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Shift in Number, Person, or Tense
33. Avoid an inconsistent change in number, person, or tense.
Faulty change in number: One should save their money.
Right: People should save their money. [Or] A man should save his money.
Faulty change in person: Place the seeds in water, and in a few days a person can see that they have started to grow.
Right: Place the seeds in water, and in a few days you will see that they have started to grow.
Faulty change in number: Take your umbrella with you. They will be needed today.
Right: Take your umbrella with you. You will need it today.
Faulty change in tense: Freedom means that a man may conduct his affairs as he pleases so long as he did not injure anybody else.
Right: Freedom means that a man may conduct his affairs as he pleases so long as he does not injure anybody else.
Faulty change in tense: When he heard the news, he hurries down town and buys a paper.
Right: When he heard the news, he hurried down town and bought a paper.
Note.—A change of tense within a sentence is desirable and necessary in certain instances, for which see 55.
Sometimes, for the sake of vividness, past events are described in the present tense, as if they were taking place before our eyes. This usage is called the historical present. A shift to the historical present should not be made abruptly, or frequently, or for any subject except an important crisis.
Exercise:
1. A person should be careful of their conduct.
2. Sentences should be so formed that the reader feels it to be a unit.
3. One should make the best of their surroundings and their possessions, provided they cannot better them.
4. When he sees me coming, he looked the other way.
5. Silas Marner lost many of his habits of solitude, and goes out among his neighbors.
Mixed Constructions
34. Do not make a compromise between two constructions.
Faulty: I cannot help but go.
Right: I cannot help going. [Or] I cannot but go. [Or] I can but go.
Faulty: They are as following:
Right: They are as follows: [Or] They are the following:
Faulty: He tried, but of no avail.
Right: He tried, but to no avail. [Or] He tried, but his effort was of no avail.
Faulty: There is no honor to be on this committee.
Right: It is no honor to be on this committee. [Or] There is no honor in being on this committee.
Faulty: Sparks from the chimney caught the house on fire.
Right: Sparks from the chimney set the house on fire. [Or] The house caught fire from the sparks from the chimney.
Note.—The double negative and kindred expressions (not hardly, not scarcely, etc.) are an especially gross form of mixed construction.
Wrong: He isn't no better now than he was then. [Logically, not no better means better. The two negatives cancel each other and leave an affirmative.]
Right: He isn't any better now than he was then. [Or] He is no better now than he was then.
Wrong: She couldn't see her friend nowhere.
Right: She couldn't see her friend anywhere. [Or] She could see her friend nowhere.
Wrong: We couldn't hardly see through the mist.
Right: We could hardly see through the mist. [Or] We couldn't see well through the mist.
Exercise:
1. He doesn't come here no more.
2. I cannot help but make this error.
3. I remember scarcely nothing of the occurrence.
4. I would not remain there only a few days.
5. John would not do this under no circumstances.
Mixed Imagery
35. Avoid phrases which may call up conflicting mental images. When using metaphor, simile, etc., carry one figure of speech through, instead of shifting to another, or dropping suddenly back into literal speech.
Crude: The Republicans have gained a foothold in the heart of the cotton belt.
Right: The Republicans have gained a foothold in the South.
Crude: He traveled a rough road and climbed with his burden the ladder of success, where he is a glowing example and guide to other men. [The suggestion which a reader with a sense of humor may get is, that a man starts out as a traveler, suddenly becomes a hod-carrier, and is then transformed into a bonfire or a lighthouse.]
Right: He traveled a rough road, but found success. Other men followed in his steps.
Incongruous: Spring came scattering flowers, and there was rain a great per cent of the time. [This sentence mingles the language of poetry with the language of science. It should be fanciful, or else literal, throughout.]
Right: Spring came scattering flowers and rain. [Or] Spring came with much rain and many flowers.
Inconsistent use of irony: The phonograph was shrieking, "Waltz me around again, Willie." I am sure I love that beautiful song. The taste of the people who attend these cheap theaters is deplorable. [The three sentences should be ironical throughout, or not ironical at all.]
Exercise:
1. We should meet the future from the optimistic point of view.
2. General Wolfe put every ounce of his life into the capture of Quebec.
3. A key-note of sincerity should be the mainspring of a well-built speech.
4. He went drifting down the sands of time on flowery beds of ease.
5. The blank in my mind crystallized into action.
USE OF CONNECTIVES
The Exact Connective
36. Use a connective which expresses the exact relation between two clauses. Distinguish between time and cause, concession and condition, etc. Do not overwork and, so, or while.
Misleading: While he is sick, he is able to walk. [Use though.]
Misleading: Miss Brown sang, while her sister spoke a piece. [Use but.]
Faulty. Work hard when you want to succeed. [Use if.]
Faulty: They will be sorry without they do this. [Use unless.]
Faulty: Little poetry is read, only at times when it is compulsory. [Use except.]
Faulty. The early morning and evening are the best times to find ducks, and we did not see many flying. [Use and for that reason.]
Faulty: Corbin says: "In America sportsmanship is almost a passion," and in England "the player very seldom forgets that he is a man first and an athlete afterward." [Use whereas.]
Note.—So is an elastic word that covers a multitude of vague meanings. Language has need of such a word, and in many instances (especially when the relation between clauses is obvious and does not need to be pointed out) so serves well enough. Use it, but not as a substitute for more exact connectives. Beware of falling into the "so-habit."
Abuse of so as a vague coordinating connective: So I went to call on Mrs. Woods, and so she told me about Mrs. White's new gown; so then I missed the car, and so of course our supper is late. [Strike out every so.]
Abuse of so as a subordinating connective: You may go, so you keep still. [Use provided.] So you do only that, I shall be satisfied. [Use though.]
Permissible: I was excited, so I missed the target.
So may sometimes be used to express result. But when a clause of result is important and needs emphasis, it is perhaps better to strike out so and subordinate the preceding clause.
Right: In my excitement I missed the target.
Right: Because I was excited, I missed the target.
Right: Being excited, I missed the target.
List of Connectives
A. With Coordinate Clauses, expressing
1. Addition: and, besides, furthermore, again, in addition, in like manner, likewise, moreover, then too, and finally.
2. Contrast: but, and yet, however, in spite of, in contrast to this, nevertheless, notwithstanding, nor, on the contrary, for all that, rather still, but unhappily, yet unfortunately, whereas.
3. Alternative: or, nor, else, otherwise, neither, nor, or on the other hand.
4. Consequence: therefore, hence, consequently, accordingly, in this way, it follows that, the consequence is, and under such circumstances, wherefore, thus, as a result, as a consequence.
5. Explanation: for example, for instance, in particular, more specifically, for, because.
6. Repetition for emphasis: in other words, that is to say, and assuredly, certainly, in fact, and in truth, indeed it is certain, undoubtedly, for example, in the same way, as I have said.
B. With Subordinate Adverb Clauses, expressing
1. Time: when, then, before, while, after, until at last, as long as, now that, upon which, until, whenever, whereupon, meanwhile.
2. Place: where, whence, whither, wherever.
3. Degree or Comparison: as, more than, rather than, than, to the degree in which.
4. Manner: as, as if, as though.
5. Cause: because, for, as, inasmuch as, since, owing to the fact that, seeing that, in that.
6. Purpose: that, so that, in order that, lest.
7. Result: that is, so that, but that.
8. Condition: if, provided that, in case that, on condition that, supposing that, unless.
9. Concession: though, although, assuming that, admitting that, granting that, even if, no matter how, notwithstanding, of course.
C. With Adjective Clauses. Adjective or relative clauses are introduced by who, which, that, or an equivalent compound.
Exercise:
Insert within the parentheses all the connectives that might conceivably be used, and underscore the one which you consider to be most exact:
1. He is not a broad-minded man; ( ) he has many prejudices.
2. A number of friends came in, bringing refreshments, ( ) we spent a delightful evening.
3. We ought to return now, for it is growing dark; ( ) I told Mary we would be home at six o'clock.
4. I do not believe that climate is responsible for many of the differences between races, ( ) Taine says that it is.
5. She took the letter from me and read it slowly, ( ) her eyes filled with tears.
Repetition of Connective with a Gain in Clearness
37. Connectives that accompany a parallel series should be repeated when clearness requires.
Preposition to be repeated: He was regarded as a hero by all who had known him at school, and especially his old school mates.
Right: He was regarded as a hero by all who had known him at school, and especially by his old school mates.
Sign of the infinitive to be repeated: He wishes to join with those who love freedom and justice, and end needless suffering.
Right: He wishes to join with those who love freedom and justice, and to end needless suffering.
Conjunction to be repeated: Since he was known to have succeeded in earlier enterprises, though confronted by difficulties that would have taxed the ability of older men, and his powers were now acknowledged to be mature, he was put in charge of the undertaking.
Right: Since he was known to have succeeded in earlier enterprises, though confronted by difficulties that would have taxed the ability of older men, and since his powers were now acknowledged to be mature, he was put in charge of the undertaking.
Conjunction to be repeated: He explained that the strikers asked only a fair hearing, since their contentions were misunderstood; were by no means in favor of the violent measures to which the public had grown accustomed; and had no desire to resort to bloodshed and the destruction of property.
Right: He explained that the strikers asked only a fair hearing, since their contentions were misunderstood; that they were by no means in favor of the violent measures to which the public had grown accustomed; and that they had no desire to resort to bloodshed and the destruction of property.
Exercise:
1. The place is often visited by fishermen who catch some strange varieties of fish and especially summer tourists.
2. The worth of a man depends upon his character, not his possessions. 3. He was delighted with that part of the city which overlooked the harbor and bay, and especially the citadel on the highest point.
