In consequence of the nature of the rock and of the soil, which had been loosened and shattered by the falling in of much of the crown and walls of the old tunnel—every stone of which it was necessary to remove in the progress of the work—and the great head of water in the lake from unusually wet seasons, the technical difficulties to be surmounted were most baffling and discouraging in character, and of such extreme gravity that it may well be doubted whether the art of engineering has anywhere triumphed over more serious obstacles. This great "victory of peace"—probably the grandest work of physical improvement ever effected by the means, the energy, and the munificence of a single individual—is of no small geographical and economical, as well as sanitary, importance, but it has a still higher moral value as an almost unique example of the exercise of public spirit, courage, and perseverance in the accomplishment of a noble and beneficent enterprise by a private citizen. [Footnote: The draining of Lake Celano was undertaken by a company, but Prince Alessandro Torlonia of Rome bought up the interest of all the shareholders and has executed the entire work at his own private expense. Montricher, the celebrated constructor of the great aqueduct of Marseilles, was the engineer who designed and partly carried out the plans, and after his lamentable death the work has been directed with equal ability by Bermont and Brisse.—See Leon De Rothou, Prosciugamento del Lago Fucino, 8vo. Firenza, 1871.]

The crater-lake of Nemi, in the same volcanic region as that of Albano, is also drained by a subterranean tunnel probably of very ancient construction, and the Valle-Riccia appears to have once been the basin of a lake long since laid dry, but whether by the bursting of its banks or by human art we are unable to say.

The success of the Lake Celano tunnel has suggested other like improvements in Italy. A gallery has been cut, under circumstances of great difficulty, to drain Lake Agnano near Naples, and a project for the execution of a similar operation on the Lake of Perugia, the ancient Trasimenus, which covers more than 40,000 acres, is under discussion.

Many similar enterprises have been conceived and executed in modern times, both for the purpose of reclaiming land covered by water and for sanitary reasons. [Footnote: A considerable work of this character is mentioned by Captain Gilliss as having been executed in Chili, a country to which we should hardly have looked for an improvement of such a nature. The Lake Taguataga was partially drained by cutting through a narrow ridge of land, not at the natural outlet, but upon one side of the lake, and eight thousand acres of land covered by it were gained for cultivation.—U. S. Naval Astronomical Expedition to the Southern Hemisphere, i., pp. 16, 17.

Lake Balaton and the Neusiedler Sea in Hungary have lately been, at least partially, drained.

The lakes of Neuchatel, Bienne, and Morat, in Switzerland, have been connected and the common level of all of them lowered about four feet. The works now in operation will produce, in the course of the year 1874, a further depression of four feet, and recover for agricultural use more than twelve thousand acres of fertile soil.] They are sometimes attended with wholly unexpected evils, as, for example, in the case of Barton Pond, in Vermont, and in that of a lake near Ragunda in Sweden, already mentioned on a former page. Another still less obvious consequence of the withdrawal of the waters has occasionally been observed in these operations. The hydrostatic force with which the water, in virtue of its specific gravity, presses against the banks that confine it, has a tendency to sustain them whenever their composition and texture are not such as to expose them to softening and dissolution by the infiltration of the water. If, then, the slope of the banks is considerable, or if the earth of which they are composed rests on a smooth and slippery stratum inclining towards the bed of the lake, they are liable to fall or slide forward when the mechanical support of the water is removed, and this sometimes happens on a considerable scale. A few years ago the surface of the Lake of Lungern, in the Canton of Unterwalden, in Switzerland, was lowered by driving a tunnel about a quarter of a mile long through the narrow ridge, called the Kaiserstuhl, which forms a barrier at the north end of the basin. When the water was drawn off, the banks, which are steep, cracked and burst, several acres of ground slid down as low as the water receded, and even the whole village of Lungern was thought to be in no small danger. [Footnote: In the course of the year 1864 there were slides of the banks of the Lake of Como, and in one case the grounds of a villa near the water suffered a considerable displacement. More important slips occurred at Fesiolo on the shore of Lago Maggiore in 1867 and 1869, and on the Lake of Orta in 1868. These occurrences excited some apprehensions in regard to the possible effects of projects then under discussion for lowering the level of some of the Italian lakes, to obtain an increased supply of water for irrigation and as a mechanical power, but as it was not proposed to depress the surface below the lowest natural low-water level, there seems to have been little ground for the fears expressed.

See, for important observations on the character and probable results of these projects, Tagliasecchi, Nostizie etc. del Canali dell' Alta Lombardia, Milano, 1871.

Jacini says: "A large proportion of the water of the lakes, instead of discharging itself by the Ticino, the Adda, the Oglio, the Mincio, filters through the silicious strata which underlie the hills, and follows subterranean channels to the plain, where it collects in the fontanili, and being thence conducted into the canals of irrigation, becomes a source of great fertility."—La Proprieta Fondiaria, etc., p.144. The quantity of water escaping from the lakes by infiltration depends much on the hydrostatic pressure on the bottom and the walls of the lake-basins, and consequently the depression of the lake surface, diminishing this pressure, would diminish the infiltration. Hence it is possible that the lowering of the level of these lakes would manifest itself in a decreased supply of water for the springs, fontanili, and wells of Lombardy.]

Mountain Lakes.

Other inconveniences of a very serious character have often resulted from the natural wearing down, or, much more frequently, the imprudent destruction, of the barriers which confine mountain lakes. In their natural condition, such basins serve both to receive and retain the rocks and other detritus brought down by the torrents which empty into them, and to check the impetus of the rushing waters by bringing them to a temporary pause; but if the outlets are lowered so as to drain the reservoirs, the torrents continue their rapid flow through the ancient bed of the basins, and carry down with them the sand and gravel with which they are charged, instead of depositing their burden as before in the still waters of the lakes.

It is a common opinion in America that the river meadows, bottoms, or intervales, as they are popularly called, are generally the beds of ancient lakes which have burst their barriers and left running currents in their place. It was shown by Dr.

Dwight, many years ago, that this is very far from being universally true; but there is no doubt that mountain lakes were of much more frequent occurrence in primitive than in modern geography, and there are many chains of such still existing in regions where man has yet little disturbed the original features of the earth. In the long valleys of the Adirondack range in Northern New York, and in the mountainous parts of Maine, eight, ten, and even more lakes and lakelets are sometimes found in succession, each emptying into the next lower pool, and so all at last into some considerable river. When the mountain slopes which supply these basins shall be stripped of their woods, the augmented swelling of the lakes will break down their barriers, their waters will run off, and the valleys will present successions of flats with rivers running through them, instead of chains of lakes connected by natural canals.

A similar state of things seems to have existed in the ancient geography of France. "Nature," says Lavergne, "has not excavated on the flanks of our Alps reservoirs as magnificent as those of Lombardy; she had, however, constructed smaller but more numerous lakes, which the improvidence of man has permitted to disappear. Auguste de Gasparin demonstrated more than thirty years ago that many natural dikes formerly existed in the mountain valleys, which have been swept away by the waters." [Footnote: Economie Rurale de la France, p. 289.]

Many Alpine valleys in Switzerland and Italy present unquestionable evidence of the former existence of chains of lakes in their basins, and this may be regarded as a general fact in regard to the primitive topography of mountainous regions. Where the forests have not been destroyed, the lakes remain as characteristic features of the geographical surface. But when the woods are felled, these reservoirs are sooner or later filled up by wash from the shores, and of course disappear. Geologists have calculated the period when the bottom of the Lake of Geneva will be levelled up and its outlet worn down. The Rhone will then flow, in an unbroken current, from its source in the great Rhone glacier to the Mediterranean Sea.

Draining of Swamps.

The reclamation of bogs and swamps by draining off the surface-water is doubtless much more ancient than the draining of lakes. The beneficial results of the former mode of improvement are more unequivocal, and balanced by fewer disadvantages, and, at the same time, the processes by which it is effected are much simpler and more obvious. It has accordingly been practised through the whole historical period, and in recent times operations for this purpose have assumed a magnitude, and been attended with economical as well as sanitary and geographical effects, which entitle them to a high place in the efforts of man to ameliorate the natural conditions of the soil he occupies.

The methods by which the draining of marshes is ordinarily accomplished are too familiar, and examples of their successful employment too frequent, to require description, and I shall content myself, for the moment, with a brief notice of some recent operations of this sort which are less generally known than their importance merits.

Within the present century more than half a million acres of swamp-land have been drained and brought under cultivation in Hungary, and works are in progress which will ultimately recover a still larger area for human use. The most remarkable feature of these operations, and at the same time the process which has been most immediately successful and remunerative, is what is called in Europe the regulation of water-courses, and especially of the River Theiss, on the lower course of which stream alone not less than 250,000 acres of pestilential and wholly unproductive marsh have been converted into a healthful region of the most exuberant fertility.

