THE VOLTA BUREAU

The one organization in America of large compass and concerned solely with the interests of the deaf is the Volta Bureau, located in Washington. This has resulted from the gift of Dr. Alexander Graham Bell in 1880, who having received 50,000 francs from the French government in recognition of his services in the field of invention, decided to use the money to establish the bureau for the "increase and diffusion of knowledge relating to the deaf." The bureau now contains much information regarding the deaf as a class, as well as carefully compiled data regarding many individuals; and also publishes works on the deaf, including the "Volta Review," a monthly periodical. It is much interested in the methods of instruction of the deaf, while another important aim may be said to be the elimination of deafness as far as possible, or the removal of many of the effects of deafness. Dr. Bell's total benefactions to this bureau, together with the Association to Promote the Teaching of Speech to the Deaf, to which it is now joined, have amounted to more than a quarter of a million dollars.[147]

PARENTS' ASSOCIATIONS FOR THE DEAF

Associations of parents have been organized chiefly in relation to the education of their own deaf children, though in some cases friends as well as parents are included. They have often been particularly concerned in the creation of day schools for the deaf, but have also shown an interest in other ways.[148] These associations have been mostly confined to cities, and have been organized in a dozen or so of them, as Boston, Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago, Detroit, Milwaukee, St. Paul, New York, Los Angeles, and San Francisco.[149] State associations have been rare, being found in only two or three states, as Ohio, Wisconsin and Nebraska.[150]

CHURCH MISSIONS TO THE DEAF

Practically all the religious denominations have shown more or less concern in the spiritual welfare of the deaf, so far as individuals have been affected, and many churches have deaf members on their rolls. Some of the church bodies have, in addition, given more particular attention to the deaf, and have instituted special activities to embrace as many of them as possible. Such movements have their greatest opportunities in the cities, where it is easier to reach the deaf than in the scattered districts of the country, though some efforts have been made there too. On the whole, however, only a small part of the religious duty towards the deaf is found to have been done; and it remains beyond question that they have been neglected in this regard far too much, and that there is indeed a field "white unto the harvest" for the spiritual well-being of the deaf. Perhaps also there is no sphere of religious endeavor where the need of mutual understanding and co-operation is so manifest as with the deaf.

The denominations that have taken special action usually maintain what are called "missions to the deaf," and have clergymen, both deaf and hearing, who give part or all of their time to the work. In a few of the larger cities, as we have seen, special churches for the deaf have been organized, supported with the aid of the denominational body, while in other cases the use of the church building is allowed to the deaf at certain times. Visits are also made from time to time to smaller places when a number of deaf people may be assembled together, and special meetings are arranged for them.[151] In such missions, while the aims are largely spiritual, there are often in addition operations of a material character, with appropriate attention to individual cases of need.[152]

Among Protestant Churches, the Protestant Episcopal may be considered the pioneer, and it has taken up the work with considerable zeal and effectiveness. In 1850 work was begun in the East, and in 1871 formally organized. In 1873 it was extended to the Mid-west, and in 1875 to the North-west and South-west. In a number of the dioceses the work is now given attention, in some of the large cities, as New York, Philadelphia and Chicago, its labor being notable.[153] The Lutheran Church has been active particularly in some of the states of the Middle West, as in the synods of Missouri, Ohio, and others, and in a few cities of the East. The Methodists have likewise been engaged in certain sections of the country, especially in the South and in the Mid-west. The Baptists have also taken up work, especially in the South and in New England. Together with the Congregationalists, they started action in the latter section in 1884, though most of the work in New England is now done by a union organization of several denominations, called the "Evangelical Alliance." In other Protestant bodies little has been attempted beyond local undertakings in a few places. The work of the Roman Catholic Church in respect to the deaf is well organized in a number of centers, and many of the Catholic deaf are carefully looked after. With the Hebrews most of the attention has been confined to certain large cities.[154]

ORGANIZATIONS INTERESTED IN THE EDUCATION OF THE DEAF

There are in America three large bodies interested in the education of the deaf, and composed for the most part of those directly connected with the work of education. These are the Convention of American Instructors of the Deaf, the Conference of Superintendents and Principals, and the American Association to Promote the Teaching of Speech to the Deaf, all meeting, as a usual thing, triennially in different years. Of these the oldest is the Convention of American Instructors, which was organized in 1850.[155] It is a large and representative body, and has manifested its interest from the beginning in the general welfare of the deaf, as well as in the particular demands of education. The Conference of Superintendents and Principals, as its name implies, is composed of the heads of schools, and was organized in 1868.[156] The Association to Promote the Teaching of Speech to the Deaf was incorporated as such in 1890, though it was not the first body concerned in this work.[157] It is now countrywide, and embraces a large number of those interested in the teaching of speech to the deaf, whether active educators or not. A large section of its members are "pure oralists," that is, believing in the exclusive use of speech with the deaf. In 1908 the Volta Bureau was taken over by this body.[158] It may be mentioned here also that the educators of the deaf are represented in the National Educational Association.[159]

PUBLICATIONS DEVOTED TO THE INTERESTS OF THE DEAF

There are two publications devoted to the interests of the deaf: the "American Annals of the Deaf" and the "Volta Review," both published in Washington. The former was begun in 1848. It appears bi-monthly, and is under the direction of the Conference of Principals.[160] It has long been known as the standard periodical relating to the deaf in America, and represents current thought and opinion of practical educators of the deaf, as well as constituting a general record of the work. The "Volta Review," formerly known as the "Association Review," was begun in 1899, and was published by the Association to Promote the Teaching of Speech to the Deaf. It is now published conjointly by the Association and the Volta Bureau, and appears as an illustrated monthly. It is "devoted to the problems of deafness," but deals in the greatest measure with the matters pertaining to the education of the deaf.[161] In most of the residential schools, or institutions, there are also papers, which often serve to keep parents and others informed of the work of the respective schools. We have already referred to the publications by the deaf themselves, both secular and religious.

FOOTNOTES:

[146] General organizations of a philanthropic or other character have seldom extended activities to include the deaf, though at times some institution, as the Young Men's Christian Association or a social settlement, has manifested an interest, chiefly in providing a place for meeting.

[147] The bureau contains a card catalogue of more than 50,000 deaf children who have been in the special schools from 1817 to 1900; authentic manuscript respecting 4,471 marriages of the deaf; and the special schedules of the census of 1900 respecting the deaf. It serves, moreover, as a bureau of information and advice, with suggestions for the hard of hearing also, and as a teachers' agency. On the work of the bureau, see Deaf-Mute Advance, of Illinois School, March 14, 1891; Silent Worker, May, 1895; and current numbers of the Volta Review, especially that for Jan., 1913 (xiv., p. 605).

[148] The purpose of the Boston Parents' Education Association for Deaf Children is "to encourage home instruction, aid schools for the deaf in Boston, help deaf children to continue their education in schools or colleges for hearing persons, aid them in acquiring a practical knowledge of useful trades and business, assist them in obtaining remunerative employment, bring them into more extensive social relations with hearing persons, and employ such other means for their advancement as may be deemed advisable." See "Offering in behalf of the Deaf", by this association, 1903, p. 8. See also Association Review, ii., 1900, p. 146. Most of the associations have also been interested in the employment of the oral method of instruction. Dues in such associations are usually only one or two dollars, and there is often a board of directors appointed.

[149] The first seems to have been the Boston Association, formed in 1894.

[150] In several of these associations membership is over a hundred. In Milwaukee there is also a similar society known as the Wisconsin Phonological Institute to Promote the Teaching of Speech to the Deaf, which was organized in 1878, and incorporated in 1879, as a philanthropic society. See Report, 1878, p. 5.

[151] On the subject of church work among the deaf, see Proceedings of National Association of the Deaf, i., 1880, p. 19; iv., 1893, p. 53; vi., 1899, p. 58; vii., 1904, p. 153; Empire State Association of Deaf-Mutes, xii., 1888, p. 31; Conference on Church Work among the Deaf (Protestant Episcopal), i., 1881, p. 5; ii., 1883, p. 4; iv., 1887, p. 3; v., 1888, p. 23; Report of Diocesan Commission on Church Work among the Deaf, 1886; Church Mission to the Deaf (New York), 1873, p. 14; 1886, p. 3; 1888, p. 3; Annals, xxix., 1884, p. 24.

[152] Direct relief may be afforded in some cases, and in others visits made to hospitals, prisons and the like, where deaf persons may be found, without regard to religious affiliation. Assistance is also often rendered in acting as interpreters in court, though this work is frequently shared in by instructors of the deaf. In one or two instances, as we have seen, homes for the deaf have been established by religious bodies.

[153] In the Protestant Episcopal Church there are now some twelve clergymen engaged in this work, ten of whom are deaf, and more than twice this number of lay helpers.

[154] In New York there is a Society for the Welfare of the Jewish Deaf, which was organized in 1910, and incorporated in 1913. Laws, ch. 313. It is controlled by a board of from seventeen to thirty governors, and is interested in the educational, industrial, social and religious concerns of the deaf. See Hebrew Standard, March 15, 1912; Jewish Charities, Jan., 1912. See also Proceedings of National Conference of Jewish Charities, 1908, p. 28.