4. Although he was so youthful in appearance that the recruiting officer must have known he was under twenty-one, and had not yet become a fully naturalized citizen, his effort to enlist met with immediate success.
5. In the course of his speech he said that he was a foreigner, he came to this country when he was fourteen years old, landing in New York with his only possessions tied in a handkerchief, went to work in an iron foundry, and after many years of toil he found himself at the head of a great industry.
Repetition of Connective with a Loss in Clearness
38. Do not complicate thought by persistent repetition of elements beginning with that, which, of, for, or but, and NOT parallel in structure.
Complicated repetition of that: He gave a quarter to the boy that brought the paper that printed the news that the war was ended. [That, which, and who are often used carelessly to form a chain of subordinate clauses. Three successive subordinations are all that a reader can possibly keep straight; ordinarily a writer should not exceed two. But in parallel structure (See 30 and 37) the number of that, which, or who clauses does not matter; a writer may fill a page with them and not confuse the reader at all.]
Right: He gave the boy a quarter for bringing him the paper with the news that the war was ended.
Complicated repetition of of: The East Side Civics Club is an organization of helpers of the helpless of the lower classes of the city.
Right: The East Side Civics Club is organized to help the helpless poor of the city.
Complicated repetition of for: The general was dismayed, for he had not expected resistance, for he had thought the power of the enemy was shattered.
Right: The general was dismayed; he had not expected resistance, for he had thought the power of the enemy was shattered.
Complicated repetition of but: He was undoubtedly a brave man, but now he was somewhat alarmed, but he would not turn back.
Right: He was undoubtedly a brave man; though now somewhat alarmed, he would not turn back. [Or] He was undoubtedly a brave man. He was now somewhat alarmed, but he would not turn back.
Note.—Guard against the but-habit. Frequent recurrence of but makes the reader's thought "tack" or change its course too often. There are ways to avoid an excessive use of but and however. When one wishes to write about two things, A and B, which are opposed, he need not rush back and forth from one idea to the other. Let him first say all he wants to say about A. Then let him deliberately use the adversative but, and proceed to the discussion of B. In the following paragraph on "Whipping Children" the writer tries to be on both sides of the fence at once.
Confusing: It is easier to punish a child for a misdeed, than to explain and argue. But the gentler method is better. Yet we all admit that the birch must be used sometimes. However, if it is used only for serious trangressions, the child will have a sense of proportion regarding what offenses are grave. But for ordinary small misdemeanors I think we need a new motto: Spoil the rod and spare the child.
Right: It is easier to punish a child for a misdeed than to explain and argue. And of course we all admit that the birch must be used sometimes. But if it is used only for serious transgressions, the child will have a sense of proportion regarding what offenses are grave. For ordinary small misdemeanors I think we need a new motto: Spoil the rod and spare the child.
Exercise:
1. He did not agree at first, but hesitated for a time, but finally said that he would go along.
2. Push down on the foot lever, which closes a switch which starts an electric motor which turns the flywheel so that the gasoline engine starts.
3. Apple dumplings are good, but they must be properly baked, but fortunately this is not difficult to do.
4. The work of the course consists partly of the study of the principles of grammar and of rhetoric, partly of the writing of themes, partly of oral composition, and partly of the reading and study of models of English prose.
5. The landscape which lay before me was one which was different from any which I had ever seen before. There was one thing which impressed me, and that was the miles and miles of grass which stretched and undulated away from the hill on which I stood.
39. EXERCISE IN CLEARNESS OF THOUGHT
A. Parallel Structure
Give parallel structure to elements which are parallel in thought.
1. Baskets are of practical value as well as being used for ornaments.
2. The Book of Job ought to be interesting to a student, or for anybody.
3. The important considerations are whether the soil is sandy, and if it is well drained, and that it shall be easily cultivated.
4. A flower garden is a source of profit—profit not measured in money but in pleasure.
5. He was successful in business, and also attained success in the political world.
6. Whether his object was writing for pastime, or to please a friend, or money, we do not know.
7. Always praise your enemy, because if you whip him your glory is increased, and if he whips you it lets you down easy.
8. Either the ship will sink in the rough sea or go to pieces on the shore.
9. An athlete must possess strength, nerve, and be able to think quickly.
10. We were interested in buying some dry-goods, and at the same time see the sights of the great city.
11. Some people talk foolishness, and others on serious subjects, and some keep still.
12. Not only she noticed my condition, but commented on it.
13. He abides by neither the laws of God nor man. He spoke both to Harry and Tom.
14. It is good for the health of one's mind to get new ideas every day, and expressing them clearly in writing.
15. Everyone who is capable of understanding the tax laws should know them and how they are abused.
16. I began by making applications at federal, state, and city employment bureaus for a position as cost accountant, salesman, or clerical work.
17. The damage to the trunk was caused by rough handling and not from faults in construction.
18. Pope, Swift, Addison, and Defoe were four satirists, but differing greatly in their work.
19. The occupants of these buildings are engaged in various kinds of business, namely: shoe-shining, shoe repair shops, cleaning and pressing clothes, confectionery stores, and restaurants.
20. I sing of geese: of the Biblical goose, that blew his bugle from the roof of Noah's Ark; the classical goose that picked his livelihood along the shores of the AEgean; of the historical goose, that squawked to save old Rome; the mercenary goose, laying the golden egg; and, finally, of the roast goose.
B. Shift in Subject or Voice
Rewrite the following sentences, avoiding all unnecessary shift in construction.
1. After you decide on the plan of the house, your attention is turned to the materials of construction.
2. Editors are careful to use words that are exact, yet simple, and the use of technical terms is not generally considered to be good.
3. Bank accounts should be balanced once a month in order that you may know your exact standing.
4. We should have our athletic contest between the weakest students, and in that way they will become physically strong.
5. When one is making a long-distance run, several cautions should be borne in mind by him.
6. In melody the poem is good, but the author's ideas are eccentric.
7. Lincoln's sentences are plain, blunt, and to the point. He lacks the ornate eloquence of Jefferson.
8. The operator places a large shovelful of concrete in the mold, and the mixture is made solid by tamping.
9. He might become angry, but it was over in a few minutes.
10. The pauper chanced to gain entrance to the royal palace, and while there the young prince is met by him.
11. When the weather is hot, plowing is accomplished very slowly with horses, while on the tractor the heat has no effect.
12. First, one should mix one-half cup of corn syrup and one cup of brown sugar; then one cup of cream and the flavoring are added.
13. In the college situated in a small town there are dormitories for the student, but in the cities they usually room where they please.
14. An education should enable us to tell the valuable from the cheap book, and by it we should be able to tell the true from the counterfeit man.
15. Moisten the sand thoroughly and set the box in a warm place, and in about a week's time it can readily be seen by the way the grains have sprouted which ears of seed corn have greatest vitality.
C. Shift in Number, Person, or Tense
Rewrite the following sentences, removing all inconsistency in grammatical form.
1. Every one has a right to their own opinion.
2. Bryant rushed to the window and shouts at the postman.
3. The life of the honey bee has been studied, and their activities found to be remarkable.
4. He says to me, "Are you ready?" And I answered, "No."
5. When a person keeps a store, you should remember the names and faces of your customers.
6. An automobile is expensive, and they are liable to become an elephant on your hands.
7. If one studies the market, he would find that prices rise every year.
8. If one went to Europe, he will find everything different.
9. Since these tires were different in construction, the method of repairing will vary.
10. Contentment is a state of mind in which one is satisfied with themselves and their surroundings.
11. It is easy to catch 'possums if you can find the rascal.
12. The writer of a theme should not waste time on a long introduction, and get to the facts of your subject as quickly as possible.
13. Shakespeare's comedies are great fun. I prefer it to tragedy.
14. Often a man will knock at the door, and finds no one at home.
15. Too much attention will spoil a child. They should not be entertained every minute.
D. The Exact Connective
Each of the following sentences contains an idea which is, or may be, subordinate to another idea. (1) Decide what kind of subordinate relation should exist between the ideas. (2) Determine what connective best expresses this relation. (Consult 36 for a list of connectives.) (3) Write the sentence as it should be.
1. Wealth is a good thing, while honest wealth is better.
2. Spend an hour in the open air every day when you want to keep your health.
3. The rattlesnake gives warning and it is only afterward that he strikes.
4. South Americans are our national neighbors, and we as a nation should understand them.
5. The city man knows nothing about a cow, only that it has horns.
6. He got up early in order that he might be able to see the sunrise.
7. The tenderfoot saw the funnel-shaped cloud when he made for a cyclone cellar.
8. Men fear what they do not understand, and a coward is one who is ignorant.
9. Hinting did not influence her; then he tried scolding.
10. The valet spilled the wine, and the duke started up with an oath.
11. While he writhed on the ground, he was not really hurt.
12. He will not cash the check without you indorse it.
13. We want this work done by the first of April, so please send an estimate soon.
14. He had traveled everywhere, and he had a vivid recollection of only three scenes: Niagara Falls, the Jungfrau, and Lake Como.
15. I never hear him talk but he makes me angry.
16. Animals have some of the same feelings as human beings have.
17. It was four o'clock and we decided to return and be home for supper.
E. Repetition of Connectives
In the following sentences determine whether repetition is desirable or undesirable, and change the sentences accordingly.
1. With the coming of meal time, the potatoes are removed from the fire with a fork with a long handle.
2. His clothes were brushed and neat, but patched and repatched. But still he could be bright and cheery.
3. To no other magazine do I look forward to the arrival of its new issue, more than I do to the World's Work.
4. At the time the book was written, I believe Forster was considered to be almost the best biographer living at that time.
