Another constant interchange is that of CH and D. This also is shown well in names of ato, as follows: Cha-kong' or Da-kong'; Pud-pud-chog' or Pud-pud-dog'; and Si-gi-chan' or Si-gi-dan'. It is shown also in chi'-la or di'-la (tongue).

The interchange of initial K and G is constant. These letters are interchanged in the following names of ato: Am-ka'-wa or Am-ga'-wa; Lu-wa'-kan or Lu-wa'-gan; and Ung-kan' or Ung-gan'. Other illustrations are ku'-lid or gu'-lid (itch) and ye'-ka or ye'-ga (earthquake).

The following three words illustrate both the last two interchanges: Cho'-ko or Do'-go (name of an ato); pag-pa-ga'-da or pag-pa-ka'-cha (heel); and ka-cho' or ga-de'-o (fish).

Nouns

The nouns appear to undergo slight change to indicate gender, number, or case. To indicate sex the noun is followed by the word for woman or man — as, a'-su fa-fay'-i (female dog), or a'-su la-la'-ki (male dog). The same method is employed to indicate sex in the case of the third personal pronoun Si'-a or Si-to-di'. Si'-a la-le'-ki or Si-to-di' la-la'-ki is used to indicate the masculine gender, and Si'-a fa-fay'-i or Si-to-di' fa-fay'-i the feminine.

The plural form of the noun is sometimes the same as the singular. Plural number may also be expressed by use of the word ang-san (many) or am-in' (all) in addition to the noun. It is sometimes expressed by repetition of syllables, as la-la'-ki (man), la-la-la'-ki (men); sometimes, also, by the prefix ka together with repetition of syllables, as li-fo'-o (cloud), ka-li'-fo-li-fo'-o (clouds). There seems to be no definite law in accordance with which these several plural forms are made. When in need of plurals in this study the singular form has always been used largely for simplicity.

Pronouns

The personal pronouns are:



I Sak-in'

You Sik-a'

He, she Si'-a and Si-to-di'

We Cha-ta'-ko and Cha-ka'-mi

You Cha-kay'-yo

They Cha-i-cha and Cha-to-di'

Examples of the possessive as indicated in the first person are given below:



My father A-mak'

My dog A-suk'

My hand Li-mak'

Our father A-ma'-ta

Our dog A-su'-ta

Our house A-fong'-ta

Other examples of the possessive are not at hand, but these given indicate that, as in most Malay dialects, a noun with a possessive suffix is one form of the possessive.

Scheerer[43] gives the possessive suffixes of the Benguet Igorot as follows:



My K, after A, I, O, and U, otherwise 'KO

Thy } M, after A, I, O, and U, otherwise 'MO

Your

His } IO

Her

Our (inc.) 'TAYO

Our (exc.) 'ME

Your 'DIO

Their 'CHA or 'RA

These possessive suffixes in the Benguet Igorot language are the same, according to Scheerer, as the suffixes used in verbal formation.

The verbal suffixes of the Bontoc Igorot are very similar to those of the Benguet. It is therefore probable that the possessive suffixes are also very similar.

It is interesting to note that in the Chamorro language of Guam the possessive suffixes for the first person correspond to those of the Igorot — MY is KO and OUR is TA.

Verbs

Mention has been made of the verbal suffixes. Their use is shown in the following paradigms:



I eat Sak-in' mang-an-ak'

You eat Sik-a' mang-an-ka'

He eats Si-to-di' mang-an'

We eat Cha-ka'-mi mang-an-ka-mi'

You eat Cha-kay'-yo mang-an-kay'-o

They eat Cha-to-di' mang-an-cha'

I go Sak-in' u-mi-ak'

You go Sik-a' u-mi-ka'

He goes Si-to-di' u-mi'

We go Cha-ka-mi' u-mi-ka-mi'

You go Cha-kay'-yo u-mi-kay'-yo

They go Cha-to-di' u-mi-cha'

The suffixes are given below, and the relation they bear to the personal pronouns is also shown by heavy-faced type:



I 'ak Sak-in'

You (sing) 'ka Sik-a'

He ... Si'-a or Si-to-di'

We kami or tako Cha-ka'-mi or Cha-ta'-ko

You kayo Cha-kay'-yo

They cha Cha-to-di' or cha-i'-cha

The Benguet suffixes as given by Scheerer are:



I 'ko or 'ak

You 'mo or 'ka

He 'to

We { me

tayo

You 'kayo or 'dio

They 'ra or 'cha

The verbal suffixes seem to be commonly used by the Bontoc Igorot in verbal formations. The tense of a verb standing alone seems always indefinite; the context alone tells whether the present, past, or future is indicated.