The regulation of a river consists in straightening its channel by cutting off bends, securing its banks from erosion by floods, and, where necessary, by constructing embankments to confine the waters and prevent them from overflowing and stagnating upon the low grounds which skirt their current. In the course of the Theiss about sixty bends, including some of considerable length, have been cut off, and dikes sufficient for securing the land along its banks against inundation have been constructed.

Many thousand acres of land have been recently permanently improved in Italy by the draining of swamps, and extensive operations have been projected and commenced on the lower Rhone, and elsewhere in France, with the same object. [Footnote: Very interesting and important experiments, on the practicability of washing out the salt from seacoast lands too highly impregnated with that mineral to be fit for cultivation, are now in progress near the mouth of the Rhone, where millions of acres of marshy soil can easily be recovered, if these experiments are successful.

See Duponchel, Traite d'Hydraulique et de Geologie agricoles. Paris, 1868, chap. xi. and xii.

In the neighborhood of Ferrara are pools and marshes covering nearly two hundred square miles, or a surface more than equal to eight American townships. Centrifugal steam-pumps, of 2,000 horse-power, capable of discharging more than six hundred and fifty millions of gallons of water per day have lately been constructed in England for draining these marshes. This discharge is equal to an area of 640 acres, or a mile square, with nearly three feet of water.] But there is probably no country where greater improvements of this sort have either been lately effected, or are now in course of accomplishment, than in our own. Not to speak of well-known works on the New Jersey seacoast and the shores of Lake Michigan, the people of the new State of California are engaging in this mode of subduing nature with as much enterprise and energy as they have shown in the search for gold. The Report of the Agricultural Department of the United States for January, 1872, notices, with more or less detail, several highly successful experiments in California in the way of swamp-drainage and securing land from overflow, and it appears that not far from 200,000 acres have either very recently undergone or will soon be subjected to this method of improvement.

Agricultural Draining.

I have commenced this chapter with a description of the dikes and other hydraulic works of the Netherland engineers, because both the immediate and the remote results of such operations are more obvious and more easily measured, though certainly not more important, than those of much older and more widely diffused modes of resisting or directing the flow of waters, which have been practised from remote antiquity in the interior of all civilized countries. Draining and irrigation are habitually regarded as purely agricultural processes, having little or no relation to technical geography; but we shall find that they exert a powerful influence on soil, climate, and animal and vegetable life, and may, therefore, justly claim to be regarded as geographical elements.

Superficial draining is a necessity in all lands newly reclaimed from the forest. The face of the ground in the woods is never so regularly inclined as to permit water to flow freely over it. There are, even on the hillsides, small ridges depressions, partly belonging to the original distribution of the soil, and partly occasioned by irregularities in the growth and deposit of vegetable matter. These, in the husbandry of nature, serve as dams and reservoirs to collect a larger supply of moisture than the spongy earth can at once imbibe. Besides this, the vegetable mould is, even under the most favorable circumstances, slow in parting with the humidity it has accumulated under the protection of the woods, and the infiltration from neighboring forests contributes to keep the soil of small clearings too wet for the advantageous cultivation of artificial crops. For these reasons, surface draining must have commenced with agriculture itself, and there is probably no cultivated district, one may almost say no single field, which is not provided with artificial arrangements for facilitating the escape of superficial water, and thus carrying off moisture which, in the natural condition of the earth, would have been imbibed by the soil.

All these processes belong to the incipient civilization of the ante-historical periods, but the construction of subterranean channels for the removal of infiltrated water marks ages and countries distinguished by a great advance in agricultural theory and practice, a great accumulation of pecuniary capital and a density of population which creates a ready demand and a high price for all products of rural industry. Under draining, too, would be most advantageous in damp and cool climates, where evaporation is slow, and upon soils where the natural inclination of surface does not promote a very rapid flow of the surface-waters. All the conditions required to make this mode of rural improvement, if not absolutely necessary, at least profitable, exist in Great Britain, and it is, therefore, very natural that the wealthy and intelligent farmers of England should have carried this practice farther, and reaped a more abundant pecuniary return from it, than those of any other country.

Besides superficial and subsoil drains, there is another method of disposing of superfluous surface-water, which, however, can rarely be practised, because the necessary conditions for its employment are not of frequent occurrence. Whenever a tenacious water-holding stratum rests on a loose, gravelly bed so situated as to admit of a free discharge of water from or through it by means of the outcropping of the bed at a lower level, or of deep-lying conduits leading to distant points of discharge, superficial waters may be carried off by opening a passage for them through the impervious into the permeable stratum. Thus, according to Bischof, as early as the time of King Rene, in the first half of the fifteenth century, when subsoil drainage was scarcely known, the plain of Paluns, near Marseilles, was laid dry by boring, and Wittwer informs us that drainage is effected at Munich by conducting the superfluous water into large excavations, from which it filters through into a lower stratum of pebble and gravel lying a little above the level of the river Isar. [Foonote: Physikalische Geographie, p. 288. This method is now frequently employed in France. Details as to the processes will be found in Mangon Pratique du Drainage, pp. 78 et seqq. Draining by driving down stakes mentioned in a note in the chapter on the Woods, ante, is a process of the same nature.

In the United States, large tracts of marshy ground, and even shallow lakes of considerable extent, have been sufficiently drained not only for pasturage but for cultivation, without resort to any special measures for effecting that end. The ordinary processes of rural improvement in the vicinity, such as felling woods upon and around such grounds, and the construction of roads, the side ditches of which act as drains, over or near them, aided now and then by the removal of a fallen tree or other accidental obstruction in the beds of small streams which flow from them, often suffice to reclaim miles square of unproductive swamp and water. See notes on p. 20, and on cedar swamps, p. 208, ante.] So at Washington, in the western part of the city, which lies high above the rivers Potomac and Rock Creek, many houses are provided with dry wells for draining their cellars and foundations. These extend through hard, tenacious earth to the depth of thirty or forty feet, when they strike a stratum of gravel, through which the water readily passes off. This practice has been extensively employed at Paris, not merely for carrying off ordinary surface-water, but for the discharge of offensive and deleterious fluids from chemical and manufacturing establishments. A well of this sort received, in the winter of 1832-'33, twenty thousand gallons per day of the foul water from a starch factory, and the same process was largely used in other factories. The apprehension of injury to common and artesian wells and springs led to an investigation on this subject by Girard and Parent Duchatelet, in the latter year. The report of these gentlemen, published in the Annales des Ponts et Chaussees for 1833, second half-year, is full of curious and instructive facts respecting the position and distribution of the subterranean waters under and near Paris; but it must suffice to say that the report came to the conclusion that, in consequence of the absolute immobility of these waters, and the relatively small quantity of noxious fluid to be conveyed to them, there was no danger of the diffusion of such fluid if discharged into them. This result will not surprise those who know that, in another work, Duchatelet maintains analogous opinions as to the effect of the discharge of the city sewers into the Seine or the waters of that river. The quantity of matter delivered by them he holds to be so nearly infinitesimal, as compared with the volume of water of the river, that it cannot possibly affect it to a sensible degree, and therefore cannot render the Seine water unfit for drinking. [Foonote: Coste found, in his experiments on pisciculture, that the fermentation, which takes place in the water of the Seine in consequence of the discharge of the drains into the river, destroyed a large proportion of the eggs of fish in his breeding basins. Analysis of Seine water by Boussingault in 1855 detected a considerable quantity of ammonia.]

Meteorological Effects of Draining.

The draining of lakes diminishes the water-surface of the soil, and consequently, in many cases, the evaporation from it, as well as the refrigeration which attends all evaporation. [Footnote: The relative evaporating action of earth and water is a very complicated problem, and the results of observation on the subject are conflicting. Schubler found that at Geneva the evaporation from bare loose earth, in the months of December, January, and February, was from two and a half to nearly six times as great as from a like surface of water in the other months. The evaporation from water was from about once and a half to six times as great as from earth. Taking the whole year together, the evaporation from the two surfaces was 199 lines from earth and 536 lines from water. Experiments by Van der Steer, at the Helder, in the years 1861 and 1862, showed, for the former year, an evaporation of 602.9 millimetres from water, 1399.6 millimetres from ground covered with clover and other grasses; in 1862, the evaporation from water was 584.5 millimetres, from grassground, 875.5. —Wilhelm, Der Boden und das Wasser, p. 57; Krecke, Het Klimaat van Nederland, ii., p. 111.

On the other hand, the evaporation from the Nile in Egypt and Nubia is stated to be three times as great as that from an equal surface of the soil which borders it.—Lombardini, Saggio Idrologico sul Nilo, Milano, 1864, and Appendix. The relative thermometrical conditions of land and water in the same vicinity are constantly varying, and the hygrometrical state of both is equally unstable. Consequently there is no general formula to express the proportionate evaporation from fluid and solid geographical surfaces.] On the other hand, if the volume of water abstracted is great, its removal deprives its basin of an equalizing and moderating influence; for large bodies of water take very slowly the temperature of the air in contact with their surface, and are almost constantly either sending off heat into the atmosphere or absorbing heat from it. Besides, as we have seen, lakes in elevated positions discharge more or less water by infiltration, and contribute it by the same process to other lakes, to springs, and to rivulets, at lower levels. Hence the draining of lakes, on a considerable scale, must modify both the humidity and the temperature of the atmosphere of the neighboring regions, and the permanent supply of ground-water for the lands lying below them.