[155] Its first meeting was at the New York Institution, after a call had been issued by several of the leading educators. In 1897 this body was incorporated.

[156] The organization was effected at Washington. See Report of Columbia Institution, 1868, p. 16.

[157] A convention of articulation teachers was held as early as 1874. Another meeting was held in 1884. See Annals, xix., 1874, pp. 90, 217; xxix., 1884, pp. 154, 237; Volta Review, xiv., 1913, p. 394. In 1894 was formed the Association to Promote Auricular Training of the Deaf, which was subsequently merged with the larger organization.

[158] The Association has a board of fifteen directors, and an advisory board of twelve.

[159] This was organized in 1897. Proceedings, p. 36. It is known as Department XVI, or the Department of Special Education. Both instructors of the deaf and of the blind are represented, those interested in the education of the feeble-minded having also been included up to 1902. In addition to the three general organizations of educators of the deaf, there have been several local conferences, as of the principals of schools in the Southern states and in New York, and of teachers in the state of Michigan and of the city of New York.

[160] Its first publication was by the instructors of the Hartford School. Publication was omitted in 1849, and from 1861 to 1868.

[161] For other publications that have appeared in the interest of the deaf, see "Periodicals Devoted to the Interests of the Deaf," by the Volta Bureau, 1913.



PART II

PROVISION FOR THE EDUCATION OF THE DEAF



CHAPTER VIII

THE EDUCATION OF THE DEAF PRIOR TO ITS INTRODUCTION INTO THE UNITED STATES

Among the ancient peoples generally the deaf and dumb, especially those so by birth, were deemed as of deficient mentality, and were accounted, intellectually, as little better than children, or, indeed, as idiots. Though treated, it seems, for the most part humanely, they were regarded not without some aversion; and their affliction was not infrequently looked upon as a visitation of the gods, some of the hardy races even destroying their deaf offspring. For a long period there were scarcely any serious attempts to give instruction to the deaf.

Allusions to the deaf and their state with respect to education are found in certain of the Greek and Latin writers, and occasionally in those of other languages. Herodotus speaks of the deaf son of Cr[oe]sus, and Hippocrates has reference to the deaf as a class. Plato and Aristotle also make mention of the deaf, the latter considering them incapable of education because of the absence of the sense of hearing. Among Latin authors we find an account by Pliny the Elder of a deaf man who had learned painting.

It is only after the fifteenth century that we have more or less authenticated accounts of the instruction of the deaf, and many of these are hardly more than a passing reference here and there. It was, moreover, well after Europe had taken its present political appearance that the modern attitude towards the deaf and their instruction began. Before this their education as a class was not thought of, and while no doubt there have always been sporadic instances of the instruction of the deaf, it is only since the middle of the eighteenth century that the deaf have come generally into the birthright of their education.

Yet it is not so great a matter of wonder that the movements for the instruction of the deaf took organized shape so late in the world's civilization. Learning or schooling was in no sense popular till some time after the passing away of the so-called dark ages. For long it was rather the privilege of the rich and powerful. The great mass of the people were not deemed worthy of learning, and education itself in any general application did not have a recognized standing in society. After the Renaissance, however, had ushered in a new age, and when the desire for learning was the master passion among many men in Southern and Western Europe, it is natural to suppose that efforts should have more frequently been made to instruct the deaf child; and after this time we are prepared to find an increasing number of instances of the instruction of the deaf. This was all the more true when an air of mystery was felt to surround these silent ones, and to bring the light of the new learning to these afflicted creatures was considered well worth the attempt.

The earliest instance recorded of instruction given to the deaf in the English language is that of the Venerable Bede about the year 691, who tells of a deaf person taught to speak by Bishop John of York, related as though it were a miracle. After many years we meet accounts of other cases. Rudolph Agricola (1443-1485) of Groeningen, Holland, and later a professor at Heidelberg, cites in his "De Inventione Dialecta" a deaf man who could write. In Italy a little later we find certain deaf children whose instruction is mentioned by Pietro de Castro; while in the sixteenth century Girolamo Cardano (1501-1576), the distinguished physician of Pavia, attempted to state the principles of the education of the deaf, demonstrating the use of a written language for them, and advocating the teaching of speech. He further invented a manual alphabet, which was one of the first of its kind. In 1616 Giovanni Bonifaccio also wrote regarding the "art of signing" and speech for the deaf.

But it is to Spain that credit is to be given as being the first country of Europe where there are recorded accounts of successful instruction of the deaf. In 1550, or perhaps earlier, Pedro Ponce de Leon of the Order of St. Benedict taught, chiefly by oral methods, several deaf children in the convent of San Salvador de Ona. Great success must have attended his efforts, for in addition to the Spanish language and arithmetic, his pupils are reported to have mastered Latin, Greek and astrology. About this time there lived a deaf artist, known as El Mudo, and he had very likely received instruction in some way. In 1620 Juan Pablo Bonet, who had had several deaf pupils, instructing them largely in articulation methods, published a treatise on the art of instructing the deaf, called "Reduccion de las Letras y Arta para Ensener a Hablar los Mudos;" and he was the inventor of a manual alphabet, in considerable part like that used in America to-day. Sir Kinelm Digby of England, visiting Spain about this time, saw Bonet's work and wrote an account of his pupils.

In 1644 appeared in England "Chirologia, or the Natural Language of the Hand" by a physician, Dr. John Bulwer, who had perhaps also observed the results in Spain. This was followed in 1648 by his more important work, "Philocophus, or the Deaf and Dumb Man's Friend," mostly describing a kind of process in articulation and lip-reading. Bulwer's friend, John Wallis, a professor at Oxford, seems to have been the first practical teacher here, instructing two deaf persons by writing and in speech, and showing them to the King. In 1653 his "Tractatus de Loquela" was published. Along the same line was the writing of Dr. William Holder on the "Elements of Speech," published in 1669, in which he advocated articulation teaching. In 1670 there appeared a treatise by George Sibscota on "The Deaf and Dumb Man's Discourse," but this was really a translation from the writings of a German named Deusing. In 1680 Dr. George Dalgarno of Scotland published his "Didascalocophus, the Deaf and Dumb Man's Tutor," in which preference was given to the use of a written language and a manual alphabet, of one of which he was himself the inventor. In 1698 appeared "Digiti Lingua," written "by a person who had conversed no otherwise in above nine years." Some half a century later we find the name of Henry Baker, son-in-law of Daniel Defoe, who gave instruction in speech.

Other countries of Europe were hardly behind England in their interest in the deaf and their instruction. Spain, besides the names we have mentioned, had notably Ramirez de Carion, himself a deaf man, who lived not long after Bonet. Italy had in particular Padre Lana Terzi, who in 1670 published a work on articulation; and also Fabrizio d'Acquapendente and Affinite, who in their writings threw out references to speech for the deaf. In Holland there were Peter Montans, who about 1635 issued several tracts on speech; Jan Baptista Van Helmont, who in 1667 wrote on speech and an alphabet; and John Conrad Amman, formerly a Swiss physician, who in 1692 gave out his "Surdus Loquens," which was enlarged and republished in 1700 as "Dissertatio de Loquela." The name of Amman is especially notable, not only for his instruction in speech of several deaf children, but for his influence on later oral methods. In Switzerland we find at Basel in 1531, or perhaps a few years sooner, an account of a deaf person who was instructed in speech by [OE]colampadius, the Reformer and friend of Luther; at Geneva in 1604 of a deaf child instructed by St. Francis de Sales; and also in Geneva in 1685 of a deaf person who had probably received instruction.

In Germany we have a regular succession of names of those who either attempted to instruct the deaf or who wrote of this instruction, some of these names being among the earliest of those in Europe who showed an interest in the matter. In the year 1578 we meet the name of Pasch, a clergyman of Brandenburgh, who taught his daughter by means of pictures. In 1621 Rudolph Camerarius wrote a book on speech, and in 1642 Gaspard Schott mentions a case of successful instruction. In 1701 or 1704 Kerger at Liegnitz in Silesia taught some pupils orally, having what seemed a temporary school. In 1718 Georges Raphel, who had taught his three deaf daughters, wrote a book explaining his process of instruction. Among other names appearing earlier or later were those of Morhoff, Mallenkrot, Wild, Niederoff, Lichwitz, Shulze, Ettmuller, Arnoldi, Lasius, Heinicke, and Nicolai. Of all these much the most renowned is that of Samuel Heinicke. In 1754 at Dresden he became interested in the deaf, and a few years later started a school near Hamburg. In 1778, at the instance of the state, he moved to Leipsic, his school thus being the first public school for the deaf to be established. He was also the author of several books on the education of the deaf. Heinicke was instrumental in bringing the oral method into favor, and in many respects, so far as its present use is concerned, may be said to be its father. He was in fact one of the greatest teachers of the deaf, and the influence of his work has been felt in no small measure in America.