5. The freshman has no spirit until the sophomores have provoked him until he resists until he finds that he has spirit.
6. Some socialists are against the present system of initiative, referendum, and recall, but advocate a system much like it but applied in a different way.
7. The gun with which the Germans bombarded Paris with had a range of seventy-five miles.
8. Basketball is a game that I have played for years, and I am greatly interested in.
9. This is the lever which throws the switch which directs the train that takes the track that goes to Boston.
10. Short talks were made by the captain, the coach, and by the faculty.
11. At this school one can study to be a doctor, dentist, farmer, a lawyer, or an engineer.
12. I like to cross the harbor on the ferry, to dodge in and out among the ships, see the gulls dart among the waves, smell the sharp tang of salty air, and to feel the rocking motion of the boat.
13. In the sultry autumn, and when the winter's storms came, and when in spring the winds whistled, and in the summer's heat, he always wore the same old coat.
14. He knew that if he did not ignite the piece of wet bark this time, that he could not dry his clothing or broil the bacon.
15. The next speaker said that the need was critical, the schools must be enlarged, and that the paving now begun must be completed, and a new board of health should be created, that the interest on past debts had to be paid, and the city treasury was at this moment out of funds.
EMPHASIS
Emphasis by Position
40. Reserve the emphatic positions in a sentence for important words or ideas. (The emphatic positions are the beginning and the end—especially the end.)
Weak ending: Then like a flash a vivid memory of my uncle's death came to me.
Weak: I demand the release of the prisoners, in the first place.
Weak: This principle is one we cannot afford to accept, if my understanding of the question is correct.
Place the important idea at the end. Secure, if possible, an emphatic beginning. "Tuck in" unimportant modifiers.
Emphatic: Like a flash came to me a vivid memory of my uncle's death.
Emphatic: I demand, in the first place, the release of the prisoners.
Emphatic: This principle, if my understanding of the question is correct, is one we cannot afford to accept.
Exercise:
1. "War is inevitable," he said.
2. The cat had been poisoned to all appearances.
3. There are several methods of learning to swim, as everyone knows.
4. A liar is as bad as a thief, in my estimation.
5. He saw a fight below him in the street, happening to look out of the window.
Emphasis by Separation
41. An idea which needs much emphasis may be detached, and allowed to stand in a sentence by itself.
Faulty: The flames were by this time beyond control, and the walls collapsed, and several firemen were hurt. [The ideas here are too important to be run together in one sentence.]
Right: By this time the flames were beyond control, and the walls collapsed. Several firemen were hurt.
A quotation gains emphasis when it is separated from what follows.
Faulty: "The best laid schemes o' mice an' men Gang aft a-gley,"
are some lines from Burns which McDonald was always quoting.
Right: "The best laid schemes o' mice an' men Gang aft a-gley."
McDonald was always quoting these lines from Burns.
Direct discourse is more emphatic when it is separated from explanatory phrases, particularly from those which follow.
Faulty: Mosher leaped to the stage and shouted defiantly, "I will never consent to that!" and he looked as if he meant what he said.
Right: Mosher leaped to the stage and shouted his defiance: "I will never agree to that!" And he looked as if he meant what he said.
Exercise:
1. After the tents are pitched, the beds made, and the fires started, the first meal is cooked and served, and this meal is the beginning of camp-life joy.
2. He tried to make his wife vote for his own, the Citizen's Party, but she firmly refused.
3. At the word of command the dog rushed forward; the covey rose with a mighty whir, and the hunter fired both barrels, and the dog looked in vain for a dead bird, and then returned disconsolate.
4. I sat and gazed at the motto, "Aim high, and believe yourself capable of great things," which my mother had placed there for me.
5. "A Book of Verses underneath the Bough, A Jug of Wine, a Loaf of Bread, and Thou Beside me singing in the Wilderness."
were the four things Omar Khayyam wanted to make him happy.
Emphasis by Subordination
42. Do not place the important idea of a sentence in a subordinate clause or phrase. Make the important idea grammatically independent. If possible, subordinate the rest of the sentence to it.
Faulty: He had a manner which made me angry.
Faulty: The fire spread to the third story, when the house was doomed.
Faulty: For years the Indians molested the white people, thereby causing the settlers to want revenge.
The important idea should not be placed in a which clause, or a when clause, or a participial phrase.
Right: His manner made me angry.
Right: When the fire spread to the third story, the house was doomed.
Right: Years of molestation by the Indians made the white men want revenge.
Exercise:
1. I was riding on the train, when suddenly there was an accident.
2. There are two windows in each bedroom, thus insuring good ventilation.
3. Yonder is the house which is my home.
4. He saw that argument was useless, so he let her talk.
5. His clothes were very old, making him look like a tramp.
The Periodic Sentence
A sentence is periodic when the completion of the main thought is delayed until the end. This delay creates a feeling of suspense. A periodic sentence is doubly emphatic: it has emphasis by position because the important idea comes at the end; it has emphasis by subordination because all ideas except the last one are grammatically dependent.
43. To give emphasis to a loosely constructed sentence, turn it into periodic form.
Loose: I saw two men fight a duel, many years ago, on a moonlit summer night, in a little village in northern France. [What is most important, the time? the place? or the actual duel? Place the important idea last.]
Periodic: Many years ago, on a moonlit summer night, in a little village in northern France, I saw two men fight a duel.
Loose: We left Yellowstone Gateway for the ride of our lives in a six-horse tally-ho. [Place the important idea last, and make all other ideas grammatically subordinate.]
Periodic: Leaving Yellowstone Gateway in a six-horse tally-ho, we had the ride of our lives.
Loose: The river was swollen with incessant rain, and it swept away the dam. [Which is the important idea? Why not make it appear more important by subordinating everything to it?]
Periodic: The river, swollen with incessant rain, swept away the dam.
Loose: War means to have our pursuit of knowledge and happiness rudely broken off, to feel the sting of death and bereavement, to saddle future generations with a burden of debt and national hatred.
Periodic: To have our pursuit of knowledge and happiness rudely broken off, to feel the sting of death and bereavement, to saddle future generations with a burden of debt and national hatred—this is war.
Exercise:
1. I am happy when the spring comes, when the sun is warm, when the fields revive.
2. He cares nothing for culture, for justice, for progress.
3. As the boat gathered speed, the golden sun was setting far across the harbor.
4. He amassed a great fortune, standing there behind his dingy counter, discounting bills, pinching coins, buying cheap and selling dear.
5. The shattered aqueducts, pier beyond pier, melt into the darkness, from the plains to the mountains.
Order of Climax
44. In a series of words, phrases, or clauses of noticeable difference in strength, use the order of climax.
Wrong order: He was insolent and lazy.
Weak ending: Literature has expanded into a sea, where before it was only a small stream.
Weak ending: As we listened to his story we felt the sordid misery and the peril and fear of war.
Emphatic: He was lazy and insolent.
Emphatic: The stream of literature has swollen into a torrent, expanded into a sea.
Emphatic: As we listened to his story we felt the fear, the peril, the sordid misery of war.
Exercise:
1. We boarded the train, after having bought our tickets and checked our baggage.
2. War brings famine, death, disease after it.
3. They have broken up our homes, enslaved our children, and stolen our property.
4. In the old story, the drunken man, carried into the duke's palace, sees himself surrounded with luxury, and imagines himself a true prince, after waking up.
5. The becalmed mariners were famished, hungry.
The Balanced Sentence
45. Two ideas similar or opposite in thought gain in emphasis when set off, one against the other, in similar constructions.
Weak and straggling: This paper, like many others, has many bad features, but in some ways it is very good. The news articles are far better than the editorials, which are feeble.
Balanced structure: This paper is in some respects good; in other respects very poor. The news articles are impressive, the editorials are feeble.
Weak and complicated: From the East a man who lives in the West can learn a great deal, and an Easterner ought to be able to understand the West.
Balanced: A Westerner can learn much from the East, and an Easterner needs to understand the West.
Weak: Both Mill and Macaulay influenced the younger writers. Mill taught some of them to reason, but many more of them learned from Macaulay only a superficial eloquence.
Balanced: Both Mill and Macaulay influenced the younger writers. If Mill taught some of them to reason, Macaulay tempted many more of them to declaim.
Note.—Although excessive use of balance is artificial, occasional use of it is powerful. It can give to writing either dignity (as in an oration) or point (as in an epigram). Observe how many proverbs are in balanced structure. "Seeing is believing.—Nothing venture, nothing have.—For every grain of wit there is a grain of folly.—You cannot do wrong without suffering wrong.—An eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth." Note the effective use of balance in Emerson's Essays, particularly in Compensation; and in the Old Testament, particularly in Psalms and Proverbs.
Exercise:
1. Machinery is of course labor-saving, but countless men are thrown out of work.
2. There is a difference between success in business and in acquiring culture.
3. I attend concerts for the pleasure of it, and to get an understanding of music.
4. The stag in the fable admired his horns and blamed his feet; but when the hunter came, his feet saved him, and afterward, caught in the thicket, he was destroyed by his horns.
5. We do not see the stars at evening, sometimes because there are clouds intervening, but oftener because there are glimmerings of light; thus many truths escape us from the obscurity we stand in, and many more from the state of mind which induces us to sit down satisfied with our imaginations and of our knowledge unsuspicious. [This sentence is correctly balanced, except at the end.]
The Weak Effect of the Passive Voice
46. Use the active voice unless there is a reason for doing otherwise. The passive voice is, as the name implies, not emphatic.