Meteorological Action of Marshes.

The shallow water of marshes, indeed, performs this latter function, but, under ordinary circumstances, marshes exercise in but a very small degree the compensating meteorological action which I have ascribed to large expansions of deeper water. The direct rays of the sun and the warmth of the atmosphere penetrate to the soil beneath, and raise the temperature of the water which covers it; and there is usually a much greater evaporation from marshes than from lakes in the same region during the warmer half of the year. This evaporation implies refrigeration, and consequently the diminution of evaporation by the drainage of swamps tends to prevent the lowering of the atmospheric temperature, and to lessen the frequency and severity of frosts. Accordingly it is a fact of experience that, other things being equal, dry soils, and the air in contact with them, are perceptibly warmer during the season of vegetation, when evaporation is most rapid, than moist lands and the atmospheric stratum resting upon them. Instrumental observation on this special point has not yet been undertaken on a large scale, but still we have thermometric data sufficient to warrant the general conclusion, and the influence of drainage in diminishing the frequency of frost appears to be even better established than a direct increase of atmospheric temperature. The steep and dry uplands of the Green Mountain range in New England often escape frosts when the Indian-corn harvest on moister grounds, five hundred or even a thousand feet lower, is destroyed or greatly injured by them. The neighborhood of a marsh is sure to be exposed to late spring and early autumnal frosts, but they cease to be feared after it is drained, and this is particularly observable in very cold climates, as, for example, in Lapland. [Footnote: "The simplest backwoodsman knows by experiences that all cultivation is impossible in the neighborhood of bogs and marshes. Why is a crop near the borders of a marsh out off by frost, while a field upon a hillock, a few stone's throws from it, is spared "—Lars Levi Laestadius, Om Uppoldingar Lappmarrken, pp. 69, 74.]

In England, under-drains are not generally laid below the reach of daily variations of temperature, or below a point from which moisture, if not carried off by the drains, might be brought to the surface by capillary attraction, and evaporated by the heat of the sun. They, therefore, like surface-drains, withdraw from local solar action much moisture which would otherwise be vaporized by it, and, at the same time, by drying the soil above them, they increase its effective hygroscopicity, and it consequently absorbs from the atmosphere a greater quantity of water than it did when, for want of under-drainage, the subsoil was always humid, if not saturated. [Footnote: Mangon thinks that the diminution of evaporation by agricultural drainage corresponds, in certain circumstances, to five per cent. of the heat received from the sun by the same surface in a year. He cites observations by Parkes, showing a difference in temperature of 5.5 degrees (centigrade ) in favor of drained, as compared with undrained, ground in the same vicinity.—Instructions pratiques sur le Drainage, pp. 227, 228.

The diminution of evaporation is not the only mode in which under-draining affects the temperature. The increased effective hygroscopicity of the soil increases its absorbent action, and the condensation of atmospheric vapor thus produced is attended with the manifestation of heat.] Under-drains, then, contribute to the dryness as well as to the warmth of the atmosphere, and, as dry ground is more readily heated by the rays of the sun than wet, they tend also to raise the mean, and especially the summer, temperature of the soil.

Effects of Draining Lake of Haarlem.

The meteorological influence of the draining of lakes and of humid soils has not, so far as I know, received much attention from experimental physicists; but we are not altogether without direct proof in support of theoretical and a priori conclusions. Thermometrical observations have been regularly made at Zwanenburg, near the northern extremity of the Lake of Haarlem, for more than a century; and since 1845 a similiar registry has been kept at the Helder, forty or fifty miles more to the north. In comparing these two series of observations, it is found that towards the end of 1852, when the draining of the lake was finished, and the following summer had completely dried the newly exposed soil—and, of course, greatly diminished the water-surface—a change took place in the relative temperature of those two stations. Taking the mean of each successive period of five days, from 1845 to 1852, both inclusive, the temperature of Zwanenburg was thirty-three hundredths of a degree centigrade LOWER than at the Helder. From the end of 1852 the thermometer at Zwanenburg has stood, from the 11th of April to the 20th of September, twenty-two hundredths of a degree HIGHER than that at Helder; but from the 14th of October to the 17th of March, it has marked one-tenth of a degree LOWER than its mean between the same dates before 1853. [Footnote: Krecke, Het Klimaat van Nederland, ii., p. 64.]

There is no reason to doubt that these differences are due to the draining of the lake. In summer, solar irradiation has acted more powerfully on the now exposed earth and of course on the air in contact with it; and there is no longer a large expanse of water still retaining and of course imparting something of the winter temperature; in winter, the earth has lost more heat by radiation than when covered by water and the influence of the lake, as a reservoir of warmth accumulated in summer and gradually given out in winter, was of course lost by its drainage. Doubtless the quantity of moisture contained in the atmosphere has been modified by the same cause, but it does not appear that observations have been made upon this point. Facts lately observed by Glaisher tend to prove an elevation of not far from two degrees in the mean temperature of England during the course of the last hundred years. For reasons which I have explained elsewhere, the early observations upon which these conclusions are founded do not deserve entire confidence; but admitting the fact of the alleged elevation, its most probable explanation would be found in the more thorough draining of the soil by superficial and by subterranean conduits.

So far as respects the immediate improvement of soil and climate, and the increased abundance of the harvests, the English system of surface and subsoil drainage has fully justified the eulogiums of its advocates; but its extensive adoption appears to have been attended with some altogether unforeseen and undesirable consequences, very analogous to those which I have described as resulting from the clearing of the forests. The under-drains carry off very rapidly the water imbibed by the soil from precipitation, and through infiltration from neighboring springs or other sources of supply. Consequently, in wet seasons, or after heavy rains, a river bordered by artificially drained lands receives in a few hours, from superficial and from subterranean conduits, an accession of water which, in the natural state of the earth, would have reached it only by small instalments after percolating through hidden paths for weeks or even months, and would have furnished perennial and comparatively regular contributions, instead of swelling deluges, to its channel. Thus, when human impatience rashly substitutes swiftly acting artificial contrivances for the slow methods by which nature drains the surface and superficial strata of a river-basin, the original equilibrium is disturbed, the waters of the heavens are no longer stored up in the earth to be gradually given out again, but are hurried out of man's domain with wasteful haste; and while the inundations of the river are sudden and disastrous, its current, when the drains have run dry, is reduced to a rivulet, it ceases to supply the power to drive the machinery for which it was once amply sufficient, and scarcely even waters the herds that pasture upon its margin.

The water of subterranean currents and reservoirs, as well as that of springs and common wells, is doubtless principally furnished by infiltration, and hence its quantity must vary with every change of natural surface which tends to accelerate or to retard the drainage of the surface-soil. The drainage of marshes, therefore, and all other methods of drying the superficial strata, whether by open ditches or by underground tubes or drains, has the same effect as clearing off the forest in depriving the subterranean waters of accessions which they would otherwise receive by infiltration, and in proportion as the sphere of such operation is extended, their influence will make itself felt in the diminished supply of water in springs and wells. [Footnote: Babinet condemns the general draining of marshes. "Draining," says he, "has been much in vogue for some years, and it has been a special object to dry and fertilize marshy grounds. I believe that excessive dryness is thus produced, and that other soils in the neighborhood are sterilized in proportion."—Etudes et Lectures, iv., p. 118.

"The extent of soil artificially dried by drainage is constantly increasing, and the water received by the surface from precipitation flows off by new channels, and is in general carried off more rapidly than before. Must not this fact exercise an influence on the regime of springs whose basin of supply thus undergoes a more or less complete transformation "—Bernhard Cotta, Preface to Paramelle, Quellenkunde, p. vii., viii.

The effects of agricultural drainage are perceptible at great depths. It has been observed in Cornwall that deep mines are more free from water in well-drained districts than in those where drainage is not generally practised.—Esquiros, Revue des Deux Mondes, 15 Nov., 1863, p. 430.

See also Asbjornsen, Torv og Torvdrift, p. 31.]

Geographical and Meteorological Effects of Aqueducts, Reservoirs, and Canals.