In France, too, there were great names, though they were late in appearing; Pere Vanin, Rousset, Ernaud, de Fay, Pereire, Abbe de l'Epee, Abbe Deschamps, and others.[162] Of these Vanin, Pereire, Deschamps, and de l'Epee are the most notable. Vanin about 1743 instructed some children by means of pictures and a manual alphabet. Rodriguez Pereire, a Portuguese Jew, had several pupils at Bordeaux before the middle of the eighteenth century, and though his methods were kept secret for the most part, he appeared to have met considerable success, in 1749 giving an exhibition before the Academy of Sciences. Abbe Deschamps in 1779 published at Orleans a work on the instruction of the deaf, largely favoring the oral method. It is to Charles Michel abbe de l'Epee, however, that is given the highest reverence of all the initial workers for the deaf, being the founder of the first regular school, and receiving nearly equal distinction for his impression on early methods of instruction—this being especially true in respect to America, where his influence in the introduction of the sign language has been greater than any other man's. The abbe had become interested in two deaf orphans in Paris, whom he attempted to teach, and in 1755 established a school near the city, conducting it at his own expense. This proved a success, and he decided to give his whole life to the instruction of the deaf. He wrote several works on their education, the chief one being "La Veritable Maniere d'Instruire les Sourds et Muets," published in 1784. The achievements of de l'Epee were soon far-famed, and the people were taken with their novelty. Many honors were offered him, and his work was brought to the notice of the French Academy and approved. In 1791 his school was adopted by the state. The successor of abbe de l'Epee was abbe Sicard, and the work continued to flourish in France.

Not long after de l'Epee and Heinicke had started their schools in France and Germany respectively, Thomas Braidwood, in 1760, opened a school in Edinburgh, Scotland. In 1784 a school was established in Rome, in 1788 in Madrid, and in 1801 in Genoa. In the early years of the nineteenth century other schools were started over Western Europe. Thus by the time that the work for the education of the deaf was to enter America, in the establishment of the first school in the second decade of the century, there were already in Europe a number of schools in existence.[163]

FOOTNOTES:

[162] In 1751 Diderot published his "Lettre sur les Sourds et Muets," in which there is reference to the education of the deaf.

[163] For accounts of the early work for the education of the deaf, both before and after it was taken up in the United states, the following may be referred to: Thomas Arnold, "A Method of Teaching the Deaf and Dumb Speech, Lip-Reading and Language", 1881; "The Education of Deaf-Mutes", 1888; E. M. Gallaudet, "Life of Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet", 1888; H. N. Dixon, "A Method of Teaching Deaf-Mutes to Speak, with a Historical Introduction" (including a translation of Bonet's work), 1890; J. K. Love, "Deaf-Mutism", 1896; Henry Barnard, "A Tribute to Gallaudet", with other papers, 1852; Heman Humphrey, "Life and Labors of T. H. Gallaudet", 1857; H. W. Syle, "Retrospect of the Education of the Deaf", 1886; J. A. Seiss, "The Children of Silence", 1887; J. R. Burnet, "Tales of the Deaf and Dumb", 1835; E. J. Mann, "Deaf and Dumb", 1836; J. N. Williams, "A Silent People", 1883; W. R. Scott, "The Deaf and Dumb, their Education and Social Position", 1870; History of First School for Deaf-Mutes in America, 1883; Addresses delivered at the New York Institution, 1847; H. P. Peet, Address at Laying of Corner Stone of North Carolina Institution, 1848; Proceedings of Laying of Corner Stone of Michigan Institution, 1856; Collins Stone, "Address on History and Methods of Deaf-Mute Instruction", 1869; Addresses Commemorative of the Virtues and Services of Abraham B. Hutton, 1870; American Annals of the Deaf (especially early numbers, often giving accounts of individual schools as well as of the general work); North American Review, vii., 1818, p. 127; xxxviii., 1834, p. 307; lxxxvii., 1858, p. 517; civ., 1867, p. 512; American Journal of Education, (n. s.) i., 1830, p. 409; American Annals of Education, iv., 1834, p. 53; Literary and Theological Review, ii., 1835, p. 365; American Biblical Repository, viii., 1842, p. 269; De Bow's Review, xvii., 1854, p. 435; National Magazine, ix., 1856, pp. 385, 487 (Sketches of Humane Institutions); Scribner's Magazine, xii., 1892, p. 463; Association Review, ii.-v., 1900-1904 ("Historical Notes concerning the Teaching of Speech to the Deaf"); Proceedings of Convention of American Instructors of the Deaf, i., 1850, p. 99; v., 1858, p. 275 (H. P. Peet, "Memoirs on the Origin and Early History of the Art of the Instruction of the Deaf and Dumb"); iii., 1853, p. 277; iv., 1856, p. 17; ix., 1878, p. 195; American Association to Promote the Teaching of Speech to the Deaf, v., 1896, p. 27 (P. G. Gillet, "Some Notable Benefactors of the Deaf"); National Association of the Deaf, iii., 1889, p. 21; National Conference of Charities and Corrections, 1907, p. 512; Californian, iv., 1881, p. 376; Iowa Bulletin of State Institutions, viii., 1906, p. 175; xii., 1910, p. 24; Transactions of Royal Historical Society, viii., 1880; Encyclopedia Americana, 1883 (History of the Education of the Deaf in the United States, given in Annals, xxxi., 1886, p. 130); various reports of the several schools for the deaf in America (as that of New York Institution, 1839, p. 8; 1843, p. 11; 1876, p. 48; American School, 1844, p. 25; 1867, p. 13; Pennsylvania Institution, 1843, p. 9; 1892, p. 64; Kentucky School, 1857, p. 8; 1867, p. 13; Michigan School, 1858, p. 40; Illinois School, 1868, p. 42; New York Institution for Improved Instruction, 1869, p. 26; Mississippi School, appendices, 1907, 1909, 1911); "Histories of American Schools for the Deaf", edited and with an introduction by Dr. E. A. Fay, 1893 (containing accounts of individual schools, and a most valuable work).



CHAPTER IX

HISTORY OF EDUCATION OF THE DEAF IN THE UNITED STATES

EARLY ATTEMPTS AT INSTRUCTION

The first instance of which we have record in America of an attempt to teach the deaf was in 1679[164] when a man named Philip Nelson of Rowley, Massachusetts, tried to instruct a deaf and dumb boy, Isaac Kilbourn by name, in speech, though with what success we do not know.[165] These, however, were the witchcraft days, and the work of Nelson seemed such an extraordinary thing that the ministers of the community are said to have made an investigation, fearing that witches might be involved in the affair. The next instance of which we have mention occurred in Virginia a century later, when John Harrower, a school-master of Fredericksburg, had in his school from 1773 to 1776 a deaf boy named John Edge, reference to whose instruction is made in his diary.[166]

The earliest effort for the establishment of a school for the deaf in America of which we know was made almost contemporaneously with the opening of the nineteenth century, and at the time that such schools were being created over Europe. There lived at this time in Boston a man named Francis Green, who had a deaf son. This boy he sent to the school in Scotland which Braidwood had started; while he himself became much interested in the subject of the education of the deaf. In 1783 he published in England a work entitled "Vox Oculis Subjecta." In 1803 he had, with the help of some of the ministers, a census made of the deaf in Massachusetts, when 75 were found, and it was estimated that there were 500 in the United States. Green felt the need of a school, and in several of the publications of the time appeared his writings, in which he urged the creation of one.[167]

It was in 1810, however, and in the city of New York that the real beginning of deaf-mute education in the United States was marked. This was when John Stanford, a minister, found several deaf children in the city almshouse and attempted to teach them. Though his efforts continued but a short time, it was these from which resulted the establishment a few years later of a school in the city, the New York Institution.[168]

In Virginia shortly afterwards a second school was started, which in itself is to be set down as an important stage in the course of the early attempts to create schools for the deaf in America. In 1812 there came to the United States John Braidwood, a member of the family which was in control of the institution at Edinburgh, Scotland, in the hope of establishing a school. He began plans for one at Baltimore, but before it had gotten under headway, he was called to Virginia to undertake the instruction of the deaf children of William Bolling, of Goochland County. This private school continued, with seemingly satisfactory results in the progress of the pupils, for two and a half years. In 1815 it was moved to Cobbs, Chesterfield County,[169] to be open to the public. The school now promised well, and there were already several pupils. However, Braidwood was looking about for other opportunities, and had been in touch with several parties in regard to the employment of his services.[170] In 1816 he went to New York, where he proposed to start a school, and collected a few pupils, only to return to Virginia again after a few months. In 1817 he began operations anew, this time at a private classical school at Manchester under John Kilpatrick, a minister. In less than a year this too was abandoned by Braidwood, who soon after met his death. Kilpatrick attempted to continue the school only a year or two longer, possibly even taking a few pupils with him when he moved to Cumberland County in 1819; and so was brought to an end the checkered career of this early school for the deaf in Virginia.[171]

Such were the beginnings of the instruction of the deaf in America. With the exception of these undertakings, barely touching the surface in the number of children reached, the only means of education possible in the land was in sending children to a school in Europe, which was done in the case of a few wealthy parents. For the great mass of the deaf, isolated and scattered though they were at the time, there was no instruction to be had.

