Quarterly, the Edinburgh, and the Reviews generally, of England. The price of the English copy is $3.

"It should be in the hands of every owner or friend of the horse."

DOGS: THEIR ORIGIN AND VARIETIES.

Directions as to their general Management. With numerous original anecdotes. Also Complete Instructions as to Treatment under Disease. By H. D. RICHARDSON. Illustrated with numerous Wood Engravings. 1 vol. 12mo, 25 cts. paper cover, 38 cts. cloth.

This is not only a cheap, but one of the best works ever published on the Dog.

THE BOOK OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE:

A Cyclopaedia of Six Thousand Practical Receipts, and Collateral Information in the Arts, Manufactures, and Trades; including Medicine, Pharmacy, and Domestic Economy, designed as a compendious Book of Reference for the Manufacturer, Tradesman, Amateur, and Heads of Families. By ARNOLD JAMES COOLEY, Practical Chemist. Illustrated with numerous Wood Engravings. Forming one handsome volume, 8vo, of 464 pages. Price $2 25, bound.

TREATISE ON THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING:

ADAPTED TO NORTH AMERICA, WITH A VIEW TO THE IMPROVEMENT OF COUNTRY RESIDENCES—

Comprising Historical Notices and General Principles of the Art, Directions for Laying Out Grounds and Arranging Plantations, the Description and Cultivation of Hardy Trees, Decorative Accompaniments of the House and Grounds, the Formation of pieces of Artificial Water, Flower Gardens, etc., with remarks on Rural Architecture. A new edition, enlarged, revised and newly illustrated.

By A. J. DOWNING, author of "Designs for Cottage Residences," etc.

A new and improved edition, 8vo., illustrated, $3 50.

"Insult not Nature with absurd expense, Nor spoil her simple charms by vain pretense; Weigh well the subject, be with caution bold, Profuse of genius, not profuse of gold."

RIKER, THORPE & CO., 129 Fulton st., New York.

"There is no work extant which can be compared in ability to Downing's volume on this subject. It is not overlaid with elaborate and learned disquisition, like the English works, but it is truly practical."—Louisville Journal.

"Mr. Downing's works have been greatly influential in recommending among us that life which has always seemed to us the perfection of human existence—the life of men of education, living upon and cultivating their own farms."—Cour. and Enq.

"The principles he lays down are not only sound, but are developed on a uniform system, which is not paralleled in any English work."—Prof. Lindley's Chronicle, London.

RUGGLES, NOURSE, MASON & CO.,

MANUFACTURERS AT WORCESTER,

And Wholesale and Retail Dealers in

AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINES,

Garden, Field and Flower Seeds,

FRUIT AND ORNAMENTAL TREES, SHRUBS, ROSES, VINES AND PLANTS,

GUANO, BONE DUST, PHOSPHATES, POUDRETTE, &c.

Also, Agricultural and Horticultural Publications, and Agents for Principal Nurseries,

AT THE

QUINCY HALL

AGRICULTURAL WAREHOUSE AND SEED STORE,

OVER QUINCY MARKET, SOUTH MARKET ST.,

BOSTON, MASS.



WAGENER'S AMERICAN SEED

HARVESTER.

HIGHEST PREMIUMS AWARDED

At the World's Fair Exhibition of the Industry of all Nations, 1853.

ALSO BY THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE, NEW YORK.

VARIOUS OTHER APPROBATIONS HAVE BEEN RECEIVED.

This Machine consists of a simple frame and box mounted on wheels, in front of which is a cylinder, set with spiral knives, acting in concert with curved spring teeth, in combination with a straight knife, which forms a perfect shear, and severs the head from the stalk; the heads are at the same time discharged into the box. The teeth being made to spring and vibrate, not a particle of clover, however stalky or thick, can possibly escape being cut, or allow the teeth to become clogged. The Cylinder and Knives are protected by an adjustible guard plate, thus allowing only the heads to pass to the Knives, retaining the head, and the head only—thus leaving the stalk to enrich the soil. The machine is so constructed that it can be made adjustible to the height of the Clover and Timothy.

To be seen at the Crystal Palace. Price of the machines moderate.

The Farmer will find that by this process, he may save two crops of Timothy per year. When the seed is ripe the tops can be clipped, and the straw left until fall to mature. You now have your seed and hay in two crops of equal value; in case of clover, you mow the first crop for hay, the second for seed; you in both cases get better seed and hay with less labor and expense than grain crops, at the same time leaving the soil clothed with a coat of straw, for the coming season, which will increase the value of the soil for crops, make fine pastures and fine stock, while it fits the land for fine grain. In this way lands in our states have been raised in production from five to twenty-five or thirty bushels of wheat per acre, in the course of a few years.

This is within the reach of every farmer, without money or labor, as organic matter accumulates from the atmosphere and is deposited in the soil.

Manufactured and for sale by the Patentee and Proprietor,

JEPTHA A. WAGENER. Office 348 West Twenty-Fourth Street, New York.

All orders for Machines this season should be sent in immediately, in order to have them in readiness for harvest time.