Many of the great processes of internal improvement, such as aqueducts for the supply of great cities, railroad cuts and embankments, and the like, divert water from its natural channels and affect its distribution and ultimate discharge. The collecting of the waters of a considerable district into reservoirs, to be thence carried off by means of aqueducts, as, for example, in the forest of Belgrade, near Constantinople, deprives the grounds originally watered by the springs and rivulets of the necessary moisture, and reduces them to barrenness. [Footnote: See a very interesting paper on the Water-Supply of Constantinople, by Mr. Homes, of the New York State Library, in the Albany Argus of June 6, 1872. The system of aqueducts for the supply of water to that city was commenced by Constantine, and the great aqueduct, frequently ascribed to Justinian, which is 840 feet long and 112 feet high, is believed to have been constructed during the reign of the former emperor.] Similar effects must have followed from the construction of the numerous aqueducts which supplied ancient Rome with such a profuse abundance of water. [Footnote: The unhealthiness of the Roman Campagna is ascribed by many mediaeval as well as later writers to the escape of water from the ancient aqueducts, which had fallen out of repair from neglect, or been broken down by enemies in the sieges of Rome.] On the other hand, the filtration of water through the banks or walls of an aqueduct carried upon a high level across low ground, often injures the adjacent soil, and is prejudicial to the health of the neighboring population; and it has been observed in Switzerland and elsewhere, that fevers have been produced by the stagnation of the water in excavations from which earth had been taken to form embankments for railways.

If we consider only the influence of physical improvements on civilized life, we shall perhaps ascribe to navigable canals a higher importance, or at least a more diversified influence, than to aqueducts or to any other works of man designed to control the waters of the earth, and to affect their distribution. They bind distant regions together by social ties, through the agency of the commerce they promote; they facilitate the transportation of military stores and engines, and of other heavy material connected with the discharge of the functions of government; they encourage industry by giving marketable value to raw material and to objects of artificial elaboration which would otherwise be worthless on account of the cost of conveyance; they supply from their surplus waters means of irrigation and of mechanical power; and, in many other ways, they contribute much to advance the prosperity and civilization of nations. Nor are they wholly without geographical importance. They sometimes drain lands by conveying off water which would otherwise stagnate on the surface, and, on the other hand, like aqueducts, they render the neighboring soil cold and moist by the percolation of water through their embankments; [Footnote: Sismondi, speaking of the Tuscan canals, observes: "But inundations are not the only damage caused by the waters to the plains of Tuscany. Raised, as the canals are, above the soil, the water percolates through their banks, penetrates every obstruction, and, in spite of all the efforts of industry, sterilizes and turns to morasses fields which nature and the richness of the soil seemed to have designed for the most abundant harvests. In ground thus pervaded with moisture, or rendered COLD, as the Tuscans express it, by the filtration of the canal-water, the vines and the mulberries, after having for a few years yielded fruit of a saltish taste, rot and perish. The wheat decays in the ground, or dies as soon as it sprouts. Winter crops are given up, and summer cultivation tried for a time; but the increasing humidity, and the saline matter communicated to the earth—which affects the taste of all its products, even to the grasses, which the cattle refuse to touch—at last compel the husbandman to abandon his fields and leave uncultivated a soil that no longer repays his labor."—Tableau de l'Agriculture Toscane, pp. 11, 12.] they dam up, check, and divert the course of natural currents, and deliver them at points opposite to, or distant from, their original outlets; they often require extensive reservoirs to feed them thus retaining through the year accumulations of water—which would otherwise run off, or evaporate in the dry season—and thereby enlarging the evaporable surface of the country; and we have already seen that they interchange the flora and the fauna of provinces widely separated by nature. All these modes of action certainly influence climate and the character of terrestrial surface, though our means of observation are not yet perfected enough to enable us to appreciate and measure their effects.

Antiquity of Irrigation.

We know little of the history of the extinct civilizations which preceded the culture of the classic ages, and no nation has, in modern times, spontaneously emerged from barbarian and created for itself the arts of social life. [Footnote: I ought perhaps to except the Mexicans and the Peruvians, whose arts and institutions are not yet shown to be historically connected with those of any more ancient people. The lamentable destruction of so many memorials of these tribes, by the ignorance and bigotry of the so-called Christian barbarians who conquered them, has left us much in the dark as to many points of their civilization; but they seem to have reached that stage where continued progress in knowledge and in power over nature is secure, and a few more centuries of independence might have brought them to originate for themselves most of the great inventions which the last four centuries have bestowed upon man.] The improvements of the savage races whose history we can distinctly trace are borrowed and imitative, and our theories as to the origin and natural development of industrial art are conjectural. Of course, the relative antiquity of particular branches of human industry depends much upon the natural character of soil, climate, and spontaneous vegetable and animal life in different countries; and while the geographical influence of man would, under given circumstances, be exerted in one direction, it would, under different conditions, act in an opposite or a diverging line. I have given some reasons for thinking that in the climates to which our attention has been chiefly directed, man's first interference with the natural arrangement and disposal of the waters was in the way of drainage of surface. But if we are to judge from existing remains alone, we should probably conclude that irrigation is older than drainage; for, in the regions regarded by general tradition as the cradle of the human race, we find traces of canals evidently constructed for the former purpose at a period long preceding the ages of which we have any written memorials. There are, in ancient Armenia, extensive districts which were already abandoned to desolation at the earliest historical epoch, but which, in a yet remoter antiquity, had been irrigated by a complicated and highly artificial system of canals, the lines of which can still be followed; and there are, in all the highlands where the sources of the Euphrates rise, in Persia, in Egypt, in India, and in China, works of this sort which must have been in existence before man had begun to record his own annals.

In warm countries, such as most of those just mentioned, the effects I have described as usually resulting from the clearing of the forests would very soon follow. In such climates, the rains are inclined to be periodical; they are also violent, and for these reasons the soil would be parched in summer and liable to wash in winter. In these countries, therefore, the necessity for irrigation must soon have been felt, and its introduction into mountainous regions like Armenia must have been immediately followed by a system of terracing, or at least scarping the hillsides. Pasture and meadow, indeed, may be irrigated even when the surface is both steep and irregular, as may be observed abundantly on the Swiss as well as on the Piedmontese slope of the Alps; but in dry climates, ploughland and gardens on hilly grounds require terracing, both for supporting the soil and for administering water by irrigation, and it should be remembered that terracing, of itself, even without special arrangements for controlling the distribution of water, prevents or at least checks the flow of rain-water, and gives it time to sink into the ground instead of running off over the surface.

The summers in Egypt, in Syria, and in Asia Minor and even Rumelia, are almost rainless. In such climates, the neccssity of irrigation is obvious, and the loss of the ancient means of furnishing it helps to explain the diminished fertility of most of the countries in question. [Footnote: In Egypt, evaporation and absorption by the earth are so rapid, that all annual crops require irrigation during the whole period of their growth. As fast as the water retires by the subsidence of the annual inundation, the seed is sown upon the still moist, uncovered soil, and irrigation begins at once. Upon the Nile, you hear the creaking of the water-wheels, and sometimes the movement of steam-pumps, through the whole night, while the poorer cultivators unceasingly ply the simple shadoof, or bucket-and-sweep, laboriously raising the water from trough to trough by as many as six or seven stages when the river is low. The bucket is of flexible leather, with a stiff rim, and is emptied into the trough, not by inverting it like a wooden bucket, but by putting the hand beneath and pushing the bottom up till the water all runs out over the brim, or, in other words, by turning the vessel inside out.

The quantity of water thus withdrawn from the Nile is enormous. Most of this is evaporated directly from the surface or the superficial strata, but some moisture percolates down and oozes through the banks into the river again, while a larger quantity sinks till it joins the slow current of infiltration by which the Nile water pervades the earth of the valley to the distance, at some points, of not less than fifty miles.] The surface of Palestine, for example, is composed, in a great measure, of rounded limestone hills, once, no doubt, covered with forests. These were partially removed before the Jewish conquest. [Footnote: "Forests," "woods," and "groves," are frequently mentioned in the Old Testament as existing at particular places, and they are often referred to by way of illustration, as familiar objects. "Wood" is twice spoken of as a material in the New Testament, but otherwise—at least according to Cruden—not one of the above words occurs in that volume. In like manner, while the box, the cedar, the fir, the oak, the pine, "beams," and "timber," are very frequently mentioned in the Old Testament, not one of these words is found in the New, EXCEPT the case of the "beam in the eye," in the parable in Matthew and Luke.

This interesting fact, were other evidence wanting, would go far to prove that a great change had taken place in this respect between the periods when the Old Testament and the New were respectively composed; for the scriptural writers, and the speakers introduced into their narratives, are remarkable for their frequent allusions to the natural objects and the social and industrial habits which characterized their ages and their country.] When the soil began to suffer from drought, reservoirs to retain the waters of winter were hewn in the rock near the tops of the hills, and the declivities were terraced. So long as the cisterns were in good order, and the terraces kept up, the fertility of Palestine was unsurpassed, but when misgovernment and foreign and intestine war occasioned the neglect or destruction of these works—traces of which still meet the traveller's eye at every step,—when the reservoirs were broken and the terrace walls had fallen down, there was no longer water for irrigation in summer, the rains of winter soon washed away most of the thin layer of earth upon the rocks, and Palestine was reduced almost to the condition of a desert.