But this period was now nearly passed. Attention in more than one quarter was being directed to the deaf and the possibilities of their education; and in the breasts of not a few men a feeling was astir that instruction was somehow to be brought to them.[172] The seed was already sown, and by the time the school in Virginia was broken up, others were beginning to arise elsewhere. When the work was finally to be taken up, it was to be upon a solid foundation which should last with the lastingness of education.

BEGINNING OF THE FIRST SCHOOLS

The seat of the first permanent school to be established in the United States for the education of the deaf was Hartford, Connecticut; and the name of the one man with which the beginning work will forever be coupled is that of Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet. America, however, was not to commence the work of itself: the spirit and the method had to be brought from Europe.

Early in the nineteenth century there lived at Hartford a young deaf girl, Alice Cogswell by name, the daughter of a physician, and in her a group of men had become interested. An investigation of the number of the deaf had been made in 1812 by a body of clergymen, when 84 were found, and it was estimated that there were 400 in New England, and 2,000 in the United States; and the question of a school had been considered.[173] In 1815 the friends of Alice Cogswell decided to organize a society for the purpose of providing means to instruct some of these, and to secure an instructor. To take up this work, attention was directed to Gallaudet, then a young theological student. He was fixed upon as the man to go to Europe and acquaint himself with the methods there employed. Gallaudet responded at once to the appeal made to him, and proceeded to prepare himself forthwith.

The same year, 1815, saw Gallaudet start upon his errand, his expenses being defrayed by the society.[174] He first visited England, but finding there a monopoly composed of the Braidwood and Watson families, he betook himself to France. In this country he met with a warm reception, and here he eagerly set upon his labors of study and investigation at the school which de l'Epee had established. He observed closely, and then the following year turned his face towards America, equipped for the great work before him, and bringing with him one of the deaf teachers from Paris named Laurent Clerc.

On Gallaudet's return the second part of the undertaking for the creation of a school was to be accomplished, namely, the securing of funds, which required half a year more. For this purpose Gallaudet and a few others set about soliciting contributions. New York, Philadelphia, Albany, New Haven, and other cities were visited, and the interest in the new undertaking was shown by the response made.[175] By the time the school was ready to open, over $12,000 had been obtained, which was soon after more than doubled.[176] The contributions came from various sources, including individuals, societies and churches, and were from not a few states, and even foreign countries. A charter was granted the society in 1816 by the legislature of Connecticut; and $5,000 was appropriated for the school,[177] which was probably the first appropriation of public money for education not in regular schools.[178]

On April 15, 1817, the new school threw open its doors, and thus was established the first institution for the instruction of the deaf—in fact, the first for any of the so-called "defective classes." Its success was assured from the start, and there were many applicants, coming from different parts of the country. The school had to depend mainly upon private contributions, and for its maintenance efforts had to be continued to collect funds, pupils being taken for this purpose to several cities for exhibition, especially before church assemblies and the legislative bodies of New England.[179] It was not long in appearing, however, that, as the school was really to be national in scope, the United States government might be appealed to for aid. Visits were accordingly made to Washington in 1819, and the interest of certain of the members of Congress was secured. Among these was Henry Clay, who showed a particular regard for the new undertaking, and it was largely through his influence that Congress was prevailed upon to bestow upon the school 23,000 acres of the public land, from which in time $300,000 was realized.[180] It was the understanding, there being no census of the deaf at this time, that any state or individual might participate in the benefit of this grant, and that the school was to be open on equal terms to all.[181]

Though the school was regarded as national in one sense, it was also felt to be particularly New England's from the share that these states took in its development. Very soon after it had commenced operations a lively interest had been manifested; and in 1825 a meeting was held at Hartford of official representatives of all these states except Rhode Island, to discuss the possibilities of co-operation in its work.[182] Hardly, indeed, had the school entered upon its labor when, without solicitation, Massachusetts began sending its deaf children to it. It was followed in turn by the others, all the states of New England thus coming to provide for their children here as at a common school—a policy continued with all for many years. By this arrangement a certain amount from the state treasury was allowed for each pupil. The action of Massachusetts was taken in 1819, of New Hampshire in 1821, of Vermont and Maine in 1825, of Connecticut in 1828, and of Rhode Island in 1842. Two other states, far removed from New England, also by special legislative grants provided for pupils in this school for a time. These were Georgia and South Carolina, both beginning in 1834.[183] In addition, there were private pupils sent here from a number of states.[184]

The school at Hartford was now in full operation, with a nation-wide interest upon it.[185] But scarcely had it received its first pupil when other schools began to be established, and indeed New York and Pennsylvania are hardly to be considered behind Connecticut at all, schools in these states being in the course of formation when the Hartford school was opened. From the concern now apparent in many sections, it was soon evident that the new work was to spread over the land, and that the education of the deaf had achieved for itself an established position.

In New York, as we have seen, the Rev. John Stanford had found several deaf children in the almshouse of the city, and, moved by their condition, had sought to teach them. Interest was felt by other men, and the agitation for a school was furthered by letters from the American consul at Bordeaux in 1816, one of which was written by a French teacher and addressed to the "Philanthropists of the United States." A census was made of the deaf in the city,[186] meetings were held in their behalf, a notable one taking place at Tammany Hall, and private funds collected. In 1817 a charter was secured from the legislature, and the following year the school was opened. The city of New York displayed a warm interest in it, making a special appropriation at its beginning, and undertaking the support of a number of pupils for a time, besides furnishing quarters free of cost. In 1819 the state legislature, after an exhibit of pupils, decided to assist, making an appropriation for the benefit of the school, and soon afterward allowing a certain amount for each pupil. In 1821 New Jersey began sending children to the school, action being taken in this state by a unanimous vote.

Pennsylvania followed close upon Connecticut and New York. A committee had been organized in Philadelphia in 1816 to secure contributions for a school, and meetings had been held, though without immediate result. Late in the year 1819, or early in 1820, David Seixas, a Jew, finding several poor deaf-mute children to whom he gave shelter, made attempts to teach them. In the latter year a society was formed by certain citizens, after a meeting in the rooms of the American Philosophical Society; and being pleased with the work of Seixas, it decided to adopt his school. The following year, after an exhibit of pupils, the school was incorporated by the legislature, and granted a per capita appropriation of $160, while contributions from friends were numerous. In 1821, also, pupils were admitted from New Jersey, this state providing for them both at the New York and Philadelphia schools. In 1827 Maryland, and in 1835 Delaware, authorized the sending of children to the Pennsylvania Institution, exhibits of pupils having been made before the legislatures of these states.[187]

Kentucky in 1823 was the fourth state in the Union to establish a school. In this case, however, action was taken directly by the legislature, and the school has always been the property of the state. In 1826[188] Congress granted to it a township of land in Florida, on the theory that this school would be the center for pupils from the western and southern states; and it was for some years the place of education for many of the children from the southern states,[189] and also for a number from western states. With the establishment of this school directly by the state begins a new policy in the provision for the education of the deaf—the work no longer being entrusted to private individuals and societies. All the states that followed Kentucky in the creation of schools, with the exception of Maryland and some of the New England states, adopted this policy.

Ohio came next in 1829, although an attempt had been made to establish a school in Cincinnati as early as 1821.[190] Pupils were also received into it from neighboring states.[191] In 1838 Virginia established a joint school for the deaf and the blind, after exhibitions of pupils had been given in the state. In Indiana a private school was started in 1841, and three years later the state institution, action being taken by the legislature without a single dissenting vote. In this state another stage is reached in the work of educating the deaf: education which had hitherto been, by statute, free to the "indigent" only is in positive terms made free to all. This was done in 1848, and the action has been thus described:[192]

The doors of all asylums built at public expense for mutes, for the blind, and for lunatics were thrown open to all, that their blessings, like the rain and dew of heaven, might freely descend on these children of misfortune throughout the state, without money and without price.

Well might this paean break forth, for this is probably the broadest benevolent legislation ever enacted up to this time.

In Georgia a private school was opened in 1842, and in 1846 the state school was established, after a visit of pupils from the Hartford school. In 1845 a school was started in Tennessee, after an exhibit of pupils from Kentucky. The same year in North Carolina, after an exhibit of pupils from Virginia, a school was opened for the deaf and the blind, though one had been projected as early as 1828.[193] In 1846 a school was established in Illinois, the bill passing the legislature by a unanimous vote. To it came pupils from Missouri, Iowa and Wisconsin. In 1849 a school was established in South Carolina. Thus by the middle of the nineteenth century, or thirty-two years after the founding of the first school in America, there were schools in a dozen states. In the next quarter century schools were created in nineteen other states, and since in nearly all the remainder.

EARLY IDEAS CONCERNING THE SCHOOLS FOR THE DEAF

It was but natural that for some years the providing of schools for the education of the deaf should be looked upon with wonder. To many the very thought of their instruction seemed strange. Curious notions had been held as to the deaf-mute's mind, and it was not certain how far it was capable of instruction.