Comparative vocabularies

About eighty-five words have been selected expressing simple ideas. These are given in the Bontoc Igorot language and as far as possible in the Benguet Igorot; they are also given in the Malay and the Sulu languages.

Of eighty-six words in both Malay and Bontoc 32 per cent are clearly derived from the same root words, and of eighty-four words in the Sulu and Bontoc 45 per cent are from the same root words. Of sixty-eight words in both Malay and Benguet 34 per cent are from the same root words, and 47 per cent of sixty-seven Benguet and Sulu words are from the same root words. Of sixty-four words in Bontoc and Benguet 58 per cent are the same or nearly the same.

These facts suggest the movement of the Philippine people from the birthplace of the parent tongue, and also the great family of existing allied languages originating in the primitive Malayan language. They also suggest that the Bontoc and the Benguet peoples came away quite closely allied from the original nest, and that they had association with the Sulu later than with the Malay.

[In the following compilation works have been consulted respectively as follows: Malay — Hugh Clifford and Frank Athelstane Swettenham, A Dictionary of The Malay Language (Taiping, Perak; in parts, Part I appearing 1894, Part III appearing 1904); Sulu — Andson Cowie, English-Sulu-Malay Vocabulary, with Useful Sentences, Tables, etc. (London, 1893); Benguet Igorot — Otto Scheerer, The Ibaloi Igorot, MS. in MS. Coll., The Ethnological Survey for the Philippine Islands.]



English Malay Sulu Benguet Igorot Bontoc Igorot

Ashes Abu Abu De-pok Cha-pu'

Bad Jahat (wicked) Mang-i, ngi ... Ngag

Black Hitam Itam An-to'-leng In-ni'-tit

Blind Buta Buta Sa-gei a ku'-rab[44] Na-ki'-mit

Blood Darah Duguh Cha'-la Cha'-la

Bone Tulang Bukog Pu'-gil Ung-et'

Burn, to Bakar Sunog ... Fin-mi'-chan

Chicken Anak ayam Anak-manok ... Mo-nok'

Child Anak Batah, anak A-a'-nak Ong-ong'-a

Come Mari Mari ... A-li-ka'

Cut, to Potong Hoyah Kom-pol' Ku-ke'-chun

Day Hari Adlau A-kou A-qu'

Die, to Mati Matai ... Ma-ti'

Dog Anjing Erok A-su' A'-su

Drink, to Minum Hinom, minom ... U-mi-num'

Ear Telinga Tainga Tang-i'-da Ko-weng'

Earthquake Gempa tanah Linog Yek-yek Ye'-ga

Eat, to Makan Ka-aun Kanin Mang-an', Ka-kan'

Eight Dilapan Walu Gua'-lo Wa-lo'

Eye Mata Mata Ma-ta Ma-ta'

Father Baba Amah A-ma A'-ma

Finger nail Kuku Kuku Ko-go Ko-ko'

Fire Api Kayu A-pui A-pu'-i

Five Lima Lima Di'-ma Li-ma'

Foot Kaki Siki Cha-pan Cha-pan'

Four Ampat Opat Ap'-pat I-pat'

Fruit Buah Bunga-kahol Damos Fi-kus'-na

Get up, to Bangun Bangun ... Fo-ma-ong'

Good Baik Maraiau ... Cug-a-wis'

Grasshopper Bi-lalang Ampan Chu'-ron Cho'-chon

Ground (earth) Tanah Lopah Bu'-dai Lu'-ta

Hair of head Rambut Buhok Bu-og Fo-ok'

Hand Tangan Lima Di-ma Li-ma', Ad-pa'

Head Kepala O Tok-tok O'-lo

Hear, to Dengar Dungag ... Chung-nen'