The course of events has been the same in Idumaea. The observing traveller discovers everywhere about Petra, particularly if he enters the city by the route of Wadi Ksheibeh, very extensive traces of ancient cultivation, and upon the neighboring ridges are the ruins of numerous cisterns evidently constructed to furnish a supply of water for irrigation. [Footnote: One of these on Mount Hor, two stories deep, is in such good preservation, although probably not repaired for many centuries, that I found ten feet of water in it in June, 1851.] In primitive ages, the precipitation of winter in these hilly countries was, in great part, retained for a time in the superficial soil, first by the vegetable mould of the forests, and then by the artificial arrangements I have described. The water imbibed by the earth was partly taken up by direct evaporation, partly absorbed by vegetation, and partly carried down by infiltration to subjacent strata which gave it out in springs at lower levels, and thus a fertility of soil and a condition of the atmosphere were maintained sufficient to admit of the dense population that once inhabited those now arid wastes. At present, the rain-water runs immediately off from the surface and is carried down to the sea, or is drunk up by the sands of the wadis, and the hillsides which once teemed with plenty are bare of vegetation, and seared by the scorching winds of the desert.

In fact, climatic conditions render irrigation a necessity in all the oriental countries which have any importance in ancient or in modern history, and there can be no doubt that this diffusion of water over large surfaces has a certain reaction on climate. Some idea of the extent of artificially watered soil in India may be formed from the fact that in fourteen districts of the Presidency of Madras, not less than 43,000 reservoirs, constructed by the ancient native rulers for the purpose of irrigation, are now in use, and that there are in those districts at least 10,000 more which are in ruins and useless. These reservoirs are generally formed by damming the outlets of natural valleys; and the dams average half a mile in length, though some of them are thirty miles long and form ponds covering from 37,000 to 50,000 acres. The areas of these reservoirs alone considerably increase the water-surface, and each one of them irrigates an extent of cultivated ground much larger than itself. Hence there is a great augmentation of humid surface from those constructions. [Footnote: The present government of India obtains the same result more economically and advantageously by constructing in many provinces of that vast empire canals of great length and capacity, which not only furnish a greater supply of water than the old reservoirs, but so distribute it as to irrigate a larger area than could be watered by any system of artificial basins. The excavacations for the Ganges Canal were nearly equal to those for the Suez Canal, falling little short of 100,000 cubic yards, without counting feeders and accessory lines amounting to a length of 3,000 miles. This canal, according to a recent article in the London Times, waters a tract of land 320 miles long by 50 broad. The Jumna Canal, 130 miles long, with 608 miles of distributing branches, waters a territory 120 miles long with a breadth of 15 miles.

Other statements estimate the amount of land actually under irrigation in British India at 6,000,000 acres, and add that canals now in construction will water as much more. The Indian irrigation canals are generally navigable, some of them by boats of large tonnage, and the canals return a net revenue of from five to twenty per cent. on their cost.]

The cultivable area of Egypt, or the space between desert and desert where cultivation would be possible, is now estimated at ten thousand square statute miles. [Footnote: The area which the waters of the Nile, left to themselves, would now cover is greater than it would have been in ancient times, because the bed of the river has been elevated, and consequently the lateral spread of the inundation increased. See Smith's Dictionary of Geography, article "Aegyptus". But the industry of the Egyptians in the days of the Pharaohs and the Ptolemies carried the Nile-water to large provinces, which have now been long abandoned and have relapsed into the condition of desert. "Anciently," observes the writer of the article "Egypt" in Smith's Dictionary of the Bible, "2,735 square miles more [about 3,700 square statute miles] may have been cultivated. In the best days of Egypt, probably all the land was cultivated that could be made available for agricultural purposes, and hence we may estimate the ancient arable area of that country at not less than 11,000 square statute miles, or fully double its present extent."

According to an article in the Bollettino della Societa Geografica Italiana, vol. v., pt. iii., p. 210, the cultivated soil of Egypt in 1869 amounted to 4,500,000 acres, and the remaining soil capable of cultivation was estimated at 2,000,000 acres.] Much of the surface, though not out of the reach of irrigation, lies too high to be economically watered, and irrigation and cultivation are therefore at present confined to an area of seven thousand square miles, nearly the whole of which is regularly and constantly watered when not covered by the inundation, except in the short interval between the harvest and the rise of the waters. For nearly half of the year, then, irrigation adds seven thousand square miles to the humid surface of the Nile valley, or, in other words, more than decuples the area from which an appreciable quantity of moisture would otherwise be evaporated; for after the Nile has retired within its banks, its waters by no means cover one-tenth of the space just mentioned.

The Nile receives not a single tributary in its course below Khartoum; there is not so much as one living spring in the whole land, [Footnote: The so-called spring at Heliopolis is only a thread of water infiltrated from the Nile or the canals.] and, with the exception of a narrow strip of coast, where the annual precipitation is said to amount to six inches, the fall of rain in the territory of the Pharaohs is not two inches in the year. The subsoil of the whole valley is pervaded with moisture by infiltration from the Nile, and water can everywhere be found at the depth of a few feet. Were irrigation suspended, and Egypt abandoned, as in that case it must be, to the operations of nature, there is no doubt that trees, the roots of which penetrate deeply, would in time establish themselves on the deserted soil, fill the valley with verdure, and perhaps at last temper the climate, and even call down abundant rain from the heavens. [Footnote: The date and the doum palm, the sont and many other acacias, the caroub, the sycamore and other trees grow in Egypt without irrigation, and would doubtless spread through the entire valley in a few years.] But the immediate effect of discontinuing irrigation would be, first, an immense reduction of the evaporation from the valley in the dry season, and then a greatly augmented dryness and heat of the atmosphere. Even the almost constant north wind—the strength of which would be increased in consequence of these changes—would little reduce the temperature of the narrow cleft between the burning mountains which hem in the channel of the Nile, so that a single year would transform the most fertile of soils to the most barren of deserts, and render uninhabitable a territory that irrigation makes capable of sustaining as dense a population as has ever existed in any part of the world. [Footnote: Wilkinson states that the total population, which, two hundred years ago, was estimated at 4,000,000, amounted till lately to only about 1,800,000 souls, having been reduced since the year 1800 from 2,500,000 to less than 2,000,000.—Handbook for Travellers in Egypt. p. 10. The population at the end of the year 1869 is computed at 5,215,000.—Bollettino della Soc. Geog. Ital., vol. v., pt. iii., p. 215. This estimate doubtless includes countries bordering on the upper Nile not embraced in Wilkinson's statistics.] Whether man found the valley of the Nile a forest, or such a waste as I have just described, we do not historically know. In either case, he has not simply converted a wilderness into a garden, but has unquestionably produced extensive climatic change. [Footnote: Ritter supposes Egypt to have been a sandy desert when it was first occupied by man. "The first inhabitant of the sandy valley of the Nile was a desert-dweller, as his neighbors right and left, the Libyan, the nomade Arab, still are. But the civilized people of Egypt transformed, by canals, the waste into the richest granary of the world; they liberated themselves from the shackles of the rock and sand desert, in the midst of which, by a wise distribution of the fluid through the solid geographical form, by irrigation in short, they created a region of culture most rich in historical monuments."—Einleitung zur allgemeinen vergleichenden Geographie, pp. 165, 166.

This view seems to me highly improbable; for great rivers, in warm climates, are never bordered by sandy plains. A small stream may be swallowed up by sands, but if the volume of water is too large to be carried off by evaporation or drank up by absorption, it saturates its banks with moisture, and unless resisted by art, converts them into marshes covered with aquatio vegetation. By canals and embankments, man has done much to modify the natural distribution of the waters of the Nile; yet the annual inundation is not his work, and the river must have overflowed its banks and carried spontaneous vegetation with its waters, as well before as since Egypt was first occupied by the human family. There is, indeed, some reason to suppose that man lived upon the banks of the Nile when its channel was much lower, and the spread of its inundations much narrower, than at present; but wherever its flood reached, there the forest would propagate itself, and its shores would certainly have been morasses rather than sands.

The opinions of Ritter on this subject are not only improbable, but they are contradictory to the little historical testimony we possess. Herodotus informs us in Euterpe that except the province of Thebes, all Egypt, that is to say, the whole of the Delta and of middle Egypt extending to Hemopolis Magna in N. L. 27 degrees 45 minutes, was originally a morass. This morass was doubtless in great part covered with trees, and hence, in the most ancient hieroglyphical records, a tree is the sign for the cultivated land between the desert and the channel of the Nile. In all probability, the real change effected by human art in the superficial geography of Egypt is the conversion of pools and marshes into dry land, by a system of transverse dikes, which compelled the flood-water to deposit its sediment on the banks of the river instead of carrying it to the sea. The colmate of modern Italy were thus anticipated in ancient Egypt.]