By some the idea of the education of the deaf was received with scarcely concealed skepticism, and despite the enthusiasm of the promoters and despite the cordial interest manifested in many quarters, there were not a few doubters. Efforts to educate the deaf were even declared quixotic and absurd. When the state of Illinois was erecting a building to be used as a school, it was by some called "the state's folly."[194] The legislatures themselves occasionally had misgivings, and now and then an appropriation was voted for a school more in hope than otherwise.[195] The work was thus with many often misunderstood, and a few of the schools did not have altogether easy sailing.

But when it was found that the deaf could be, and were being, educated, not only were all doubts dispelled, but the astonishment almost goes beyond bounds, and even passes into a rapture of thanksgiving. Visitors, in some cases, flocked to the places where these wonderful things were transpiring. They came to convince themselves, and stood hushed in admiration at the spectacle before them.

The accounts of a number of the early schools attest the greeting given to the new work. The New York Institution in its first report[196] speaks of the "numerous visitors" and their "expressions of mingled surprise and delight." In the new Pennsylvania Institution interest was markedly aroused. By Poulson's American Daily Advocate of Philadelphia it was stated that 1,600 people crowded into a church to witness an examination of pupils, and by the Columbian Observer it was declared that this scene "was impressive beyond description," and that "the exercises excited wonder mingled with the acutest sensations of compassion for these isolated beings."[197] An early report of the Tennessee School[198] speaks of the interest "evinced by the great numbers of persons" who visited the school, which was shown "by the sympathy warmly expressed with the great affliction" of the pupils, and the "surprise at the attainments made by them."

Indeed, the new work is more than once referred to in the accounts of the period as a miracle. The age of miracles, we are told, was not past.[199] When a private school was opened in Kansas, the advertisement ran: "Behold the educational miracle of the nineteenth century. The deaf hear, the dumb speak, the blind see."[200] The wonders of education had become all the more marked and expectations were aroused to a high pitch, when it was seen about this time that the blind and other classes as well were being instructed. Great things were believed to be in store for the human race.

With the schools for the deaf there was now general approbation and support. Doubters were silenced, and the promoters took heart. Soon the new institutions had won for themselves a place in the intelligent and affectionate regard of all; and to those instrumental in their creation the people universally "pledged their gratitude."

AIMS OF THE FOUNDERS

Though the first schools for the deaf in the United States were founded to a considerable extent with the idea of charity or benevolence present, yet this was not so much the uppermost purpose as to provide instruction for them; or rather, it may be said that the benevolence itself was prompted by the desire to see the deaf led from the darkness of ignorance to the light of education. It is true that many of the pupils were recognized as entitled to material assistance as well as instruction. Some of the schools were chartered as benevolent institutions, while several even avowed themselves as charitable affairs.[201] It is also true that the promoters were in part concerned with deaf children found in poverty, these being likely to engage not a little attention. It was desired to furnish homes for a number without charge; and early accounts and statutes speak of the "care," "aid," "maintenance" or "support"[202] of these children. But it is none the less true that the great purpose in establishing institutions was educational, and the instruction of the children was the primary and chief thing guiding the hands of the men who created the schools. In the prospectuses of some of the schools any object is disclaimed other than that of education. In a circular describing the proposed school in Kansas were the words: "This is not an asylum, but a school for the education of the deaf."[203] Homes, or institutions, were provided largely for the reason that this plan appeared the only practicable means of reaching a considerable number of pupils.

With the early workers, then, the purpose was to give the children an education. But this was not all. In their vision, a far greater opening presented itself. Heretofore the deaf had been outcasts from society, had no place among civilized beings, and were a dead weight in the community. Now all was to be changed. Eyes saw a glorious transformation: the deaf were to be restored to society, and education was the magic by which it was to be done. In full measure were the founders thrilled with this prospect; and to reclaim the deaf from their condition was the great resolve.

Many of the early reports, charters and organic acts express such a purpose, and speak of the "lonely and cheerless condition" of the deaf, and the hope to "restore them to the ranks of their species." In the preamble of an "Address to the Inhabitants of Pennsylvania," prepared by the society to establish the school in this state,[204] the deaf are said to be in "entire and invincible separation from the vast stores of knowledge which human talent has accumulated—ignorant of the truths of Revelation, her glorious assurances and unspeakable consolations," all being "among the bitter ingredients which fill up the vast measure of the affliction to the deaf and dumb;" and that "among the various efforts of philanthropy and learning to enlarge the circle of human happiness and knowledge, none should perhaps rank higher than those which have been directed to the discovery and application of means for the instruction of the deaf and dumb."

In language glowing and impassioned the condition of the deaf without education is described. Almost universally they are thought of as abiding in impenetrable silence and deep darkness. In an address delivered before the New York Forum in behalf of the New York Institution[205] in its early days, it is asserted that the deaf dwell in "silence, solitude and darkness," and in the second report of this school[206] they are declared to be "wrapt in impenetrable gloom of silence, sorrow and despair." In an Ohio report[207] they are said to be in "intellectual and moral midnight;" and in a Michigan report[208] to be "groping in thick darkness." In a Louisiana report[209] they are called "sorrow-stricken children of silence;" and in a Kentucky report[210] their lives are described as "dark, dreary and comfortless." The Southern Literary Messenger[211] of Richmond, Virginia, characterizes their existence as "intellectual night." The New York Commercial Advertiser[212] in the year the first school was opened affirms that "their intellectual faculties ... are ... locked in the darkness of night and shrouded in silence." In an address delivered shortly after the opening of the Tennessee School[213] they are referred to as "entombed in a prison." The Albany Argus and Daily City Gazette[214] points to the deaf man as "abandoned to his hard fate, to wander in darkness, the pitiable object of dismal despair." In an address delivered in the Capitol in Washington[215] the deaf are said to be "doomed to wear out their lives in intellectual darkness."

The results of education were to be great beyond measurement, and the passing of the deaf from ignorance to education is likened even to the glories of the Resurrection. A Committee of Congress[216] in recommending the granting of land to the Kentucky School speaks of education as "the only means of redeeming this unfortunate portion of our species from the ignorance and stupidity to which they would otherwise be consigned by the partial hand of nature, and, indeed; of transferring them from a state of almost mental blindness to that of intellectual and accountable beings." The New York Statesman[217] speaks of the effects in "improving the moral principle, which is torpid and almost obliterated, and opening the way to moral and religious instruction and knowledge of the Deity which is almost void." An early report of the American School[218] tells of the transition of their "imprisoned minds which have too long been enveloped in the profoundest shade of intellectual and moral darkness to the cleansing and purifying light of Divine Truth." An Ohio report[219] states that they "have come forth into the light of truth, that truth that teaches them that they possess a rational and immortal spirit." In the address in behalf of the New York Institution before noted,[220] it is said of the deaf that the "powers of torpid and dormant intellects are resurrected from an eternal night of silence." The first report of the Minnesota School[221] refers to the deaf as "liberated from the winding sheets of silence and ignorance," and tells how "their souls vibrate with such joy as Lazarus felt when he stepped forth from the gloom of the grave."

In the first report of the Indiana School[222] the state of the deaf without education is thus contrasted with that of the deaf with education:

Indeed, the difference between the uneducated and the educated mute is almost incredible. The former "winds his weary way" through life in ignorance and obscurity, often an object of charity, and almost a burden to himself; but the latter, gladdened by the genial rays of knowledge and fitted for the discharge of duty, becomes a blessing to his friends and to society, acts well his part as a member of the great human family, enjoys the present, and looks forward to the future with cheerfulness and hope.

The charter of the Pennsylvania Institution refers to the desire of certain citizens "to restore the deaf and dumb to the ranks of their species;" and the preamble of the statutes creating schools in Kentucky and other states contains similar language. The purpose of the Illinois school is given in the organic act, the language of that of Nebraska and other states being almost identical:

To promote by all proper and feasible means the mental, moral and physical culture of that portion of the community, who by the mysterious dispensations of Providence, have been born, or by disease have become deaf, and of course dumb, by a judicious and well adapted course of education, to reclaim them from their lonely and cheerless condition, to restore them to the ranks of their species, and to fit them to discharge the social and domestic duties of life.

The object of the schools in Wisconsin, South Dakota, and other states is declared to be:

To afford the deaf and dumb of the state, so far as possible, an enlightened and practical education, that may aid them to obtain the means of instruction, discharge the duties of citizenship, and secure all the happiness they are capable of obtaining.

The early educators of the deaf felt themselves that they were indeed carrying the light to shine in a dark place. In the language of one of the foremost of them:[223]

Then the great triumph of science and benevolence over one of the most terrible of human calamities will be complete, and the deaf and dumb, objects of interest, but hardly of compassion, will stand forth among their kindred who hear, heirs of all the hopes, the privileges and the lofty aspirations of their race.

EXTENSION OF THE MEANS OF INSTRUCTION OVER THE COUNTRY

Interest in the education of the deaf had thus become general, public concern was awakened, and movements were early on foot in not a few states to start schools. The enthusiasm aroused by the success of the first schools only increased the hopes that others would be provided to reach the deaf children in all the states. A writer in the North American Review in 1834[224] declared that there were "no doubts that the wants of the deaf and dumb will soon be supplied, and that the public beneficence already extended to a portion will, before the lapse of many years, be extended to all."