Weak: Your gift is appreciated by me.
Better: I appreciate your gift.
Weak and vague: His step on the porch was heard.
Better: His step sounded on the porch. [Or] I heard his step on the porch.
The passive voice is especially objectionable when by failing to indicate the agent of the verb it unnecessarily mystifies the reader.
Vague: The train was seen speeding toward us.
Better: We saw the train speeding toward us.
Exercise:
1. Their minds were changed frequently as to what profession should be taken up by them.
2. A gun should be examined and oiled well before a hunter starts.
3. Finally the serenaders were recognized.
4. In athletics a man is developed physically.
5. If a man uses slang constantly, a good impression is not made.
Effective Repetition
47a. The simplest and most natural way to emphasize a word or an idea is to repeat it. The Bible is the best standard of simplicity and dignity in our language, and the Bible uses repetition constantly. A word or idea that is repeated must, of course, be important enough to deserve emphasis.
Fairly emphatic: He works and toils and labors, but he seems never to get anywhere.
Very emphatic: Work, work, work, all he does is work, and still he seems never to get anywhere.
Fairly emphatic: How did the general meet this new menace? He withdrew before it!
Very emphatic: How did the general meet this new menace? He withdrew! He retreated! He ran away!
Homely but emphatic: "I went under," said the old salt; "bows, gunnels, and starn—all under."
Deliberately too emphatic: Everywhere we hear of efficiency—efficiency experts, efficiency bureaus, efficiency methods, in the office, in the school, in the home—until one longs to fly to some savage island beyond the reach of inhuman modern science.
b. Not only words, but an entire grammatical structure may be repeated on a large scale for emphasis.
Weak: We hope that this shipment will reach you in good condition, and that you will favor us with other orders in the future, which will be given prompt and courteous attention. [This sentence is flimsy and spineless because the writer had a timid reluctance to repeat.]
Strong: We hope that this shipment will reach you in good condition. We believe that the quality of our goods will induce you to send us a second order. We assure you that such an order will receive prompt and courteous attention. [Note the emphasis derived from the resolute march of the expressions We hope, We believe, We assure.]
Emphatic: Through the patience, the courage, the high character of Alfred the country was saved—saved from the rapacities of fortune, saved from the malignancy of its enemies, saved from the sluggish despair of the people of England themselves.
Emphatic and natural: This corner of the garden was my first playground. Here I made my first toddling effort to walk. Here on the soft grass I learned the delight of out-of-doors. Here I became acquainted with the bull-frog, and the bumble-bee, and the neighbor's dog.
Emphatic and delightful: He maketh me to lie down in green pastures; he leadeth me beside the still waters. He restoreth my soul; he leadeth me in the paths of righteousness for his name's sake.
Exercise:
1. He kept digging away for gold through long years.
2. Breaking against the shore, came innumerable waves.
3. Sand, sagebrush, shimmering flat horizon. I could not endure the barren monotony of the desert.
4. We want you to come and visit us, and bring along a good appetite and your customary high spirits. Plan to stay a long time.
5. 'Twas bitter cold outside. The cat meowed until I had to let her in.
Offensive Repetition
Careless repetition attracts attention to words that do not need emphasis. It is extremely annoying to the reader.
48a. Unless a word or phrase is repeated deliberately to gain force or clearness, its repetition is a blunder. Get rid of recurring expressions in one of three ways: (1) by substituting equivalent expressions, (2) by using pronouns more liberally, (3) by rearranging the sentence so as to say once what has awkwardly been said twice. Each of these schemes is illustrated below.
1. Repetition cured by the use of equivalent expressions (synonyms).
Bad: Just as we were half way down the lake, just off Milwaukee, we began to feel a slight motion of the ship and the wind began to freshen. The wind began to blow more fiercely from the south and the waves began to leap high. The boat began to pitch and roll.
Right: Just as we were half way down the lake, opposite Milwaukee, we began to feel a slight motion of the ship, for the wind had freshened. Before long a gale, blowing from the south, kicked up a heavy sea and caused the boat to pitch and roll. [Notice how combining the last two sentences helps to solve the problem of the last began, besides giving firmer texture to the construction.]
2. Repetition cured by the use of pronouns. (In using this method, one should take care that the reference of the pronouns is clear.)
Bad: The Law Building, the Commerce Building, and the Science Building are close together. The Commerce Building is south of the Law Building, and the Science Building is south of the Commerce Building. The Law Building is old and dilapidated. The Commerce Building is a red brick building, trimmed in terra-cotta. The Science Building resembles the Commerce Building.
Right: The Law, Commerce, and Science Buildings are close together in a row. The first of these is old and dilapidated. South of it stands the Commerce Building, which, because of its red brick and terra-cotta trimmings, somewhat resembles the Science Building.
3. Repetition cured by rearranging and condensing.
Bad: The autumn is my favorite of all the seasons. While autumn in the city is not such a pleasant season as autumn in the country, yet even in the city my preference will always be for the autumn.
Right: My favorite season is autumn. I like it best in the country, but even in the city it is the best time of the year.
b. Avoid a monotonous repetition of sentence structure. To give variety to successive sentences: (1) vary the length, (2) vary the beginnings, (3) avoid a series of similar compound sentences, (4) interchange loose with periodic structure, (5) use rhetorical question, exclamation, direct discourse, (6) avoid an excessive use of participles or adjectives.
1. Vary the length of sentences.
Bad: Walter came up the path carrying Betty in his arms. She was wet from head to toe. Damp curls clung to her pale face. Water dripped from her clothes. One hand hung loosely over Walter's arm. The other held a live duckling. She had saved the little duck from drowning. This was Betty's first day in the country.
Right: Walter came up the path carrying Betty in his arms—little Betty who was spending her first day in the country. She was wet from head to toe; damp curls clung to her pale face, and water dripped from her clothes. In one hand she held a live duckling. Her face lighted with courage as she told how she jumped into the pond and saved the little duck from drowning.
2. Vary the beginnings of sentences. Do not allow too many sentences to begin with the subject, or with a time clause, or with a participle, or with so. When you have finished a composition, rapidly read over the opening words of each sentence, to see if there is sufficient variety.
Bad [too many sentences begin directly with the subject]: Our way is circuitous. A sharp turn brings us round a rocky point. The road drops suddenly into a little valley. The roof of a house appears in a grove of trees below. A cottage is there and a flower garden. An old-fashioned well is near the door.
Right: Presently, on our circuitous way, we make a sharp turn round a rocky point. Before us the road drops suddenly into a little valley. In a grove of trees below appears the roof of a house, and as we draw nearer we see a cottage surrounded by flowers. Nothing could be more attractive to a weary traveler than the old-fashioned well near the door.
3. Avoid a series of similar compound sentences, especially those of two parts of equal length, joined by and or but.
Bad: Ring was a sheep dog, and tended the flock with his master. One day there came a deep snow, and the flock did not return. They found the herder frozen stiff, and the dog shivering beside him.
Right: Ring was a sheep dog, and tended the flock with his master. One day there came a deep snow. When the flock failed to return, the men became uneasy, and began to search. They found the herder frozen stiff, with the dog shivering beside him.
4. Change occasionally from loose to periodic or balanced structure (See 43 and 45).
Monotonous: I stood at the foot of Tunbridge hill. I saw on the horizon a dense wood, which, in the evening sunlight, was veiled in purple haze [Loose]. On the left was the village, the houses appearing like specks in the distance [Loose]. Nearer on the right was the creek, winding through the willows [Loose]. The creek approached nearer until it reached the dam, over which it rushed tumultuously [Loose]. Near by was a thicket of tall trees, through which I could see the white tents of my fellow campers, and their glowing camp fires [Loose].
Right: Far south from Tunbridge hill, on the dim horizon, I saw, veiled in the evening haze, a dense wood [Periodic, long, conveying the idea of distance better than a loose sentence]. On my left stood the village, the houses like specks; on my right wound the creek, nearer and nearer through the willows [Balanced]. The creek advanced by slow sinuous turns, until, reaching the dam, it plunged over tumultuously [Loose]. Through a thicket of tall trees, near at hand, I could see the white tents of my fellow campers, and their glowing camp fires [Periodic through the middle of the sentence; then loose].
5. Use question, exclamation, direct quotation.
Somewhat flat: He asked me the road to Camden. I did not know. I told him to ask Thurber, who knew the country well.
Better: He asked me the road to Camden. The road to Camden? How should I know? "Ask Thurber," I said impatiently; "he knows this country. I'm a stranger."
6. Avoid an excessive use of participles. Do not pile adjectives around every noun. Above all, do not form a habit of using adjectives in pairs or triplets.
Bad: Sitting by the window, I saw a sharp, dazzling flash of lightning, and heard a loud rumbling crash of heavy thunder, warning me of the coming of the storm. Darting across the gray, leaden sky, the quick, jagged lightning flashed incessantly. The tall stately poplar trees thrashed around in the boisterous wind. Then across the window, like a great white curtain, swept the streaming, blinding rain.
Right: I sat by the window. Suddenly a sharp flash of lightning and a roll of thunder gave warning of the approach of a storm. Soon lightning zig-zagged across the sky incessantly. The wind huddled the poplar trees. Then like a white curtain across the window streamed the rain.
Exercise:
1. The parts of the tables are not put together at the factory, but the different parts are shipped in different shipments.
2. In order to convince the reader that the present management of farms is inefficient, I shall give some examples of efficiency in the farm management on some farms with which I am acquainted.