Here Sini Di, di-ha-inni Chiai Is'-na

Hog Babi Baboi Ke-chil Fu-tug'

I Shaya Aku Sikak; Sidiak Sak-in'

Kill, to Bunoh Bunoh Bunu'-in Na-fa'-kug

Knife Pisau Lading Ta'-ad Ki-pan'

Large Besar Dakolah Abatek Chuk-chuk'-i

Lightning Kilat Kilat Ba-gi'-dat Yup-Yup

Louse Kutu Kutu Ku-to Ko'-to

Man Orang Tau Da'-gi La-la'-ki

Monkey Munyit, Kra Amok Ba-ges Ka-ag'

Moon Bulan Bulan Bu'-lan Fu-an'

Mortar (for rice) Lesong Lusong ... Lu-song'

Mother Mak, ibu Inah I-na I'-na

Night Malam Dum Kal-leian, A-da'-wi Mas-chim, la-fi'

Nine S'ambilan Siam Dsi'-am Si-am'

No Tidak Waim di ... A-di'

Nose Hidong Ilong A-deng I-ling'

One Satu, suatu, sa Isa Sa-gei' I-sa'

Rain Hujan Ulan U'-ran O-chan'

Red Merah Pula, lag Am-ba'-alang-a Lang-at'

Rice (threshed) Padi Pai ... Pa-ku'

Rice (boiled) Nasi K'aun-an I-na-pui Mak-an'

River Sungei Sobah Pa'-dok Wang'-a

Run, to Lari Dag-an ... In-tug'-tug

Salt Garam Asin A-sin Si'-mut

Seven Tujoh Peto Pit'-to Pi-to'

Sit, to Dudok Lingkud ... Tu-muck'-chu

Six Anam Unom An-nim I-nim'

Sky Langit Langit Dang-it Chay'-ya

Sleep, to Tidor Ma-tog ... Ma-si-yip'

Small Kechil Asivi O-o'-tik Fan-ig'

Smoke Asap Aso A-sok A-sok'

Steal, to Men-churi Takau Magibat Mang-a-qu'

Stone Batu Batu Ba-to Ba-to

Sun Mata-Hari Mata suga A-kau, Si-kit A-qu'

Talk, to Ber-chakap Nug-pamong ... En-ka-li'

Ten Sa'puloh Hangpoh Sam-pu'-lo Sim-po'-o

There Di-situ, Di-sana Ha ietu, dun Chitan, Chiman Is'-chi

Three Tiga To Tad'-do To-lo'

To-morrow Esok, Besok Kin-shum Ka-bua-san A-swa'-kus

Tree Poko'kayu Kahoi Po-on Cha-pon', Kay'-o

Two Dua Rua, Dua Chu'-a Chu'-wa

Walk, to Ber-jalan Panau ... Ma-na'-lun

Water Ayer Tubig Cha-num Che-num'

White Puteh Ma-putih Am-pu-ti' Im-po'-kan

Wind Angin Hangin Cha-num Che-num'

Woman Prempuan Babai Bi-i, a-ko'-dau Fa-fay'-i

Wood Kayu Kahol Ki'-u Kay'-o

Yellow Kuning ... Chu-yao[45] Fa-king'-i

Yes Ya ... ... Ay

You (singular) Ankau Ekau Sikam Sik'-a



Bontoc vocabulary

The following vocabulary is presented in groups with the purpose of throwing additional light on the grade of culture the Igorot has attained.

No words follow which represent ideas borrowed of a modern culture; for instance, I do not record what the Igorot calls shoes, pantaloons, umbrellas, chairs, or books, no one of which objects he naturally possesses.