Nor were these hopes to be shattered, for the states followed each other in rapid succession in providing means for the instruction of their deaf youth. Indeed, when we consider how early some of the newly settled states began to devote attention to the education of the deaf—a work that was undertaken in Europe only after the middle of the eighteenth century—we are persuaded that it speaks no less for the regard for and devotion to education implanted in the breasts of the American people, than for the bigness and benevolence of their hearts. The credit remains just as deep, even though it has ever been the mission and spirit of America to bring education to the door of every one of its children, and though what it has done for the deaf is but a part of this great principle.

The early workers, despite the preliminary journeys to Europe, were largely pioneers, and this country owes an immeasurable debt to the founders and directors of the first schools. Many of them were ministers of the Gospel, and all of them were men of high ideals. Possibly there has never been a movement undertaken for the good of humanity that has drawn to it a more capable or earnest band of men. These early workers were possessed of a determination, an ardor, a resourcefulness, combined with scholarship and understanding of no common order, that would have graced any human cause. They were truly of those in America that have blazed trails, and to them belonged those elements of character that are a pride to any people.[225]

The first schools were created by societies of private citizens, funds being contributed from "membership fees" in the societies, from subscriptions and from other private donations.[226] To the aid of these schools the state later came with appropriations; but while an oversight and general control were assumed by it, the schools were left as private corporations. With the establishment, however, of the Kentucky School in 1823, a second stage is reached in the extension of the new work, the state now undertaking the task itself and providing the schools at its own initiative and expense. At first admission into the schools was restricted to a certain number of pupils, often based upon some political division of the state, as a senatorial district in Tennessee, or a judicial in Ohio. When such limitations were swept away, we have the third stage in the provision for the education of the deaf. The fourth and last stage—though not necessarily in this order in any one particular state, and not in every case formally accomplished—is attained when in Indiana all charges are removed, and education is made free to all.[227] In the schools created in later times all these steps were usually merged into one: limitations of any kind were mostly omitted, and the schools were in general thrown open to all from the beginning.

Thus is reached the culminative point in the course of the provision for the education of the deaf in America. No longer was private benevolence to inaugurate and carry on the work, but the state was coming to see its responsibility in part, finally to realize its full duty in making education free to all its deaf population, just as it was free to the rest of its citizens.[228]

In many instances, before action by the state, instruction of a small collection of deaf children was taken up by a group of citizens;[229] but hardly had this been done when as a rule the state proved itself ready and willing to move in and shoulder the responsibility. These private schools were thus often the nuclei of the state institutions, at first aided to an extent, and then taken over. In fact, the private schools were not infrequently started more or less as experimental affairs, but with the expectation that the state would speedily come to their help. "The idea of the founders seemed to be to give barely enough to keep the school going, and to depend upon getting support of a substantial character in the course of time."[230]

In some cases there were exhibitions of pupils, either from the school which was hoped to be aided, or from an already established school in another state. These were designed to awaken interest in the public, and especially among the legislators, and to quicken the desired action. In more than one instance the school was established at or near the state capital to show the legislatures what could be done and to influence their proceedings. Not infrequently memorials or petitions, in some cases containing a great number of names, were presented to the legislatures, praying for the establishment of the schools. Sometimes if doubt as to the wisdom of the proposed course seemed to delay matters, a point was to be gained in the dispatch as a preliminary procedure of a special committee or agent to some existing school in another state, to examine and report upon its work, this report being, as was expected, nearly always highly favorable.[231]

But appeals to these bodies, whatever their nature, were rarely turned away, and usually secured prompt response. When action was finally to be obtained, the measure relating to the deaf was passed with few dissenting votes, sometimes with none at all. So eager had the representatives of the people now become, that, if it was not deemed practicable at once to create a state institution, haste was made to provide for the children in a school in another state till one within their own borders could be established. In some cases steps were taken to this end by the legislative assemblies of territories before statehood had been bestowed upon them.[232]

At the same time not to be forgotten, in the narration of the extension of the means of education to the deaf of the country, is the real debt to private action. It was private initiative that often brought the schools into being, and it was private solicitude that often won their final endorsement and adoption by the state. In not a few places there were citizens found who were willing to give of their substance to forward the new work.[233] For some of the schools money was not only subscribed, but it came also from the proceeds of fairs and concerts, and for a few also from lectures, debates, exhibits of pictures, and similar affairs; while exhibitions of the pupils themselves from the schools seldom failed to draw a generous offering.[234] Indeed, many were glad of the opportunity to lend a hand, and contributions were tendered not only by various individuals, but also by different societies and organizations[235]—churches probably among the latter proving the most ready givers, with aid, in addition, at time from newspapers, and now and then from a school or college. In some cases funds were collected by citizens with which to purchase a site, and sometimes the land required was given by the cities themselves. Indirect aid was extended as well of not a few kinds; and in the early schools there was seldom great difficulty in securing reduced transportation on railroads and steamboats.[236]

However, except in a few instances, private assistance in the aggregate did not prove great: as a rule in most schools it was limited, usually sufficing only to tide them over their nascent stage, and in large part ceasing upon their full establishment. From then on the maintenance was assumed practically entirely as a public charge, the legislatures of the several states undertaking themselves to provide for the schools. In a few cases, however, there was public aid of another sort. In several schools there were allowances for a longer or shorter period from municipal funds, as in Maryland, Pennsylvania and New York, and from county, as in North Carolina and Utah.[237] But much the most important assistance of this character came from the national government; and while only a few schools were favored by its action, the benefactions to those were hardly less than munificent. For the benefit of the Connecticut and Kentucky schools early in their careers Congress granted great areas of the public domain; and later, on the admission of half a dozen or so states in the West into the Union, set apart extensive tracts for the schools to be established in them.[238]

When the school for the deaf had been formally recognized by the state, its first act of assistance as a rule was in the form of per capita allowances for the pupils, with only occasionally a specific appropriation. These allowances were in the beginning small, but in time were gradually increased. It was usually some years before the policy was adopted of making regular appropriations. In a few cases, as in Indiana and Illinois, when it was decided to create a state institution, the first proceedings were, in lieu of a direct appropriation, the levying of a small mill tax upon the assessed property of the state. In New York benefit was allowed from the fines or licenses on lotteries, and in Ohio from the receipts of a tax on auctions in one of the counties of the state. In a few cases the schools were even located where there appeared the greatest financial inducement,[239] as with the requirement that a certain number of acres of land should be donated for the school.[240]

For the organization of the new schools a small body of citizens was appointed, often the original promoters of the undertaking, to act as trustees, and to them was confided its direction, with the support and general oversight of the state back of them.[241] Now and then the trustees of an existing educational or other institution were given charge as a temporary arrangement.[242]

In the material projection of the schools, little was to be expected at the beginning. With the meagre resources at their disposal, the directors had small choice in what was to be provided. In not a few cases the schools started out under conditions far from auspicious, and in some the circumstances in connection with their origin were quite discouraging.[243] The quarters secured for the schools were nearly always of unpretentious, and sometimes of humble, type. Many began in a single rented room, and a few in a church building lent for the purpose. It was only in the course of the years, as the communities grew in population and wealth, that the establishments for the deaf assumed appearances in keeping with their character.

The schools for the deaf were now in being, and were ready for the reception of their pupils. But what of these pupils, and where were they? Were they found at the doors of the new institutions, clamoring for admission? The situation was hardly this. In point of fact, in nearly every case the schools were ahead of the pupils. Though in practically every community where a school was created, there were a greater or less number of children in need of an education, these children, or rather their parents, were slow in availing themselves of the privilege. It was thus that the schools when established had to wait, as it were, for the coming of their pupils, and indeed, in not a few instances, to go out after them.

On the opening of the schools, none was found to have a large number of pupils, and in most there were only a handful, as three, four or five.[244] It was discovered that it was a far from easy task to get the children in.[245] The parents were in no small measure ignorant themselves, and the real value of the school was not always readily understood. Besides, in many sections the country was new, the roads bad, and the facilities for travel scant.

Oftentimes in the course of the founding of the schools, before any direct act was attempted, a census was taken of the deaf of the state. It was also frequently made the duty of certain local officers as county clerks, assessors, etc., to register and report prospective pupils. By many of the schools circulars were distributed to postmasters, tax-collectors, ministers, school-teachers and others to enlist their help in reaching deaf children;[246] and by certain of the schools the newspapers were even availed of to carry their advertisements. Sometimes special agents were sent out to scour the state and gather in pupils.