3. When one wishes to learn how to swim one must first become accustomed to the water. The best way to become accustomed to the water is to go into it frequently. After one has become accustomed to the water he may begin to learn the strokes.
4. The Life of Sir Walter Scott, written by J. G. Lockhart, is an interesting biography of this great writer. It consists of a short biography by Scott himself, and also consists of a continuation of this biography by his son-in-law, J. G. Lockhart.
5. If a piece of steel is kept hot for several seconds, it will lose some of its hardness. If kept hot longer, it will lose more of its hardness. Along with losing its hardness it will lose its brittleness. If the piece of steel is heated continually it will lose nearly all its hardness and brittleness. In other words, it will lose its "temper."
49. EXERCISE IN EMPHASIS
A. Lack of Emphasis in General
Make the following sentences emphatic.
1. The man is a thief who fails in business but continues to live in luxury.
2. The plant was withered and dry, not having been watered for over a week.
3. Much time is saved in Chicago by taking the elevated cars, if you have a great distance to travel.
4. The clock struck eleven, when he immediately seized his hat and left.
5. These liberal terms should be taken advantage of by us.
6. The study of biology has proved very interesting, as far as I have gone.
7. Who is this that comes to the foot of the guillotine, crouching, trembling?
8. They must pay the penalty. Their death is necessary. They have caused harm enough.
9. I intend to get up fifteen minutes earlier, thereby giving myself time to eat a good breakfast.
10. The book was reread several times, for I never grew tired of it.
11. "What is the aim of a university education?" the speaker asked.
12. A bicycle is sometimes ridden when a tire contains no air, total ruin resulting from the weight of the rim upon the flat tire.
13. He sprang forward the instant the pistol cracked, since the start of a sprint is very important, and one cannot overdo the practicing of it.
14. Sometimes the fuses fail to burn, or burn too fast, causing an explosion before the workmen are prepared for it.
15. How father made soap was always a mystery to me. Cracklings saved from butchering time, lye, and water went into the kettle on a warm spring day and came out in the form of soap a few hours later, to my great astonishment.
B. Loose or Unemphatic Structure
Make the following sentences more emphatic by throwing them into periodic form.
1. It was Tom, as I had expected.
2. I will not tell, no matter how you beg.
3. The supremacy of the old river steamboat is gone forever, unless conditions should be utterly changed.
4. Across the desert he traveled alone, and over strange seas, and through quaint foreign villages.
5. The hot water dissolves the glue in the muresco, making the mixture more easily applied.
6. Visions of rich meadows and harvest-laden fields now pass before my eyes, as I sit by the fire.
7. Some of the women were weeping bitterly, thinking they would never see their homes again.
8. I splashed along on foot for three miles after night in a driving rain.
9. Very high rent is demanded, thus keeping the peasants constantly in debt.
10. Roderigo was in despair because he had been rejected by Desdemona, and was ready to end his life, by the time Iago entered.
11. Through storm and cold the open boat was brought to the shore at last, after toil and suffering, with great difficulty.
12. The car came to a violent stop against a rock pile, after it demolished two fences, upset a hen-house, and scared a pig out of his wits.
13. The Panama Canal is the fulfilment of the dreams of old Spanish adventurers, the desires of later merchant princes, and the demand of modern nations for free traffic on the seas.
14. The fiddle yelled, and the feet of the dancers beat the floor, and the spectators applauded, and the room fairly rang.
15. The man with the best character, not the man with most money, will come out on top in the end.
C. Faulty Repetition
Repetition in the following sentences is objectionable, because it attracts attention to words or constructions that do not need to be emphasized. Improve the sentences, avoiding unnecessary repetition.
1. He is a great friend of boys, and views things from the boys' point of view.
2. In the case of the strike at Lawrence, Massachusetts, the real cause was low wages caused by immigration and child labor.
3. First, a subject must be chosen, and in choosing a subject, choose one that you know something about.
4. There are great opportunities in the field of science, and a scientist who makes a mark in the world of science makes a mark for himself everywhere.
5. While the practical man is learning skill in the practical world, the college man is attaining a development of mentality that will surpass that of the practical man when the college man learns the skill of the practical man.
6. The field is dragged and rolled. Dragging and rolling leaves the ground smooth and ready for planting.
7. A great number and variety of articles appears in every issue. There is a complete review of each subject. It is treated in a short, but thorough manner.
8. They gave me a hearty welcome. They stood back and looked at me. They wanted to see if three months in the city had made any changes in me. But they said it had not.
9. Engineering is looked upon by many students as an easy and uninteresting study, but to my knowledge it is not uninteresting and easy. Engineering is probably one of the hardest courses in college. To me it is also the most interesting.
10. A duck hunter should have a place to hunt where ducks are frequently found in duck season. Ducks often light in the backwater along a river, and in ponds. They are often found in small lakes. Corn fields are common feeding places for ducks. Ducks make regular trips to cornfields within reach of a body of water such as a river or lake. It is their nature to spend the night in the water, and in the morning and in the evening they go out to the fields to feed.
GRAMMAR
Case
50a. The subject of a verb is in the nominative case, even when the verb is remote, or understood (not expressed).
Wrong: They are as old as us.
Right: They are as old as we [are].
Wrong: He is taller than her.
Right: He is taller than she [is].
Note.—Than and as are conjunctions, not prepositions. When they are followed by a pronoun merely, this pronoun is not their object, but part of a clause the rest of which may be understood. The case of this pronoun is determined by its relation to the rest of the unexpressed clause. Sometimes the understood clause calls for the objective: "I like his brother better than [I like] him." Than whom, though ungrammatical, is sanctioned by usage.
b. Guard against the improper attraction of who into the objective case by intervening expressions like he says.
Wrong: The man whom they believed was the cause of the trouble left the country. [They believed is parenthetical, and the subject of was is who.]
Right: The man who they believed was the cause of the trouble left the country.
Wrong: Whom do you suppose made us a visit?
Right: Who do you suppose made us a visit?
Guard against the improper attraction of who or whoever into the objective case by a preceding verb or preposition.
Wrong: Punish whomever is guilty. [The pronoun is the subject of is. The object of punish is the entire clause whoever is guilty.]
Right: Punish whoever is guilty.
Wrong: The mystery as to whom had rendered him this service remained. [The pronoun is the subject of had rendered. The object of the preposition is the entire clause who had rendered him this service.]
Right: The mystery as to who had rendered him this service remained.
c. The predicate complement of the verb to be (in any of its forms, is, was, were, be, etc.) is in the nominative case. To be never takes an object, because it does not express action.
Wrong: Was it her? Was it them? It is me.
Right: Was it she? Was it they? Is it I.
Wrong: The happiest people there were him and his mother.
Right: The happiest people there were he and his mother.
d. The object of a preposition or a verb is in the objective case.
Wrong: Some of we fellows went fishing.
Right: Some of us fellows went fishing.
Wrong: That seems incredible to you and I.
Right: That seems incredible to you and me.
Wrong: Who did they detect?
Right: Whom did they detect?
e. The "assumed" subject of an infinitive is in the objective case.
Right: I wanted him to go. [Him to go is the group object of the verb wanted. To go, being an infinitive, cannot assert an action, and consequently cannot take a subject. But to go implies that something is at least capable of action. Him is the latent or assumed subject of the action implied in to go.]
Right: Whom do you wish to be your leader? [Whom is the assumed subject of the infinitive to be.]
f. A noun or pronoun used to express possession is in the possessive case. Do not omit the apostrophe (See 97) from nouns, or from the pronouns one's and other's. Most of the other possessive pronouns do not require an apostrophe.
Right: The man's hair is gray.
Right: The machine does its work well. [It's would mean it is.]
Right: One should do one's duty.
g. A noun or pronoun linked with a gerund should be in the possessive case whenever the use of the objective case might cause confusion.
Faulty: Is there any criticism of Arthur going?
Right: Is there any criticism of Arthur's going?
Right: I had not heard of his being sick.
Right, but slightly less desirable: I had not heard of him being sick.
Note.—In other instances than those in which clearness is involved many good writers use the objective case with the gerund. But even in these instances most writers prefer the possessive case.
h. It is usually awkward and slightly illogical to attribute possession to inanimate objects.
Awkward: The farm's management.
Better: The management of the farm.
Awkward: The stomach's lining.
Better: The lining of the stomach.
Note.—Usage justifies many exceptions, particularly (1) expressions that involve time or measure, a day's work, a hair's breadth, a year's salary, a week's vacation, a cable's length; and (2) expressions that involve personification, explicit or implied, Reason's voice, the law's delay, for mercy's sake, the heart's desire, the tempest's breath.
i. A pronoun agrees with its antecedent in person, gender, and number, but not in case.
Right: I, who am older, know better.
Right: Tell me, who am older, your trouble.
Right: Many a man has saved himself by counsel.
Exercise:
1. I am as old as (he, him). They may be pluckier than (we, us). Nobody is less conceited than (she, her).
2. He gave help to (whoever, whomever) wanted it. The girls (who, whom) they say have the worst taste are on a committee to select the class pin.
3. Four of (we, us) boys were left without a cent. That is a good investment for her cousin and (she, her).
4. It was (he, him). It is (they, them). The sole occupants of the car were his chum and (he, him).
5. I had not heard of (his, him) being sick. She does not approve of (our, us) being late to dinner. (They, them) who labor now the Master will reward.
Number
51a. Each, every, every one, everybody, anybody, either, neither, no one, nobody, and similar words are singular.
Wrong: Everybody did their best.
Right: Everybody did his best.
Wrong: Each of my three friends were there.
Right: Each of my three friends was there.