Whereas it is not claimed that all the words spoken by the Igorot follow under the various headings, yet it is believed that the man's vocabulary is nearly exhausted under such headings as "Cosmology," "Clothing, dress, and adornment," and "Weapons, utensils, etc.:"

English, with Bontoc equivalent

Cosmology



Afternoon Mug-a-qu'

Afternoon, middle of Mak-sip'

Air Si'-yak

Ashes Cha-pu'

Blaze Lang-lang

Cloud, rain Li-fo'-o

Creek Ki-nan'-wan

Dawn Wi-wi-it'

Day A-qu'

Day after to-morrow Ka-sin' wa'-kus

Day before yesterday Ka-sin' ug'-ka

Dust Cha'-pog

Earthquake Ye'-ga

East Fa-la'-an si a-qu'

Evening Ni-su'-yao

Fire A-pu'-i

Ground (earth) Lu'-ta

Hill Chun'-tug

Horizon Nang'-ab si chay'-ya

Island Pa'-na

Lightning Yup-yup

Midnight Teng-ang si la-fi'

Milky way Ang'-san nan tuk-fi'-fi[46]

Moon Fu-an'

Moon, eclipse of Ping-mang'-et nan fu-an'

Moon, full Fit-fi-tay'-eg

Moon, waxing, one-quarter Fis-ka'-na

Moon, waxing, two-quarters Ma-no'-wa

Moon, waxing, three-quarters Kat-no-wa'-na

Moon, waning, three-quarters Ka-tol-pa-ka'-na

Moon, waning, two-quarters Ki-sul-fi-ka'-na

Moon, waning, one-quarter Sig-na'-a-na

Moon, period following Li'-meng

Morning Fib-i-kut'

Morning, mid Ma-a-qu'

Mountain Fi'-lig

Mud Pi'-tek

Nadir Ad-cha'-im

Night La-fi' or mas-chim

Noon Nen-ting'-a or teng-ang si a-qu'

Periods of time in a year I-na-na', La'-tub, Cho'-ok, Li'-pas, Ba-li'-ling, Sa-gan-ma', Pa-chog', Sa'-ma

Plain Cha'-ta

Pond Tab-lak'

Precipice Ki-chay'

Rain O-chan'

Rainbow Fung-a'-kan

River Wang'-a

River, down the river[47] La'-god

River, mouth of Sa-fang-ni'-na

River, up the river[48] Ap'-lay

Sand O-fod'

Sea Po'-sang

Season, rice culture Cha-kon'

Season, remainder of year Ka-sip'

Sky Chay'-ya

Smoke A-sok'

Spring Ib-ib

Spring, hot Lu-ag'

Stars, large Fat-ta-ka'-kan

Stars, small Tuk-fi'-fi

Stone Ba-to

Storm, heavy (rain and winds) O-chan' ya cha-kim

Storm, heavy prolonged (baguio) Lim-lim

Sun A-qu'

Sun, eclipse of Ping-mang'-et

Sunrise Lap-lap-on'-a

Sunset Le-nun-nek' nan a-qu'

Thunder Ki-cho'

To-day Ad-wa'-ni

To-morrow A-swa'-kus

Valley, or canon Cha-lu'-lug

Water Che-num'

Waterfall Pa-lup-o'

West Lum-na-kan' si a-qu'

Whirlwind Al-li-pos'-pos or fa-no'-on

Wind Cha-kim

Year Ta'-win

Year, past Tin-mo-win

Yesterday A-dug-ka'

Zenith Ad-tong'-cho



Human Body



Ankle Ung-et'

Ankle bone King-king-i'

Arm Li'-ma

Arm, left I-kid'

Arm, right A-wan'

Arm, upper Pong'-o

Arm, upper, near shoulder Tak-lay'

Armpit Yek-yek'

Back I-chug'

Beard, side of face Sap-ki'

Belly Fo'-to

Bladder Fi-chung'

Blood Cha'-la

Body A'-wak

Bone Ung-et' or tung-al'

Brain U'-tek

Breast So'-so

Breath Ing-ga'-es

Cheek Ta-mong' or i-ping'

Chest Ta'-kib

Chin Pang'-a

Ear Ko-weng'

Elbow Si'-ko

Excreta Tay-i

Eye Ma-ta'

Eyebrow Ki-chi'

Eyelash Ki-chi'

Eyelid Ta-nib si ma'-ya

Finger Li-cheng'

Finger, index or first Mes-ned' si am-am'-a

Finger, little Ik-ik-king'

Finger, second Ka-wa'-an

Finger, third Mes-ned si nan ka-wa'-an

Finger nail Ko-ko'

Foot Cha-pan'