In many of the schools at the same time the terms of admission were carefully prescribed,[247] and in some, especially the older ones, these terms were often published. Notices of vacancies were also in a few cases put in the newspapers, while in one or two instances, as in Massachusetts, it was provided that lots should be drawn when it was found that the number of applicants exceeded the number allowed. In a large portion of the schools at first the pupils were individually committed, or were "appointed," as it was called.[248] It was usually some years before the greater part of such formalities ceased. Charges were also occasionally made at the beginning,[249] later to be reduced and in time to be abolished.[250]

In most of the schools in their first days the period of attendance allowed to the pupils was very short, often being three or four years, and sometimes only two. Usually, however, after a time one or two years were added to the number permitted, which procedure was repeated after certain intervals, and the length of residence was thus gradually increased. In few of the schools, moreover, was an early age held essential; and, indeed, in a considerable number pupils were not admitted at an early age, the limit not infrequently being ten or twelve.[251] The upper limit was high as well, and in some cases pupils might enter up to thirty. These age limitations were also in turn lowered in the course of time. Thus eventually we find the ages of attendance as well as the general rules and regulations of admission conforming more and more to those of the regular schools.

The various schools that have been created for the deaf have been for the most part boarding institutions, in which the pupils have lived during the school year. But beginning in 1869, and increasing rapidly since 1890, a system of day schools has been brought into being, more on the order of the regular common schools, and more distinctly an integral part of the state's educational economy. Such schools, now over three score in number, have been established in fourteen states, and belong especially to large cities. They may be regarded in many respects as denoting a new departure in the educational treatment of the deaf, and as marking the latest development in the course of the instruction of the deaf in the country.

In addition, there have been created a class of schools, numbering some score at present, which are of denominational or private character, and are not affected by state control. Finally, there has been established by the United States government a national college for the deaf of all the country—which may be called the crowning feature in the provision for the education of the deaf in America.

For the great number of the deaf—over five-sixths of the total—the institutional schools remain the one means of instruction. They have been created in all but a few of the states, and in those without them the children are sent to a school in a neighboring state. In some of the more populous states two or more schools have been established. These schools are as a rule supported entirely from the public treasury, and are controlled by the legislatures, the actual administration being delegated to boards of trustees or other bodies. In half the states a regard of an enduring kind has been manifested for the schools in that provision for them has been included in the constitutions, and these states are thus committed to their maintenance.

In the schools themselves not only is education presented in the usual sense, but in practically all industrial training has also been provided to no mean extent, and constitutes a prominent feature of the work.

We have now traced the origin and development of the schools for the deaf in the United States. The present organization and arrangements are to be considered in the following chapters. We have found that the duty of the education of the deaf has been recognized in all the states of the Union; that to-day everywhere in America provision has been made for the instruction of the deaf; and that to all the deaf children of the land the doors of education are open wide.[252]

FOOTNOTES:

[164] There is, however, a case reported before this of a deaf person who had received instruction, though hardly in America. This was a woman who was blind as well as deaf, and who lived at Ipswich, Massachusetts, in 1637. She had come from England; but whether or not she had been taught before the coming on of her affliction, we are left in ignorance. All that we are sure of is that communication could be had with her. See John Winthrop, "History of New England", ed. 1853, i., p. 281; Annals, xlv., 1900, p. 91.

[165] Association Review, ii., 1900, p. 34 ("Historical Notes concerning the Teaching of Speech to the Deaf"). No little debt is owed to Dr. Alexander Graham Bell for his researches into the early attempts at instruction in America.

[166] American Historical Review, vi., 1900, pp. 65, 81, 82, 95. See also Association Review, ii., 1900, p. 527.

[167] See A. G. Bell, "A Philanthropist of the Last Century Identified as a Boston Man", 1900; North American Review, civ., 1867, p. 512; Annals, i., 1848, p. 189; ix., 1857, p. 169; xii., 1860, p. 258; xiii., 1861, p. 1; Association Review, ii., 1900, pp. 42, 119. In some of these are given letters of Green appearing in the New England Palladium and Columbian Centinel, of Boston, and the Medical Repository and Review of American Publications on Medicine, Surgery and the Auxiliary Branches of Science, of New York. Green also published a translation of de l'Epee's main work and extracts from his other writings. A review of "Vox Oculis Subjecta" appeared in the Gentleman's Magazine, Sept., 1783, and in the Boston Magazine, Dec., 1784, Jan., 1785.

[168] Report of New York Institution, 1843, p. 17; Annals, ix., 1857, p. 168.

[169] At this time the United States and England were at war, and Braidwood's adventure received official notice in a permit from the Commissary General of Prisoners to the Marshal of Virginia.

[170] Braidwood was in communication with the promoters of the schools now being organized in Hartford and New York.

[171] On these schools, see History of Virginia School, 1893, p. 3; Report, 1853, p. 25; Report of New York Institution, 1856, p. 17; Annals, ix., 1857, p. 170; xxi., 1876, p. 130; Association Review, ii., 1900, pp. 257, 385, 489; v., 1903, p. 400. In the last are given advertisements and notices concerning the school from the Richmond Enquirer, the Petersburg Republican, and Niles' Weekly Register, of Baltimore.

[172] Among those who had given the matter thought was Dr. William Thornton of Philadelphia, who in 1793 published "Cadmus: a Treatise on the Elements of Written Language", there being an appendix on "A Mode of Teaching the Deaf, or Surd, and Consequently Dumb, to Speak". Transactions of American Philosophical Society, iii., p. 262, as cited in Association Review, ii., 1900, p. 113. See also ibid., v., 1903, p. 406; Annals, i., 1848, p. 190. He was the first writer in America upon the education of the deaf.

[173] By some at this time there were not believed to be a sufficient number of the deaf to justify a school, and it was due to this mainly that the investigation was made.

[174] Funds to the amount of $2,278 were subscribed before the departure of Gallaudet. Association Review, iii., 1901, p. 329.

[175] It is said that Stephen Girard declined to contribute because Philadelphia was not chosen as the site of the school. Tribute to Gallaudet, p. 114.

[176] Ibid., p. 155.

[177] This grant seems to have been used later for the benefit of Connecticut pupils.

[178] This, however, was not the first appropriation to a benevolent institution. The colony of Pennsylvania in 1751 had voted an appropriation for certain of its insane in a hospital to be opened the following year, while New York in 1806 granted $15,000 for the care of its insane in a hospital. Virginia established its insane asylum at Williamsburg in 1773.

[179] See Laws of Maine, 1829, p. 24.

[180] Annals, iv., 1851, p. 63; National Magazine, ix., 1856, p. 489.

[181] Tribute to Gallaudet, p. 136. This was also expressed in the Missionary Herald, Sept., 1826, quoted in American Journal of Education, i., 1826, p. 631. At the same time caution was advised as to the result, as the benefit was to depend upon the sale of the land.

[182] Report of American School, 1825, p. 5; 1836, p. 22.

[183] In 1821 steps were taken to establish a school in South Carolina. A census of the deaf children in the state was made, 29 being found. The school here, however, was not started till some years later. See Report of South Carolina School, 1904, p. 7. In neither the case of this state nor that of Georgia was the number of pupils annually sent to Hartford large, ranging from 2 to 8 in each. See Report of American School, 1835, p. 9; Georgia School, 1874, p. 11; American Annals of Education, v., 1835, p. 93. A joint school for the south-eastern states was also contemplated at this time.

[184] There were several pupils here supported by the United States government, who were the children of deceased veterans, the first coming from Maryland in 1819. History of Maryland School, 1893, p. 11.

[185] Gallaudet remained at the head of the American Asylum, as it was then called, till 1828, when he resigned. He was engaged thereafter in various philanthropic activities, and was invited to lead in the work for the education of the blind, towards which attention was now being directed. Notwithstanding the impairment of his health, his different labors were continued, not the least of which was his office as chaplain of the Connecticut Asylum for the Insane. To Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet America owes a rare debt. Without him the work for the deaf would have been taken up eventually by other hands, but he brought to his task a disregard for obstacles, a splendid idealism, a fine conception of duty, a complete forgetfulness of self, a singular beauty of character, and a great human love that could have existed in but few other men.

[186] There were 66 found in a very short time.

[187] Volumes iii. and iv. of the Association Review (1901 and 1902) contain most interesting accounts of these first schools, with extracts from early reports, letters of Dr. Cogswell, Gallaudet and others; extracts from the Hartford Courant and the Connecticut Mirror, both urging the importance of the school established at Hartford and the need of contributions, and the latter (in the issue of March 24, 1817) giving the conditions and terms of admission; also extracts from other papers, as the Albany Daily Advertiser, the New York Commercial Advertiser, the General Aurora Advertiser, Poulson's American Daily Advocate, the Christian Observer, the Freeman's Journal and Columbian Chronicle, of Philadelphia, and Niles' Weekly Register, of Baltimore. See also E. M. Gallaudet, "Life of Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet."

[188] Pub. Stat., ch. 24.

[189] Pupils were in time received here from all the Southern states. History, 1893, p. 5.

[190] This was to be called "The Western Asylum for the Education of the Deaf and Dumb". An association was formed, and the legislature was asked to incorporate the school. In 1822 a census was taken for all the state except two counties, when 428 deaf persons were found. The school was not established on the ground that it was too far removed from the center of the state. See Annals, v., 1853, p. 221; xxv., 1880, p. 30; Report of Ohio School, 1876, p. 30.

[191] A school under Roman Catholic auspices was established near St. Louis in 1837.