Wrong: Either of the candidates are capable of making a good officer.
Right: Either of the candidates is capable of making a good officer.
b. Do not let this or that when modifying kind or sort be attracted into the plural by a following noun.
Wrong: He knew nothing of those kind of activities.
Right: He knew nothing of that kind of activities.
Wrong: I never did like these sort of post cards.
Right: I never did like this sort of post cards.
c. Collective nouns may be regarded as singular or plural, according to the meaning intended.
Right: The crowd is waiting.
Right: The crowd are not agreed.
Right: Webster maintained that the United States is an inseparable union; Hayne that the United States are a separable union.
English usage: The government were considering a new bill regarding labor.
American usage: The government was glad to place our troops at the disposal of General Foch.
d. Do not use don't in the third person singular. Use doesn't. Don't is contraction of do not.
Wrong: He don't get up early on Sunday morning.
Right: He doesn't get up early on Sunday morning.
Exercise:
1. She said not to buy those sort of carpet tacks. These kind of apples won't keep. I don't care for these boasting kind of travelers.
2. Neither of us were in condition to run the race. Every one assured Mrs. Merton they had spent a pleasant evening.
3. He don't suffer much now. I don't care if she don't come today.
4. Each of us in that dismal waiting room were angry with the agent for telling us the train was not late.
5. No one of the girls will tell their age. It don't matter.
Agreement
52a. A verb agrees in number with the subject, not with a noun which intervenes between it and the subject.
Wrong: The size of the plantations vary.
Right: The size of the plantations varies.
Wrong: The increasing use of luxuries are a menace to the country.
Right: The increasing use of luxuries is a menace to the country.
Wrong: The prices of grain fluctuates in response to the demand.
Right: The prices of grain fluctuate in response to the demand. [Or] The price of grain fluctuates in response to the demand.
b. The number of the verb is not affected by the addition to the subject of words introduced by with, together with, no less than, as well as, and the like.
Wrong: The mayor of the city, as well as several aldermen, have investigated the charges.
Right: The mayor of the city, as well as several aldermen, has investigated the charges.
c. Singular subjects joined by or or nor take a singular verb.
Wrong: Either the second or the third of the plans they have devised are acceptable.
Right: Either the second or the third of the plans they have devised is acceptable.
d. A subject consisting of two or more nouns joined by and takes a plural verb.
Right: The hunting and fishing are good.
e. A verb should agree in number with the subject, not with a predicate noun.
Wrong: The weak point in the team were the fielders.
Right: The weak point in the team was the fielders.
Wrong: Laziness and dissipation is the cause of his failure.
Right: Laziness and dissipation are the cause of his failure.
f. In There is and There are sentences the verb should agree in number with the noun that follows it.
Wrong: There is very good grounds for such a decision.
Right: There are very good grounds for such a decision.
Wrong: There was present a man, two women, and a child.
Right: There were present a man, two women, and a child.
Exercise:
1. The sound of falling acorns (is, are) one of the delights of an autumn evening. Eye strain through ill-fit glasses (is, are) injurious to the general health, but reading without glasses (is, are) often more harmful still.
2. Neither the baritone nor the tenor (has, have) as good a voice as the soprano. The guitar or the mandolin (is, are) always out of tune.
3. The Amazon with its tributaries (affords, afford) access to sea. The conductor of the freight train, along with the engineer and fireman of the passenger, (was, were) injured.
4. Ghost stories late at night (is, are) a crime against children. My reason for knowing that it is six o'clock (is, are) the factory whistles.
5. There (was, were) in the same coach a dozen singing freshmen. Years of experience in buying clothes (gives, give) me confidence in my judgment.
Shall and Will, Should and Would
Although there is a tendency to disregard subtle distinctions between shall and will in ordinary speech, it is desirable to preserve the more important distinctions in written discourse.
53. To express simple futurity or mere expectation, use shall with the first person (both singular and plural) and will with the second and third.
I shall go. We shall walk. You will play. You will hear. He will sing. They will reply.
To express resolution or emphatic assurance, reverse the usage; that is, use will with the first person (both singular and plural), and shall with the second and third.
I will; I tell you, I will. We will not be excluded. You shall do what I bid. You shall not delay us. He shall obey me. They shall pay the tribute.
In asking questions, use the form expected in the answer.
"Shall I go?" I asked myself musingly. "Shall we take a walk?" "You promise. But will you pay?" "Will it rain tomorrow?"
Should and would follow the rules given for shall and will.
Mere statement of a fact: I [or We] should like to go. You [or He or They] would of course accept the offer.
Resolution or emphatic assurance: I [or We] would never go under terms so degrading. You [or He or They] should decline; honor demands it.
Should has also a special use in the subjunctive (in all persons) to express a condition; and would has a special use (in all persons) to express a wish, or customary action.
If it should rain, I shall not go.
If I should remain, it would probably clear off.
Would that I could swim!
He [I, We, You, They] would often sit there by the hour.
Exercise:
1. I (shall, will) probably do as he says. I'm determined; I (shall, will) go! We (shall, will) see what tomorrow (shall, will) bring forth.
2. The train (shall, will) whistle at this crossing, I suppose. When the log is nearly severed, it (shall, will) begin to pinch the saw. The weather (shall, will) be warmer tomorrow.
3. Johnny, you (shall, will) not go near those strawberries! He (shall, will) not leave us in this predicament. I repeat it, he (shall, will) not! We (shall, will) never sell this good old horse.
4. (Shall, will) this calico fade? (Shall, will) you give the organ grinder some money? (Shall, will) I raise the window? (Should, would) I ask his permission?
5. If you (should, would) visit his laboratory, you (should, would) learn how a starfish preserved in alcohol smells. You (shall, will) all die some day, my friends. (Shall, will) I ever forget this? Time (shall, will) tell.
Principal Parts
54. Use the correct form of the past tense and past participle. Avoid come, done, bursted, knowed, says for the past tense; and [had] eat, [had] froze, [have] ran, [has] went, [has] wrote, [are] suppose for the past participle. Memorize the principal parts of difficult verbs. The principal parts are the present tense, the past tense, and the past participle. A good way to recall these is to repeat the formula: Today I sing; yesterday I sang; often in the past I have sung. The principal parts of sing are sing, sang, sung. A list of difficult verbs is given below.
bear bore borne born begin began begun bend bent bent bid bid bid bade bidden bite bit bit bitten bleed bled bled blow blew blown break broke broken burn burnt burnt burned burned burst burst burst catch caught caught choose chose chosen come came come deal dealt dealt dive dived dived do did done drag dragged dragged draw drew drawn dream dreamt dreamt dreamed dreamed drink drank drunk drive drove driven drown drowned drowned dwell dwelt dwelt dwelled dwelled eat ate eaten fall fell fallen fight fought fought flee fled fled fly flew flown flow flowed flowed freeze froze frozen get got got go went gone grow grew grown hang hung hung hang hanged hanged hold held held kneel knelt knelt know knew known lay laid laid lead led led lend lent lent lie lay lain lie lied lied loose loosed loosed lose lost lost mean meant meant pay paid paid prove proved proved read read read rid rid rid ride rode ridden ring rang rung rise rose risen run ran run say said said see saw seen set set set shake shook shaken shine shone shone show showed shown shrink shrank shrunk sing sang sung sit sat sat slink slunk slunk speak spoke spoken spend spent spent spit spit spit spat spat steal stole stolen swear swore sworn sweep swept swept swim swam swum take took taken tear tore torn throw threw thrown thrust thrust thrust tread trod trod trodden wake woke waked waked wear wore worn weave wove woven weep wept wept write wrote written
Exercise:
1. Adams —— (past tense of draw) another glass of cider and —— (past tense of drink) it. When those squashes once —— (past tense of begin), they —— (past tense of grow) like mad.
2. The thermometer had —— (past participle of fall) twenty degrees, and three water pipes had —— (past participle of freeze). Afterward one —— (past tense of burst).
3. Annie had —— (past participle of speak) a piece, and Nancy had —— (past participle of write) a poem, and Isabel had nearly —— (past participle of burst) with envy.
4. He —— (past tense of do) a brave deed; he —— (past tense of swim) straight for the whirlpool. I had —— (past participle of know) him before, and had —— (past participle of shake) hands with him.
5. He —— (past tense of come) home late, and has —— (past participle of eat) his dinner. Now he has —— (past participle of go) down town. He has —— (past participle of ride) before. I —— (past tense of see) him. He —— (past tense of run) swiftly.
Tense, Mode, Auxiliaries
55a. In dependent clauses and infinitives, the tense is to be considered in relation to the time expressed in the principal verb.
Wrong: I intended to have gone. [The principal verb intended indicates a past time. In that past time I intended to do something. What? Did I intend to go, or to have gone?]
Right: I intended to go.
Wrong: We hoped that you would have come to the party. [The principal verb hoped indicates a past time. In that past time our hope was that you would come, not that you would have come.]
Right: We hoped that you would come.
b. When narration in the past tense is interrupted for reference to a preceding occurrence, the past perfect tense is used.
Wrong: In the parlor my cousin kept a collection of animals which he shot.
Right: In the parlor my cousin kept a collection of animals which he had shot.
c. General statements equally true in the past and in the present are usually expressed in the present tense.
Faulty: He said that Venus was a planet.
Right: He said that Venus is a planet.
d. The subjunctive mode of the verb to be is used to express a condition contrary to fact, or a wish.
Faulty: If he was here, I should be happy.
Right: If he were here, I should be happy.
Faulty: I wish that I was a man.