Foot, instep of O'-son si cha-pan'

Forehead Ki'-tong

Gall A-ku'

Groin Lip-yak'

Hair in armpit Ki-lem' si yek-yek'

Hair on crown of head Tug-tug'-o

Hair on head Fo-ok'

Hair, pubic, man's Ki-lem' si o'-ti

Hand Ad-pa' or li'-ma

Hand, inside of Ta'-lad

Head O'-lo

Heart Po'-so

Heel Pag-pa-ga'-da

Hip Tip-ay

Intestine Fu-ang'

Jaw Pang'-a

Kidney Fa-tin'

Knee Gung-gung'-o

Leg Si-ki'

Leg, calf of Fit'-kin

Lip, lower So'-fil ay nin-gub'

Lip, upper So'-fil

Liver A-tu'-i

Lung Fa'-la

Mouth To-puk'

Navel Pu'-sig

Neck Fuk-kang'

Neck, back of Tung-ed'

Nipple So'-so

Nose I-ling'

Nostril Pa-nang'-e-tan

Palate A-lang-a-ang'

Penis O'-ti

Rib Tag-lang'

Rump U-fit

Saliva Tuv'-fa

Shoulder Po-ke'

Shoulder blade Gang-gang'-sa

Skin Ko-chil'

Spinal cord U'-tuk si ung-et'

Spine Ka-ung-e-ung-et'

Spirit of living person Leng-ag'

Spirit of dead person A-ni'-to

Spirit of beheaded dead Pin-teng'

Sternum Los-los-it'

Stomach Fa'-sag

Sweat (perspiration) Ling-et

Testicle Lug-lug'-ong

Thigh U'-po

Throat A-lo-go'-og

Thumb Am-am'-a

Toe Go-mot'

Toe, first Mes-ned si am-am'-a si cha-pan'

Toe, fourth Ik-ik-king' si cha-pan'

Toe, third Mes-ned si nan ka-wa'-an si cha-pan'

Toe, great Am-am'-a si cha-pan'

Toe nail Ko-ko' si go-mot'

Toe, second Ka-wa'-an si cha-pan'

Tongue Chi'-la

Tooth Fob-a'

Urine Is-fo

Vagina Ti'-li

Vein Wath

Vertebrae Ung-et' si i-chug'

Wrist Pang-at si'-nang

Wrist joint Ung-et'



Bodily Conditions



Ague Wug-wug

Beri-beri Fu-tut

Blindness, eyelids closed Na-ki'-mit

Blindness, eyelids open Fu-lug

Blood, passage of In-is-fo cha'-la, or in-tay'-es cha'-la

Boil, a Fu-yu-i'

Burn, a Ma-la-fub-chong'

Childbirth In-sa'-cha

Cholera Pish-ti'

Circumcision Sig-i-at'

Cold, a Mo-tug'

Consumption O'-kat

Corpse A'-wak

Cut, a Na-fa'-kag

Deafness Tu'-wing

Diarrhea O-gi'-ak

Dumbness Gna-nak

Eyes, crossed Li'-i

Eyes, sore In-o'-ki

Feet, cracked from wading in rice paddies Fung-as'

Fever Im-po'-os nan a'-wak

Goiter Fin-to'-kel or fi-kek'

Headache Sa-kit' si o'-lo or pa-tug' si o'-lo

Health Ka-wis' nan a'-wak

Itch or mange Ku'-lid

Itch, first stage of small sores Ka'-ti

Pain In-sa-ki'

Pitted-face Ga-la'-ga

Rheumatism Fig-fig

Scar Sap-luk

Sickness Nay-yu' nan a'-wak

Smallpox Ful-tang'

Swelling Nay-am-an' or kin-may-yon'

Syphilis Na-na

Toe, inturning Fa'-wing

Toothache Pa-tug' nan fob-a'

Ulcers and sores, disease of Lang-ing'-i

Varicose vein O'-pat



Consanguineal and Social Relationships



Aunt A-ki-na

Babe, boy Kil-lang'

Babe, girl Gna-an'

Brother U'-na

Child Ong-ong'-a

Consanguineal group or family Sim-pang' a-nak', Sim-pang' a-po', Sim-pang' a'-fong