The fields of Egypt are more regularly watered than those of any other country bordering on the Mediterranean, except the rice-grounds in Italy, and perhaps the marcite or winter meadows of Lombardy; but irrigation is more or less employed throughout almost the entire basin of that sea, and is everywhere attended with effects which, if less in degree, are analogous in character, to those resulting from it in Egypt.

There are few things in European husbandry which surprise English or American observers so much as the extent to which irrigation is employed in agriculture, and that, too, on soils, and with a temperature, where their own experience would have led them to suppose it would be injurious to vegetation rather than beneficial to it. In Switzerland, for example, grass-grounds on the very borders of glaciers are freely irrigated, and on the Italian slope of the Alps water is applied to meadows at heights exceeding 6,000 feet. The summers in Northern Italy, though longer, are very often not warmer than in the Northern United States; and in ordinary years, the summer rains are as frequent and as abundant in the former country as in the latter. [Footnote: The mean annual precipitation in Lombardy is thirty-six inches, of which nearly two-thirds fall during the season of irrigation. The rain-fall is about the same in Piedmont, though the number of days in the year classed as "rainy" is said to be but twenty-four in the former province while it is seventy in the latter.—Baird Smith, Italian Irrigation, vol. i., p. 196.

The necessity of irrigation in the great alluivial plain of Northern Italy is partly explained by the fact that the superficial stratum of fine earth and vegetable mould is very extensively underlaid by beds of pebbles and gravel brought down by mountain torrents at a remote epoch. The water of the surface-soil drains rapdily down into these loose beds, and passes off by subterranean channels to some unknown point of discharge; but this circumstance alone is not a sufficient solution. It is not possible that the habits of vegetables, grown in countries where irrigation has been immemorially employed, have been so changed that they require water under conditions of soil and climate where their congeners, which have not been thus indulgently treated, do not It is a remarkable fact that during the season of irrigation, when large tracts of surface are almost constantly saturated with water, there is an extraordinary dryness in the atmosphere of Lombardy, the hygrometer standing for days together a few degrees only above zero, while in winter the instrument indicates extreme humidity of the air, approaching to total saturation.—Baird Smith, Italian Irrigation, i., p. 189.

There are some atmospheric phenomena in Northern Italy, which an American finds it hard to reconcile with what he has observed in the United States. To an American eye, for instance, the sky of Piedmont, Lombardy, and the northern coast of the Mediterranean, is always whitish and curdled, and it never has the intensity and fathomless depth of the blue of his native heavens. And yet the heat of the sun's rays, as measured by sensation, and, at the same time, the evaporation, are greater than they would be with the thermometer at the same point in America. I have frequently felt in Italy, with the mercury below 60 degrees Fahrenheit, and with a mottled and almost opaque sky, a heat of solar irradiation which I can compare to nothing but the scorching sensation experienced in America at a temperature twenty degrees higher, during the intervals between showers, or before a rain, when the clear blue of the sky seems infinite in depth and transparency. Such circumstances may create a necessity for irrigation where it would otherwise be superfluous, if not absolutely injurious.

In speaking of the superior apparent clearness of the SKY in America, I confine myself to the concave vault of the heavens, and do not mean to assert that terrestrial objects are generally visible at greater distances in the United States than in Italy. Indeed, I am rather disposed to maintain the contrary; for though I know that the lower strata of the atmosphere in Europe never equal in transparency the air near the earth in New Mexico, Peru, and Chili, yet I think the accidents of the coast-line of the Riviera, as, for example, between Nice and La Spezia, and those of the incomparable Alpine panorama seen from Turin, are distinguishable at greater distances than they would be in the United States.] Yet in Piedmont and Lombardy irrigation is bestowed upon almost every crop, while in our Northern States it is never employed at all in farming husbandry, or indeed for any purpose except in kitchen-gardens, and possibly, in rare cases, in some other small branch of agricultural industry. [Footnote: In our comparatively rainless Western territory, irrigation is extensively and very beneficially employed. In the Salt Lake valley and in California, hundreds if not thousands of miles of irrigation canals have been constructed, and there is little doubt that artificially watering the soil will soon be largely resorted to in the older States. See valuable observations on this subject in Hayden, Preliminary Report on Geological Survey of Wyoming, 1870, pp. 194, 195, 258-261.]

In general, it may be said that irrigation is employed only in the seasons when the evaporating power of the sun and the capacity of the air for absorbing humidity are greatest, or, in other words, that the soil is nowhere artificially watered except when it is so dry that little moisture would be evaporated from it, and, consequently, every acre of irrigated ground is so much added to the evaporable surface of the country. When the supply of water is unlimited, it is allowed, after serving its purpose on one field, to run into drains, canals, or rivers. But in most regions where irrigation is regularly employed, it is necessary to economize the water; after passing over or through one parcel of ground, it is conducted to another; no more is usually withdrawn from the canals at anyone point than is absorbed by the soil it irrigates, or evaporated from it, and, consequently, it is not restored to liquid circulation, except by infiltration or precipitation. We are safe, then, in saying that the humidity evaporated from any artificially watered soil is increased by a quantity bearing a large proportion to the whole amount distributed over it, for most even of that which is absorbed by the earth is immediately given out again either by vegetables or by evaporation; and the hygrometrical and thermometrical condition of the atmosphere in irrigated countries is modified proportionally to the extent of the practice.

It is not easy to ascertain precisely either the extent of surface thus watered, or the amount of water supplied, in any given country, because these quantities vary with the character of the season; but there are not many districts in Southern Europe where the management of the arrangements for irrigation is not one of the most important branches of agricultural labor. The eminent engineer Lombardini describes the system of irrigation in Lombardy as, "every day in summer, diffusing over 550,000 hectares [1,375,000 acres] of land 45,000,000 cubic metres [nearly 600,000,000 cubic yards] of water, which is equal to the entire volume of the Seine, at an ordinary flood, or a rise of three metres above the hydrometer at the bridge of La Tournelle at Paris." [Footnote: Memorie sui progetti per Pestensions dell' Irrigazione, etc., il Politecniso, for January, 1868, p. 6.]

Niel states the quantity of land irrigated in the former kingdom of Sardinia, including Savoy, in 1856, at 240,000 hectares, or not much Ices than 600,000 acres. This is about four-thirteenths of the cultivable soil of the kingdom. According to the same author, the irrigated lands in Franco did not exceed 100,000 hectares, or 247,000 acres, while those in Lombardy amounted to 450,000 hectares, more than 1,100,000 acres. [Footnote: Niel, L'Agriculture des Etats Sardes, p. 232. This estimate, it will be observed, is 275,000 acres less than that of Lombardini.]

In these three states alone, then, there were more than three thousand square miles of artificially watered land, and if we add the irrigated soils of the rest of Italy, [Footnote: In 1865 the total quantity of irrigated lands in the kingdom of Italy was estimated at 1,357,677 hectares, or 2,000,000 acres, of which one-half is supplied with water by artificial canals. The Canal Cavour adds 250,000 acres to the above amount. The extent of artificially watered ground in Italy is consequently equal to the entire area of the States of Delaware and Rhode Island.—See the official report, Sulle Bonificazione, Risaie, ed Irrigazioni, 1865, p. 269.] of the Mediterranean islands, of the Spanish peninsula, of Turkey in Europe and in Asia Minor, of Syria, of Egypt and the remainder of Northern Africa, we shall see that irrigation increases the evaporable surface of the Mediterranean basin by a quantity bearing no inconsiderable proportion to the area naturally covered by water within it.

Arrangements are concluded, and new plans proposed, for an immense increase of the lands fertilized by irrigation in France and in Belgium, as well as in Spain and Italy, and there is every reason to believe that the artificially watered soil of the latter country will be doubled, that of France quadrupled, before the end of this century. There can be no doubt that by these operations man is exercising a powerful influence on the soil, on vegetable and animal life, and on climate, and hence that in this, as in many other fields of industry, he is truly a geographical agency. [Footnote: It belongs rather to agriculture than to geography to discuss the quality of the crops obtained by irrigation, or the permanent effects produced by it on the productiveness of the soil. There is no doubt, however, that all crops which can be raised without watering are superior in flavor and in nutritive power to those grown by the aid of irrigation. Garden vegetables, particularly, profusely watered, are so insipid as to be hardly eatable. Wherever irrigation is practised, there is an almost irresistible tendency, especially among ignorant cultivators, to carry it to excess; and in Piedmont and Lombardy, if the supply of water is abundant, it is so liberally applied as sometimes not only to injure the quality of the product, but to drown the plants and diminish the actual weight of the crop. Grass-lands are perhaps an exception to this remark, as it seems almost impossible to apply too much water to them, provided it be kept in motion and not allowed to stagnate on the surface. Protestor Liebig, in his Modern Agriculture, says: "There is not to be found in chemistry a more wonderful phenomenon, one which more confounds all human wisdom, than is presented by the soil of a garden or field. By the simplest experiment, any one may satisfy himself that rain-water filtered through field or garden soil does not dissolve out a trace of potash, silicic acid, ammonia, or phosphoric acid. The soil does not give up to the water one particle of the food of plants which it contains. The most continuous rains cannot remove from the field, except mechanically, any of the essential constituents of ite fertility." "The soil not only retains firmly all the food of plants which is actually in it, but its power to preserve all that may be useful to them extends much farther. If rain or other water holding in solution ammonia, potash, and phosphoric and silicic acids, be brought in contact with soil, these substances disappear almost immediately from the solution; the soil withdraws them from the water. Only such substances are completely withdrawn by the soil as are indispensable articles of food for plants; all others remain wholly or in part in solution."