Right: I wish that I were a man.
e. Use the correct auxiliary. Make sure that the tense, mode, or aspect of successive verbs is not altered without reason.
Wrong: By giving strict obedience to commands, a soldier learns discipline, and consequently would have steady nerves in time of war. [Learns should be followed by will have.]
Wrong: An automobile should be kept in good working order so that its life is lengthened. [Should be is properly followed by may be.]
Exercise:
1. Every one hoped that you would have spoken.
2. I saw it in the window. It was the very book I wanted so long.
3. If I was sick, I should go home.
4. They expected to have won the game.
5. The Masons never invite men to join their lodge, but if a person expresses a desire to join, his friends would probably be able to secure membership for him.
Adjective and Adverb
56a. Do not use an adjective to modify a verb.
Crude: He spoke slow and careful.
Right: He spoke slowly and carefully.
Crude: He sure did good in his classes.
Right: He surely did well in his classes.
b. In such sentences as He stood firm and The cry rang clear the modifier should be an adjective if it refers to the subject, an adverb if it refers to the verb.
Right: The sun shines bright on my old Kentucky home. [Here the thought is that the sun which shines is bright.]
Right: He worked diligently. [Here the modifier refers to the manner of working rather than to the person who works. It should therefore be an adverb.]
Right: It stood immovable. The shot rang loud. He becomes angry. The weeds grow thick. They remain obstinate. He seems intelligent.
c. After a verb pertaining to the senses, look, sound, taste, smell, feel, an adjective is used to denote a quality pertaining to the subject. (An adverb is used only when the reference is clearly to the verb.)
She looks beautiful. [Not beautifully.]
The dinner bell sounds good. [Not well.]
My food tastes bad. [Not badly.]
That flower smells bad. [Not badly.]
I feel good [in good spirits.]
I feel well [in good health. An adjectival use of well.]
I feel bad [in bad health or spirits. "I feel badly" would mean "My sense of touch is impaired."]
Exercise:
1. They fought —— (heroic, heroically). Dave stumbled ——(awkward, awkwardly).
2. Margaret —— (sure, surely) worked —— (faithful, faithfully) in economics.
3. At this reply the teacher grew —— (wrathful, wrathfully). I hear you —— (plain, plainly).
4. I feel —— (giddy, giddily). Your rose looks —— (sweet, sweetly). No perfume smells so —— (dainty, daintily).
5. That salad tastes —— (good, well). I feel —— (bad, badly) today. Your voice sounds —— (good, well) and ——(familiar, familiarly).
A Word in a Double Capacity
57. Do not use a verb, conjunction, preposition, or noun in a double capacity when one of the uses is ungrammatical.
Wrong [verb]: An opera house was built in one part of town, and two churches in another.
Right: An opera house was built in one part of town, and two churches were built in another.
Wrong [verb]: He always has and will do it.
Right: He always has done it, and always will do it.
Wrong [conjunction]: He was as old, if not older, than any other man in the community.
Right: He was as old as any other man in the community, if not older.
Wrong [preposition]: He was fond and diligent in work.
Right: He was fond of work and diligent in it.
Wrong [noun]: He is one of the most skilful, if not the most skilful, tennis players in the state.
Right: He is one of the most skilful tennis players in the state, if not the most skilful.
Exercise:
1. He is as old, if not older, than she is.
2. Two boats were in the water, and one on the shore.
3. From childhood he has, and to old age he will, have many hobbies.
4. A visit to a ten cent store is better, or at least as good, as a visit to a circus. You see as many or more queer things than in any show.
5. One of the greatest, if not the greatest, secrets in keeping our health, is to keep our teeth in good condition. A famous physician said that one of the next, if not the very next, marked advance in medical science will be through discoveries in the realm of dentistry.
Parts of Speech, Other Grammatical Terms, Conjugation
The Parts of Speech and Their Uses
Noun. A noun is a name. It may be proper (Philip Watkins), or common. Common nouns may be concrete (man, windmill), or abstract (gratitude, nearness). A noun applied to a group is said to be collective (family, race). The uses of a noun are: to serve as the subject of a verb, to serve as the object of a verb or a preposition, to be in apposition with another noun (Jenkins, our coach), to indicate possession (Joseph's coat of many colors); and less frequently, to serve as an adjective (the brick sidewalk) or adverb (John went home), and to indicate direct address (Jehovah, help us!).
Pronoun. A pronoun is a word which takes the place of a noun. It may be personal (I, thou, you, he, she, it, we, they), relative (who, which, what, that, as, and compounds whoever, whichsoever, etc.), interrogative (who, which, what), demonstrative (this, that, these, those), or indefinite (some, any, one, each, either, neither, none, few, all, both, etc.). Strictly speaking, the last two groups, demonstratives and indefinites, are adjectives used as pronouns. Certain pronouns are also used as adjectives, notably the possessives (my, his, their, etc.) and the relative or interrogative which and what. The addition of -self to a personal pronoun forms a reflexive pronoun or intensive (I blamed myself. You yourself are at fault). A noun for which the pronoun stands is called the antecedent. The uses of pronouns are in general the same as those of nouns. In addition, relatives serve as connectives (the man who spoke), interrogatives ask questions (what man?), and demonstratives point out (that man).
Verb. A verb is a word or word-group which makes an assertion about the subject. It may express either action or mere existence. It may be transitive (trans meaning "across"; hence action carried across, requiring a receiver of the act; Brutus stabbed Caesar; Caesar is stabbed) or intransitive (not requiring a receiver of the act: Montgomery fell). Its meaning is dependent upon its voice, mode, and tense. Voice shows the relationship between the subject and the assertion made by the verb. The active voice shows the subject as actor (They elected Washington); the passive voice, as acted upon (Washington was elected). (A transitive verb may be active or passive, but an intransitive verb has no voice.) Mode indicates the manner of predicating an action, whether as assertion, condition, command, etc. There are three modes in English. The indicative mode affirms or denies (He went. She did not dance.) The subjunctive expresses condition or wish (If he were older, he would be wiser. Would that I were there!). The imperative expresses command or exhortation (Remain there. Go! Let us pray). Modal auxiliaries with these three modes form modal aspects of the verb. There are as many different aspects as there are auxiliaries. Aspects are sometimes spoken of as separate modes or called collectively the "potential mode." Tense expresses the time of the action or existence. The tenses are the present, the past, the future (employing the auxiliaries shall and will), the perfect (employing have), the past perfect (employing had), and the future perfect (employing shall have and will have). Verbals are certain forms of the verb used as other parts of speech (noun, adjective, adverb). For the verbal forms, infinitive, gerund, and participle, see the separate headings.
Adjective. An adjective is a word used to modify a noun or pronoun. An adjective may be attributive (bright sun, cool-headed adventurers) or predicate (The field is broad. The meat tastes bad. I want this ready by Christmas). Adjectives assume three forms known as degrees of comparison. The positive degree indicates the simple quality of the object without reference to any other. The comparative degree indicates that two objects are compared (Stanley is the older brother). The superlative degree indicates that three or more objects are compared (Stanley is the oldest child in the family) or that the speaker feels great interest or emotion (A most excellent record). Ordinarily er or r is added to the positive to form the comparative, and est or st to the positive to form the superlative (brave, braver, bravest). But some adjectives (sometimes those of two, and always those of more than two, syllables) prefix more (or less) to the positive to form the comparative, and most (or least) to the positive to form the superlative (beautiful, more beautiful, most beautiful). Some adjectives express qualities that do not permit comparison (dead, four-sided, unique).
Adverb. An adverb is a word used to modify a verb, an adjective, another adverb (She played well; unusually handsome; very sternly); or, more rarely, a verbal noun (Walking fast is good for the health), a preposition (The ship drifted almost upon the breakers), or a conjunction (It came just when we wished). Certain adverbs (fatally, entirely) do not logically admit of comparison. Those that do are compared like adjectives of more than two syllables (slowly, more or less slowly, most or least slowly).
Preposition. A preposition is a connective placed before a substantive (called its object) in order to subordinate the substantive to some other word in a sentence (The boast of heraldry, the pomp of power. He ran toward the enemy without fear).
Conjunction. A conjunction is a word used to join together words, phrases, clauses, or sentences. A coordinate conjunction connects elements of equal rank (See 36). Correlative conjunctions are conjunctions used in pairs (See 31). A subordinate conjunction is one that connects elements unequal in rank (See 36). When a conjunction, in addition to its function as a connective, indicates a relation of time, place, or cause, it is often called a conjunctive adverb or relative adverb.
Interjection. An interjection is a word thrown into speech to express emotion. It has no grammatical connection with other words. (Oh, is that it? Well, I'll do it. Hark!)
Other Grammatical Terms
Absolute expression. An expression (usually composed of a substantive and a participle, perhaps with modifiers) which, though not formally and grammatically joined, is in thought related to the remainder of the sentence. (The relief party having arrived, we went home. This disposed of, the council proceeded to other matters. Defeated, he was not dismayed.)
Antecedent. A substantive to which a pronoun or participle refers. Literally, antecedent means that which goes before; but sometimes the antecedent follows the dependent word. (The man who hesitates is lost. Entering the store, we saw a barrel of apples.) Man is the antecedent of the pronoun who, and we is the antecedent of the participle entering.
Auxiliary. Be, have, do, shall, will, ought, may, can, must, might, could, would, should, etc., when used with participles and infinitives of other verbs, are called auxiliary verbs.
Case. The relation of a substantive to other words in the sentence as shown by inflectional form or position. The subject of a verb, or the predicate of the verb to be, is in the nominative case. The object of a verb or preposition, or the "assumed subject" of an infinitive, is in the objective case. A noun or pronoun which denotes possession is in the possessive case.