Price of Machines, $100 and $110, two sizes, at the Manufactory.

—> Rights of States and Counties on favorable terms.

"Wagener's Clover and Timothy Seed Harvester has been in successful operation two seasons, and has received the premium at the World's Fair and at the Fair of the American Institute, and various other testimonials of superior value. They are manufactured and for sale by the inventor, Jeptha A. Wagener, at 348 West 24th street, New York."—U. S. Journal.

The Grain Harvester is in course of preparation, and will soon be offered for sale.



THE WORKING FARMER,

PUBLISHED ON THE FIRST OF EACH MONTH,

At 143 Fulton St., (upper side,) a few doors east of Broadway, New York.

TERMS.

One year, payable in advance, $1 00 Clubs of six subscribers, 5 00 Clubs of twelve subscribers, 10 00 Clubs of twenty-five subscribers, 20 00 Single copies, 10 Volume one, in paper cover, 50 Volumes two, three, four and five, in paper cover, each 1 00

Postage on the WORKING FARMER, if paid at the Subscriber's Post Office, is, for

Any distance within the United States, 3000 miles and under, one cent for each paper. If paid at a Subscriber's Post Office, in advance, 1-3/4 cents per quarter, or 7 cents per year.

Postage on bound volumes in paper covers, if pre-paid at the New York Post Office,

Vol. I. Vols. II., III., IV & V. Any distance within United cts. cts. States, 3000 miles and under 22 26 each volume.

If not pre-paid at the New York Post Office, double the above rates will be charged.

Subscriptions must commence with the year, namely, March; or the even half year, September; and for not less than one year.

Remittances can be made, from such States as have no small paper circulation, in gold dollars, Post Office stamps, or the bills of other States.

ADVERTISEMENTS.

Five lines, one dollar each insertion, and in the same ratio for more lengthy advertisements.

Post-paid Letters, addressed to the Publisher, will meet with prompt attention.

FRED'K McCREADY, 143 Fulton street, upper side, a few doors east of Broadway.

MAPES'

IMPROVED

SUPER

PHOSPHATE OF LIME

160 lbs.

FREDK. McCREADY

WHOLESALE AGT. 143 FULTON STREET,

KEEP DRY. N.Y.

SEVERAL IMITATIONS of this celebrated fertilizer having been introduced among the dealers since the introduction of the Improved Super-Phosphate of Lime, I beg to state that all manufactured under the recipe of Prof. J. J. Mapes, is

MARKED ON THE BAGS AS ABOVE,

and each bag contains his certificate of having been made under his superintendence.

—> Orders for the above fertilizer by mail, from strangers, should be accompanied with the money, a draft, or proper references. The bags contain exactly 160 lbs., which at two and a half cents per pound, amounts to four dollars.

FRED'K McCREADY, 143 Fulton street, New York.



THE UNIVERSAL CULTIVATOR,

Described on page 254,

Is represented in the above cut. It is manufactured by us, and is sold by all implement dealers.

OUR

IMPROVED HORSE HOE,

Of which a cut may be seen on p. 254,

Is now manufactured at our establishment, and is sold throughout the Union. It is the best implement for weeding, etc. ever made.

THE SOD AND SUB-SOIL PLOW,

(Sometimes called the MICHIGAN PLOW,)

Consists of two plows on the same beam. The first inverts the sod to the depth of a few inches, and the hindmost plow brings up the lower soil, depositing it on the inverted sod.

FOR DEEP TILLAGE, especially on prairie land, this is superior to any of its competitors.

RUGGLES, NOURSE, MASON & CO. Worcester, Mass., and Quincy Hall, Boston.



TRANSCRIBERS' NOTES

Page 8 Page number added for tables of analysis Page 22 Period added after "great brilliancy" Page 33 seashore standardised to sea-shore; genii standardised to genie Page 39 No footnote anchor was in place. Anchor added after "are formed," as this seemed most reasonable in context. Page 52 quanties corrected to quantities; nutricious corrected to nutritious Page 53 Footnote marker added for "See Johnston's Elements, page 41." Page 55 ? added after "in their composition" in footer Page 74 Removed second "the" in "is the the foundation of Agricultural Geology." Page 142 pigstye standardised to pig-stye Page 144 plough standardised to plow Pages 145, 211 subsoil plow standardised to sub-soil plow [Note that in line with the more common usage in this work, the phrases sub-soil plow and sub-soiling have retained their hyphens] Page 148 Removed second n in mannures Page 152 postash corrected to potash Page 157 suplying corrected to supplying Page 167 carbonia corrected to carbonic Page 174 buck-wheat standardised to buckwheat Pages 196, 232, 234, 235, 237, 238, 241 sub-soil standardised to subsoil Page 204 ? Added after Mineral in the question section Page 211 water tight standardised to water-tight Page 223 Second 6. changed to 7. Page 232 oxydation standardised to oxidation Page 266 Period added after lbs in 1620 lbs rye straw Page 272 Title No. XVI. added to table Page 273 10,000 corrected to 100.00 Page 290 accurracy corrected to accuracy Page 292 Number of pages unclear. 464 Guessed.

THE END