[192] Report of Indiana School, 1851, p. 26. See also Annals, vi., 1854, p. 150. This honor is also to be shared in by the state of Ohio. In 1844, or four years before the action of Indiana, the laws prohibiting the trustees from receiving more than a certain number of indigent pupils in one year at the expense of the state were repealed, and the trustees were authorized to admit suitable pupils, as they might deem necessary and proper. This probably had the effect of allowing all pupils free attendance, though it remained with the trustees to decide. The formal removal of limitations respecting indigent pupils did not take place till 1854.

[193] A society was formed for the purpose, a charter secured from the legislature, and Congress petitioned for land. Annals, xiii., 1868, p. 233.

[194] History, 1893, p. 9.

[195] In Maryland, for instance, we find an early appropriation for those "teachable". The American Journal of Education tells of the wonder on the part of the legislators of Massachusetts when a class of deaf-mutes was exhibited in their presence, iv., 1829, p. 78.

[196] P. 5.

[197] See Sketch of Origin and Progress of the Institution for the Deaf and Dumb in Pennsylvania, 1821.

[198] Report, 1867, p. 12.

[199] See Annals, iii., 1851, p. 123, quoting from the Boston Congregationalist.

[200] History, 1893, p. 3.

[201] See Report of American School, 1823, p. 5; 1824, p. 10; 1840, pp. 5, 24; New York Institution, 1829, p. 17; Pennsylvania Institution, 1839, p. 6; Illinois School, 1856, p. 10; Report of Select Committee to Visit Pennsylvania Institution, 1838, p. 3.

[202] It is interesting to note that of the first four institutions incorporated in New York, the purposes are thus respectively given: "to afford the necessary means of instruction to the deaf and dumb, and also provide for the support and maintenance of those whose parents are unable"; "to aid and instruct the deaf and dumb"; "to instruct and support"; and "to receive, care for, support and educate".

[203] History, 1893, p. 4. See also Annals, vi., 1853, p. 234.

[204] Account of Origin and Progress of the Pennsylvania Institution, 1821, pp. 4, 7. See also "Sketch of Origin and Progress," etc., 1821, p. 4; Report of Pennsylvania Institution, 1875, p. 22.

[205] By Silvanus Miller, 1819, p. 15.

[206] 1819, p. 31 (reprint of 1894).

[207] 1839, p. 5.

[208] 1862, p. 5.

[209] 1853, p. 20.

[210] 1848, p. 3.

[211] i., 1835, p. 136.

[212] Jan., 18, 1817. Quoted in Association Review, iii., 1901, p. 434.

[213] Address at Proceedings of Laying of Corner Stone, 1848, p. 13.

[214] March 1, 1827. Quoted in Report of New York Institution, 1827, p. 19.

[215] By Lewis Weld, 1828, p. 3.

[216] Report of Select Committee of 18th Congress, 1st sess., upon a Memorial to Give Land, etc., 1824, p. 12.

[217] Quoted in American Journal of Education, i., 1826, p. 432.

[218] 1827, p. 10.

[219] 1834, p. 5.

[220] Address of Silvanus Miller, loc. cit.

[221] 1863, p. 17.

[222] Quoted in History, 1893, p. 6. For other accounts of the condition of the deaf without education and the blessings to be obtained from it, see Report of Kentucky School, 1824, p. 10; Ohio School, 1842, p. 13; Kansas School, 1870, p. 12; History of Mississippi School, 1893, p. 3; Southwestern School Journal (Tennessee), i., 1848, p. 49; J. H. Tyler, "Duty and Advantages of the Education of the Deaf", etc., 1843; Sermon by John Summerfield, in behalf of the New York Institution, 1822; Discourse of Samuel L. Mitchell, Pronounced at Request of Society for Instruction of the Deaf and Dumb, New York, 1818; Addresses of Joseph H. Lane and Ebenezer Demorest, before Legislature of Indiana, 1851.

[223] Harvey Prindle Peet, at first Convention of American Instructors, 1850, p. 141. See also Annals, iii., 1850, p. 160.

[224] xxxviii., p. 357.

[225] When the accounts of brave endeavor, and the rolls of those inflamed for human service, are finally made up, high indeed will stand the names of Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet, Lewis Weld, John A. Jacobs, Abraham B. Hutton, Harvey P. Peet, Collins Stone, Horatio N. Hubbell, Thomas McIntyre, Luzerne Rae, Barabas M. Fay, David E. Bartlett, William W. Turner, Newton P. Walker, Jacob Van Nostrand, William D. Kerr, and others both of those who worked with them and who followed in their steps.

[226] Where the institutions were under regularly chartered societies, these dues were usually fixed at $5, with life membership at $50, though the size of the fees varied in the different schools. In the American School the office of vice-president was created for those paying $200. In some of these schools the fees proved of considerable assistance.

[227] The course of provision may be illustrated in the case of the Ohio School. In 1829, at the beginning, an indigent pupil was to be admitted from each of the nine judicial districts of the state, "to be selected by the board of trustees from persons recommended by the associate judges of the counties where they reside". In 1830 the number was increased to eighteen, in 1832 to twenty-seven, in 1834 to forty-eight, and in 1835 to sixty. In 1844 all suitable applicants were to be received, and in 1854 all limitations as to financial ability were removed.

[228] In many instances the school for the deaf was the first "benevolent" or "humane" institution created by the state.

[229] In several instances a deaf man himself came to a community and organized a school.

[230] Mr. E. S. Tillinghast, of the Oregon School, in a letter to the writer. See also Report of Oregon School, 1880, p. 4.

[231] On efforts to secure schools, see Southern Literary Messenger, i., 1835, pp. 134, 201.

[232] It is to be noted that some of the older schools did not look with favor upon the rapid increase in the number of the schools. The creation of many new ones was sometimes advised against, it being declared that the existing ones could answer for all the country, and that pupils would gain by attending them. See Report of Pennsylvania Institution, 1830, appendix, p. 14; American School, 1824, p. 6; 1826, p. 4.

[233] In some cases pathetic appeals were made for money. See Address before New York Forum in behalf of New York Institution, 1819; Discourse pronounced at Request of Society for the Instruction of the Deaf and Dumb, appendix (address to the public), 1818; Circular of President and Directors of New York Institution, 1818; Addresses to Contributors to the Pennsylvania Asylum, 1821; Report of Pennsylvania Institution, 1826, appendix, p. 19.

[234] In New York exhibits of pupils were given in a score of cities and towns, in a third of which there were repetitions. Annals, xviii., 1873, p. 80. In Illinois there were more than two score exhibits given, witnessed by some 50,000 persons. Report of Illinois School, 1868, p. 36.

[235] In connection with the New York Institution there was a society called the New York Female Association, "to aid in giving support and instruction to the indigent deaf and dumb", which lasted from 1825 to 1835. It raised in one year $1200 for "unsuccessful applicants". See Address and Constitution, 1830; Report of New York Institution, 1826, p. 6.

[236] See Report of Mississippi School, 1872, p. 17; Annals, ix., 1857, p. 178.

[237] In a few instances, as in North Carolina, the counties were authorized to raise funds by a special tax.

[238] Aid was besought of the national government by a number of schools. In 1826 Congress was asked for the endowment of the institutions then in being which had not already been assisted. See Address of Lewis Weld in the Capitol in Washington, 1828, p. 8. In 1833 the Senate passed bills granting land to the schools in New York, Pennsylvania and Ohio, but these failed to be acted upon in the House. Proceedings of Laying of Corner Stone of Ohio Institution, 1864; Report of Ohio School, 1869, p. 52. Later there were applications from individual schools, most seeking grants of land. Requests came from Vermont, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, North Carolina, Georgia, Ohio, Michigan, Wisconsin, and Nebraska. A township was usually desired, though Vermont asked for 10,000 acres for the benefit of a hospital for the insane and for the education of the deaf and blind. See Laws of Vermont, 1851, no. 81; New Jersey, 1823, p. 124; Report of New York Institution, 1846, p. 14; Michigan School, 1858, p. 46; History of Wisconsin School, 1893, p. 6; Proceedings of Convention of American Instructors, i., 1850, p. 171.

[239] In Indiana several cities made efforts to secure the school. In Bloomington $4,000 was raised, and an offer extended of a special local tax levy of one cent on $100 of property for its benefit. Annals, vi., 1854, p. 150.

[240] Thus in Kansas the school was established on condition that 20 acres be granted for a site, and 150 for its benefit; in Minnesota that 40 acres be provided; and in Colorado that 5 be provided. In Indiana the school was first only provisionally located by the statute.

[241] In one or two instances "contract" schools were provided for, the managers receiving a certain amount from the state and reserving the balance left after the payment of expenses as their compensation. This plan, however, did not continue long, and was generally condemned. See Annals, iii., 1851, p. 34.

[242] In Kentucky the school was placed under the trustees of Centre College at Danville, and so remained for fifty years.

[243] The schools in Indiana and Tennessee were compelled for financial reasons to close for six months, and that in Oregon for eight months, shortly after they had been opened. Report of Tennessee School, 1847, p. 9; History of Oregon School, 1893, p. 4; Annals, x., 1858, p. 106. To add to the difficulties in some instances, was the belief that not enough deaf children could be assembled for a school.