Clause. A portion of a sentence which contains a subject and a verb, perhaps with modifiers. The following sentence contains one dependent (subordinate) and one independent (principal) clause: When the storm ceased, the grove was a ruin.
Conjugation. The inflectional changes in the verb to indicate person, number, tense, voice, mode, and modal aspect.
Declension. The changes in a noun, pronoun, or adjective to indicate person, number, or case.
Ellipsis, elliptical expression. An expression partially incomplete, so that words have to be understood to complete the meaning. An idea or relation corresponding to the omitted words is present, at least vaguely, in the mind of the speaker. Elliptical sentences are usually justifiable except when the reader cannot instantly supply the understood words. Examples of proper ellipses: You are as tall as I [am tall]. Is your sister coming? I think [my sister is] not [coming]. I will go if you will [go]. [I give you] Thanks for your advice.
Gerund. A verbal in -ing used as a noun. (I do not object to your telling. His having deserted us makes little difference.) The gerund may be regarded as a special form of the infinitive.
Infinitive. A verbal ordinarily introduced by to and used as a noun (To err is human). In such sentences as "The road to follow is the river road," follow may be regarded as the noun of a phrase (compare the road to Mandalay), or the entire phrase may be regarded as an adjective. Similarly, in "He hastened to comply," comply may be regarded as a noun or to comply as an adverb. After certain verbs (bid, dare, help, make, need, etc.) the to is omitted from the infinitive group. (He bids me go. I need not hesitate.)
Inflection. Change in the form of a word to show a modification or shade of meaning. At a very early period in our language there was a separate form for practically every modification. Although separate forms are now less numerous, inflection is still a convenient term in grammar. Its scope is general: it includes the declension of nouns, the comparison of adjectives and adverbs, and the conjugation of verbs.
Modify. To be grammatically dependent upon and to limit or alter the quality of. In the expression "The very old man," the and old modify man, and very modifies old.
Participle. A verbal used as an adjective, or as an adjective with adverbial qualities. In the sentence "Mary, being oldest, is also the best liked," being oldest refers exclusively, or almost exclusively, to the subject and is therefore adjectival. In such sentences as "He fell back, exhausted" and "Running down the street, I collided with a baby carriage," the participle refers in part to the verb and is therefore adverbial as well as adjectival.
Phrase. A group of words forming a subordinate part of a sentence and not containing a subject and its verb. Examples: With a whistle and a roar the train arrived [prepositional phrase]. Bowing his head, the prisoner listened to the verdict of the jury [participial phrase]. In a loose, untechnical sense phrase may refer to any short group of words, even if the group includes a subject and its verb.
Predicate. The word or word-group in a sentence which makes an assertion about the subject. It consists of a finite verb with or without objects or modifiers.
Predicate adjective. An adjective in the predicate, usually linked with the subject by some form of the verb to be (is, was, were, etc.). (John is lazy. The soldiers were very eager.)
Predicate noun. A noun linked with the subject by some form of the verb to be. (John is halfback. They were our neighbors.)
Sentence. A sentence is a group of words containing (1) a subject (with or without modifiers) and a predicate (with or without modifiers) and not grammatically dependent on any words outside of itself; or (2) two or more such expressions related in thought. Sentences of type 1 are simple or complex; sentences of type 2 are compound. A simple sentence contains one independent clause (The dog barks angrily). A complex sentence contains one independent clause and one or more subordinate clauses (The dog barks when the thief appears). A compound sentence contains two or more independent clauses (The dog barks, and the thief runs).
Substantive. A noun or a word standing in place of a noun. (The king summoned parliament. The bravest are the tenderest. She was inconsolable.) A substantive phrase is a phrase used as a noun. (From Dan to Beersheba is a term for the whole of Israel.) A substantive clause is a clause used as a noun. (That he owed the money is certain.)
Syntax. Construction; the grammatical relation between the words, phrases, and clauses in a sentence.
Verbal. Any form of the verb used as another part of speech. Infinitives, gerunds, and participles are verbals. They are used to express action without asserting it, and cannot, therefore, have subjects or be used as predicate verbs.
Abridged Conjugation of the verb to take
Tense Active Voice Passive Voice
Indicative Mode
Present I take I am taken Past I took I was taken Future I shall (will) take I shall (will) be taken Perfect I have taken I have been taken Past Perfect I had taken I had been taken Future Perfect I shall (will) have taken I shall (will) have been taken
Subjunctive Mode
Present If I take If I be taken Past If I took If I were taken Perfect If I have taken If I have been taken Past Perfect If I had taken If I had been taken
Imperative Mode
Present Take
Modal Aspects
(Modal aspects, formed by combining auxiliaries with the main verb, give special meanings—emphatic, progressive, etc.—to the primary modes. Since there are almost as many aspects as there are auxiliaries, only a few can be enumerated here.)
Tense Active Voice Passive Voice
{ Emphatic: I do take { Progressive: I am taking I am being taken Present { Contingent: I may take I may be taken Indicative { Potential: I can take I can be taken { Obligative: I must take I must be taken { Etc.
{ Emphatic: I did take { Progressive: I was taking I was being taken Past { Contingent: I might take I might be taken Indicative { Potential: I could take I could be taken { Obligative: I must take I must be taken { Etc.
{ Emphatic: If I do take { Progressive: If I be taking Present { Contingent: If I might take Subjunctive { Potential: If I could take { Obligative: If I must take { Etc.
Present { Emphatic: Do take Imperative { Progressive: Be taking
Verbals
Infinitive
Active Voice Passive Voice Present: To take To be taken Perfect: To have taken To have been taken
Gerund
Present: Taking Being taken Perfect: Having taken Having been taken
Participle
Present: Taking Being taken Past: Taken Perfect: Having taken Having been taken
Exercise:
Copy a page of good prose from any book, leaving wide spaces between the lines. Indicate the part of speech of every word. This may be done by abbreviations placed beneath the words. For example:
"Von Arden, having fallen into a very unquiet noun part. prep. art. adv. adj.
slumber, dreamed that he was an aged man noun verb conj. pers pro. verb art. adj. noun
who stood beside a window." rel. pro. verb prep. art. noun
59. EXERCISE IN GRAMMAR
A. Case of Pronouns
Determine the correct form of the pronoun.
1. It is (I, me).
2. No one knows better than (she, her).
3. Then came the whistle for Gerald and (I, me).
4. It was (they, them).
5. Alice can drive a car as well as (he, him).
6. It was (she, her) (who, whom) you saw on the car.
7. John, you may go with Dan and (I, me).
8. If I were (she, her), I could not think of accepting the questionable honor.
9. One evening four of (we, us) girls decided to go to the theater.
10. Others are older than (we, us).
11. (Who, Whom) do you imagine will be our next president?
12. He does not approve of (our, us) walking on the grass.
13. Counsel will be given to (they, them) who ask for it.
14. That seems strange to you and (I, me).
15. Her mother has more regular features than (she, her).
16. Women (who, whom) some people would call "quiet" are often the wisest.
17. Between you and (I, me), I'm hungry.
18. The thought of (it, its) coming by parcel post never entered my mind.
19. He never discovered (who, whom) his enemy was.
20. In case of a fumble, the ball is given to (whoever, whomever) recovers it.
B. Agreement
Determine the correct form of the verb.
1. He (don't, doesn't) care for music.
2. The swimming, boating, and fishing (is, are) good.
3. Each one of the two hands of the clock (is, are) made of gold.
4. The ore is sorted and the cars having good ore (is, are) hauled to the smelter.
5. A deck of ordinary playing cards consisting of fifty-two cards (is, are) used.
6. It is safe to say that only one out of every ten of the great number of students (realizes, realize) the value of economy.
7. In spite of all obstacles, the construction of the three hundred trestles and the twenty scaffolds (was, were) completed.
8. Some nights may seem still, yet there (is, are) always noises.
9. The exact meaning of such words as inspiration, prophecy, and orthodox (puzzles, puzzle) laymen.
10. Hard roads (is, are) an important matter to all country people.
11. There (has, have) been many lives lost in Arctic exploration.
12. Personal gifts inspired by good will and directed by careful thought (is, are) the very best kind of charity.
13. In Lincoln's replies to Douglas there (is, are) no flights or oratory.
14. The conciseness of these lines (is, are) to be admired.
15. A constant stream of wagons and horses (was, were) passing as the circus was unloaded.
16. Nevertheless there (exists, exist) a certain class of students who are socially submerged.
17. She (doesn't, don't) care for olives.
18. "Current Events" (is, are) a very useful department of this magazine.
19. No people (lives, live) in that house.
20. The corporal, together with two other members of the patrol, (was, were) captured by the enemy.
C. Shall and Will, Should and Would
Determine the correct form of the verb.
1. Perhaps I (shall, will) be able to go.
2. I tell you, I (shall will) not allow that dog in the car.
3. It is odd what a person (shall, will) do in a time of excitement.
4. They have never seen anything like it, and probably they never (shall, will).
5. "Johnny, you (shall, will) not go!" Johnny knew that further begging was useless.
6. As we (shall, will) find by investigation, our coast fortifications are few.
7. I (shouldn't, wouldn't) do that for anything.
8. I (should, would) think you (should, would) enjoy your bicycle.
9. (Shall, will) you go driving with us?
10. Do you think it (shall, will) rain?
11. Where (shall, will) I hang my hat?
12. (Should, would) you go if I (should, would) ask you?
13. Rover (should, would) stay in the house all the time, if we (should, would) let him. |
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