These opinions were confirmed, soon after their promulgation, by the experimental researches of other chemists, but are now questioned, and they are not strictly in accordance with the alleged experience of agriculturists in those parts of Italy where irrigation is most successfully applied. They believe that the constituents of vegetable growth are washed out of the soil by excessive and long-continued watering. They consider it also established as a fact of observation, that water which has flowed through or over rich ground is more valuable for irrigation than water from the same source, which has not been impregnated with fertilizing substances by passing through soils containing them; and, on the other hand, that water, rich in the elements of vegetation, parts with them in serving to irrigate a poor soil, and is therefore less valuable as a fertilizer of lower grounds to which it may afterward be conducted. See Baird Smith, Italian Irrigation, i., p. 25; Scott Moncrieff, Irrigation in Southern Europe, pp. 34, 87, 89; Lombardini, Sulle Inondazioni etc., p. 73; Mangon, Les Irrigations, p. 48.

The practice of irrigation—except in mountainous countries where springs and rivulets are numerous—is attended with very serious economical, social, and political evils. The construction of canals and their immensely ramified branches, and the grading and scarping of the ground to be watered, are always expensive operations, and they very often require an amount of capital which can be commanded only by the state, by moneyed corporations, or by very wealthy proprietors; the capacity of the canals must be calculated with reference to the area intended to be irrigated, and when they and their branches are once constructed, it in very difficult to extend them, or to accommodate any of their original arrangements to changes in the condition of the soil, or in the modes or objects of cultivation; the flow of the water being limited by the abundance of the source or the capacity of the canals, the individual proprietor cannot be allowed to withdraw water at will, according to his own private interest or convenience, but both the time and the quantity of supply must be regulated by a general system applicable, as far as may be, to the whole area irrigated by the same canal, and every cultivator must conform his industry to a plan which may be quite at variance with his special objects or with his views of good husbandry. The clashing interests and the jealousies of proprietors depending on the same means of supply are a source of incessant contention and litigation, and the caprices or partialities of the officers who control, or of contractors who farm, the canals, lead not unfrequently to ruinous injustice towards individual landholders. These circumstances discourage the division of the soil into small properties, and there is a constant tendency to the accumulation of large estates of irrigated land in the hands of great capitalists, and consequently to the dispossession of the small cultivators, who pass from the condition of owners of the land to that of hireling tillers.

Though farmers are no longer yeomen, but peasants. Having no interest in the soil which composes their country, they are virtually expatriated, and the middle class, which ought to constitute the real physical and moral strength of the land, ceases to exist as a rural estate, and is found only among the professional, the mercantile, and the industrial population of the cities.—See, on the difficulty of regulating irrigation by law, Negri, Idea su una Legge in materia di Acqua, 1864; and Agmard, Irrigations du Midi de L'Europe' where curious and important remarks on the laws and usages of the Spanish Moors and the Spaniards, in respect to irrigation, will be found. The Moors were so careful in maintaining the details of their system, that they kept in publio offices bronze models of their dams and sluices, as guides for repairs and rebuilding. Some of these models are still preserved. —Ibidem, pp. 204, 205. For an account of recent irrigation works in Spain, see Spon, Dictionary of Engineering, article Irrigation. As near as can be ascertained, the amount of water applied to irrigated lands is scarcely anywhere less than the total precipitation during the season of vegetable growth, and in general it much exceeds that quantity. In grass-grounds and in field-culture it ranges from 27 or 28 to 60 inches, while in smaller crops, tilled by hand-labor, it is sometimes carried as high as 300 inches. [Footnote: Niel, Agriculture des Etata Sardes, p. 237. Lombardini's computation just given allows eighty-one cubic metres per day to the hectare [two hundred and sixty cubic yards to the acre], which, supposing the season of irrigation to be one hundred days, in equal to a precipitation of thirty-two inches. But in Lombardy, water in applied to some crops during a longer period than one hundred days; and in the marcite it flows over the ground even in winter. According to Boussingault (Economie Rurale, ii., p. 240), grass-grounds ought to receive, in Germany, twenty-one centimetres of water per week, and with less than half that quantity it is not advisable to incur the expense of supplying it. The ground is irrigated twenty-five or thirty times, and if the full quantity of twenty-one centimetres is applied, it receives more than two hundred inches of water, or six times the total amount of precipitation. Puvis, quoted by Boussingault, after much research comes to the conclusion that a proper quantity is twenty centimetres [eight inches] applied twenty-five or thirty times, which corresponds with the estimate just stated. Puvis adds—and, as our author thinks, with reason—that this amount might be doubled without disadvantage.—Ibidem, ii., p. 248, 249. In some parts of France this quantity is immensely exceeded, and it is very important to observe, with reference to the employment of irrigation in our Northern States, that water is most freely supplied in the COLDER provinces. Thus, in the Vosges, meadows are literally flooded for weeks together, and while in the department of Vancluse a meadow may receive, in five waterings of six and a half hours each, twenty-one inches of wnter, in the Vosges it might be deluged for twenty-four hundred hours in six applications, the enormous quantity of thirteen hundred feet of water flowing over it. See the important work of Herve Mangon, Sur l'emploi des eaux dans les Irrigations, chap. ix. Boussingault observes that rain-water is vastly more fertilizing than the water of irrigating canals, and therefore the supply of the latter must be greater. This is explained partly by the different character of the substances held in solution or suspension by the waters of the earth and of the sky, partly by the higher temperature of the latter, and, possibly, partly also by the mode of application—the rain being finely divided in its fall or by striking plants on the ground, river-water flowing in a continuous sheet.

The temperature of the water is thought even more important than its composition. The sources which irrigate the marcite of Lombardy—meadows so fertile that less than an acre furnishes grass for a cow the whole year—are very warm. The ground watered by them never freezes, and a first crop, for soiling, is cut from it in January or February. The Canal Cavour—which takes its supply chiefly from the Po at Chivasso, fourteen or fifteen miles below Turin—furnishes water of much higher fertilizing power than that derived from the Dora Baltea and the Sesia, both because it is warmer, and because it transports a more abundant and a richer sediment than the latter streams, which are fed by Alpine ice-fields and melting snows, and which flow, for long distances, in channels ground smooth and bare by ancient glaciers and not now contributing much vegetable mould or fine slime to their waters.]

The rice-grounds and the marcite of Lombardy are not included in these estimates of the amount of water applied. [Footnote: About one-seventh of the water which flows over the marcite is absorbed by the soil of those meadows or evaporated from their surface, and consequently six-sevenths of the supply remain for use on ground at lower levels.] The meteorological effect of irrigation on a large scale, which would seem prima facie most probable, would be an increase of precipitation in the region watered. [Footnote: On the pluviometric effect of irrigation, see Lombardini, Sulle Inondazioni, etc., p. 72, 74; the same author, Essai Hydrologique sur le Nil, p. 32; Messedaglia, Analisi dell' opera di Champion, pp. 96, 97, note; and Baird Smith, Italian Irrigation, i., pp. 189, 190.

In an article in Aus der Natur, vol. 57, p. 443, it is stated that the rain on the Isthmus of Suez has increased since the opening of the canal, and has enlarged the evaporable surface of the country; but this cannot be accepted as an established fact without further evidence.] Hitherto scientific observation has recorded no such increase, but in a question of so purely local a character, we must ascribe very great importance to a consideration which I have noticed elsewhere, but which, has been frequently overlooked by meteorologists, namely, that vapors exhaled in one district may very probably be condensed and precipitated in another very distant from their source. If then it were proved that an extension of irrigated soil was not followed by an increase of rain-fall in the same territory, the probability that the precipitation was augmented SOMEWHERE would not be in the least diminished.

But though we cannot show that in the irrigated portions of Italy the summer rain is more abundant than it was before irrigation was practised—for we know nothing of the meteorological conditions of that country at so remote a period—the fact that there is a very considerable precipitation in the summer months in Lombardy is a strong argument in favor of such increase. In the otherwise similar climate of Rumelia and of much of Asia Minor, irrigation is indeed practiced, but in a relatively small proportion. In those provinces there is little or no summer rain. Is it not highly probable that the difference between Italy and Turkey in this respect is to be ascribed, in part at least, to extensive irrigation in the former country, and the want of it in the latter It is true that, in its accessible strata, the atmosphere of Lombardy is extremely dry during the period of irrigation, but it receives an immense quantity of moisture by the evaporation from the watered soil, and the rapidity with which the aqueous vapor is carried up to higher regions—where, if not driven elsewhere by the wind, it would be condensed by the cold into drops of rain or at least visible clouds—is the reason why it is so little perceptible in the air near the ground. [Footnote: Is not the mottled appearance of the upper atmosphere in Italy, which I have already noticed, perhaps due in part to the condensation of the aqueous vapor exhaled by watered ground ]

But the question of an influence on temperature rests on a different ground; for though the condensation of vapor may not take place within days of time and degrees of distance from the hour and the place where it was exhaled from the surface, a local refrigeration must necessarily accompany a local evaporation. Hence, though the summer temperature of Lombardy is high, we are warranted in affirming that it must have been still higher before the introduction of irrigation, and would again become so if that practice were discontinued. [Footnote: I do not know that observations have been made on the thermometric influence of irrigation, but I have often noticed that, on the irrigated plains of Piedmont ten miles south of Turin, the morning temperature in summer was several degrees below that marked at the Observatory in the city.]

The quantity of water artificially withdrawn from running streams for the purpose of irrigation is such as very sensibly to affect their volume, and it is, therefore, an important element in the geography of rivers. Brooks of no trifling current are often wholly diverted from their natural channels to supply the canals, and their entire mass of water is completely absorbed or evaporated, so that only such proportion as is transmitted by infiltration reaches the river they originally fed. Irrigation, therefore, diminishes great rivers in warm countries by cutting off their sources of supply as well as by direct abstraction of water from their main channels. We have just seen that the system of irrigation in Lombardy deprives the Po of a quantity of water equal to the total delivery of the Seine at ordinary flood, or, in other words, of the equivalent of a tributary navigable for hundreds of miles by vessels of considerable burden.

The new canals executed and projected will greatly increase the loss. The water required for irrigation in Egypt is less than would be supposed from the exceeding rapidity of evaporation in that arid climate; for the soil is thoroughly saturated during the inundation, and infiltration from the Nile continues to supply a considerable amount of humidity in the dryest season. Linant Bey computed that, in the Delta, fifteen and one-third cubic yards per day sufficed to irrigate an acre. If we suppose water to be applied for one hundred and fifty days during the season of growth, this would be equivalent to a total precipitation of about seventeen inches and one-third. Taking the area of actually cultivated soil in Egypt at the estimate of 4,500,000 acres, and the average amount of water daily applied in both Upper and Lower Egypt at twelve hundredths of an inch in depth, we have an abstraction of about 74,000,000 cubic yards, which—the mean daily delivery of the Nile being in round numbers 320,000,000 cubic yards—is twenty-three per cent of the average quantity of water contributed to the Mediterranean by that river. [Footnote: The proportion of the waters of the Nile withdrawn for irrigation is greater than this calculation makes it. The quantity required for an acre is less in the Delta than in Upper Egypt, both because the soil of the Delta, to which Linant Bey's estimate applies, lies little higher than the surface of the river, and is partly saturated by infiltration, and because near the sea, in N. L. 30 degrees, evaporation is much less rapid than it is several degrees southwards and in the vicinity of a parched desert.]

In estimating the effect of this abstraction of water upon the volume of great rivers, especially in temperate climates and in countries with a hilly surface, we must remember that all the water thus withdrawn—except that which is absorbed by vegetation, that which enters into new inorganic compounds, and that which is carried off by evaporation—is finally restored to the original current by superficial flow or by infiltration. It is generally estimated that from one-third to one-half of the water applied to the fields is absorbed by the earth, and this, with the deductions just given, is returned to the river by direct infiltration, or descends through invisible channels to moisten lower grounds, and thence in part escapes again into the bed of the river, by similar conduits, or in the form of springs and rivulets. Interesting observations have lately been made on this subject in France and important practical results arrived at. It was maintained that mountain irrigation is not ultimately injurious to that of the plains below, because lands liberally watered in the spring, when the supply is abundant, act as reservoirs, storing up by absorption water which afterwards filters down to lower grounds or escapes into the channel of the river and keeps up its current in the dry summer months, so as to compensate for what, during those months, is withdrawn from it for upland irrigation. Careful investigation showed that though this proposition is not universally true, it is so in many cases, and there can be no doubt that the loss in the volume of rivers by the abstraction of water for irrigation is very considerably less than the measure of the quantity withdrawn. [Footnote: See Vigan, Etude sur les Irrigations, Paris, 1867; and Scott Moncrieff, Irrigation in Southern Europe, pp. 89, 90.

The brook Ain Musa, which runs through the ruined city of Petra and finally disappears in the sands of Wadi el Araba, is a considerable stream in winter, and the inhabitants of that town were obliged to excavate a tunnel through the rock near the right bank, just above the upper entrance of the narrow Sik, to discharge a part of its swollen current. The sagacity of Dr. Robinson detected the necessity of this measure, though the tunnel, the mouth of which was hidden by brushwood, was not discovered till some time after his visit. I even noticed, near the arch that crosses the Sik, unequivocal remains of a sluice by which the water was diverted to the tunnel. Immense labor was also expended in widening the natural channel at several points below the town, to prevent the damming up and setting back of the water—a fact I believe not hitherto noticed by travellers.

The Fellahheen above Petra still employ the waters of Ain Musa for irrigation, and in summer the superficial current is wholly diverted from its natural channel for that purpose. At this season, the bed of the brook, which is composed of pebbles, gravel, and sand, is dry in the Sik and through the town; but the infiltration is such that water is generally found by digging to a small depth in the channel. Observing these facts in a visit to Petra in the summer, I was curious to know whether the subterranean waters escaped again to daylight, and I followed the ravine below the town for a long distance. Not very far from the upper entrance of the ravine, arborescent vegetation appeared upon its bottom, and as soon as the ground was well shaded, a thread of water burst out. This was joined by others a little lower down, and, at the distance of a mile from the town, a strong current was formed and ran down towards Wadi el Araba.

Similar facts are observed in all countries where the superficial current of water-courses is diverted from their bed for irrigation, but this case is of special interest because it shows the extent of absorption and infiltration even in the torrid climate of Arabia. See Baird Smith, Italian Irrigation, vol. i., pp. 172, 386 and 387.] Irrigation, as employed for certain special purposes in Europe and America, is productive of very prejudicial climatic effects. I refer particularly to the cultivation of rice in the Southern States of the American Union and in Italy. The climate of the Southern States is in general not necessarily unhealthy for the white man, but he can scarcely sleep a single night in the vicinity of the rice-grounds without being attacked by a dangerous fever. The neighborhood of the rice-fields is possibly less pestilential in Lombardy and Piedmont than in South Carolina and Georgia, but still very insalubrious to both man and beast. "Not only does the population decrease where rice is grown," says Escourron-Milliago, "but even the flocks are attacked by typhus. In the rice-grounds the soil is divided into compartments rising in gradual succession to the level of the irrigating canal, in order that the water, after having flowed one field, may be drawn off to another, and thus a single current serve for several compartments, the lowest field, of course, still being higher than the ditch which at last drains both it and the adjacent soil. This arrangement gives a certain force of hydrostatic pressure to the water with which the rice is irrigated, and the infiltration from these fields is said to extend through neighboring grounds, sometimes to the distance of not less than a myriametre, or six English miles, and to be destructive to crops and even trees reached by it. Land thus affected can no longer be employed for any purpose but growing rice, and when prepared for that crop, it propagates still further the evils under which it had itself suffered, and, of course, the mischief is a growing one." [Footnote: Escourrou-Milliago, D'Italie a propos de l'Exposition de Paris, 1856, p. 92. According to an article in the Gazzetto di Torino for the 17th of January, 1869, the deaths from malarious fever in the Canavese district—which is asserted to have been altogether free from this disease before the recent introduction of rice-culture—between the 1st of January and the 15th of October, 1868, were two thousand two hundred and fifty. The extent of the injurious influence of this very lucrative branch of rural industry in Italy is contested by the rice-growers. But see Secondo Laura, Le Risaje, Torino, 1869; Selmi, Il Miasma Palustre, p. 89; and especially Carlo Livi, Della coltivazione del Riso in Italia, in the Nuova Antologia for July, 1871, p. 599 et seqq. According to official statistics, the rice-grounds of Italy, including the islands, amounted in 1866 to 450,000 acres. It is an interesting fact in relation to geographical and climatic conditions, that while little rice is cultivated SOUTH of N. L. 44 degrees in Italy, little is grown in the United States NORTH of 35 degrees. To the southward of the great alluvial plain of the Po, the surface is in general too much broken to admit of the formation of level fields of much extent, and where the ground is suitable, the supply of water is often insufficient.