Father A'-ma

Man La-la'-ki

Man, old Am-a'-ma

Man, poor Pu'-chi

Man, rich Ka-chan-a-yan'

Mother I'-na

Orphan Nang-o'-so

Orphan, father dead Nan-a-ma'-na

Orphan, mother dead Nan-i-na'-na

People I-pu-kao'

People, of another pueblo Mang-i'-li

People, of one's own pueblo Kay-il-yan'

Person, one Ta'-ku

Relative I-ba'

Sister A-no'-chi

Twins Na-a-pik'

Wife A-sa'-wa

Woman Fa-fay'-i

Woman, old In-i'-na



Clothing, Dress, and Adornment



Armlet, bejuco Sung-ub'

Armlet, boar tusk Ab-kil'

Bag, flint and steel Pal-ma-ting'-un

Bag, tobacco, cloth Cho'-kao

Bag, tobacco, bladder carabao or hog Fi-chong'

Bag, tobacco, bladder deer Ka'-tat

Beads, string of A-pong'

Beads, dog tooth Sa-ong

Beads, seed, black Gu-sao'

Beads, seed, blue gray At-lok-ku'-i

Beads, red agate Si'-lung

Beads, white, large Fo'-kus

Blanket E-wis' or pi'-tay

Blanket, girl's Kud-pas'

Blanket, black, white stripes Fa-yi-ong'

Blanket, blue Pi-nag-pa'-gan

Blanket, used to carry baby on back I-fan'

Blanket, white, blue stripes Fan-cha'-la

Blanket, white, wide blue stripes Ti-na'-pi

Breechcloth Wa'-nis

Breechcloth, bark, red Ti-nan'-agt

Breechcloth, bark, white So'-put

Breechcloth, bark, white, burial Chi-nang-ta'

Breechcloth, blue Fa'-a

Breechcloth, blue, small stripes Bi-no-slun'

Breechcloth, woman's menstruation Fa'-la

Ear plug or ear stretcher Su-wip'

Earring, three varieties Sing-sing, i-pit, sing-ut'

Girdle, man's, chain Ka'-ching

Girdle, man's, bejuco rope Ka'-kot

Girdle, man's, bejuco string I-kit'

Girdle, man's, fiber Song-kit-an'

Girdle, woman's Wa'-kis

Girdle, woman's, bustle-like A-ko'-san

Hair, false Fo-bo-ok'

Hat, man's Suk'-lang

Hat, man's fez-shaped, of Bontoc pueblo Ti-no-od'

Hat, man's rain Seg-fi'

Hat, sleeping Kut'-lao

Headcloth, burial To-chong'

Jacket, woman's La-ma

Necklace, boar tusk Fu-yay'-ya

Neck ring, brass Bang-gu

Pipe Fo-bang'-a

Pipe, clay Ki-na-lo'-sab

Pipe, brass "anito" Tin-ak-ta'-go

Pipe, smooth cast metal Pin-e-po-yong'

Rain protector, woman's Tug-wi'

Rain protector, camote leaf Ang-el'

Shell, mother-of-pearl, worn at waist by men Fi-kum'

Shirt, man's blue burial Los-a'-dan

Shirt, man's blue burial, red and yellow threads A-ni'-wis

Skirt, woman's burial Kay-in'

Skirt, cotton Lu-fid' i kad-pas

Skirt, cotton, Bognen Qa'-bou

Skirt, fiber Pi-tay'

Skirt, made of falatong Lu-fid'

Skirt, twine of Mi-no'-kan

Tattoo Fa'-tek

Tattoo, arm Pong'-o

Tattoo, breast Chak-lag'



Foods and Beverages



Beverage, fermented rice Ta-pu'-i

Beverage, fermented rice, ferment of Fu-fud

Beverage, fermented sugar cane Ba'-si

Beverage, fermented sugar cane, ferment of Tub-fig'

Beverage, fermented vegetables and meats Sa-fu-eng'

Food, beans and rice Sib-fan'

Food, camotes and rice Ke-le'-ke

Food, locusts and rice Pi-na-lat'

Food, preserved meat It-tag'

Salt Si-mut

Salt, cake of Luk'-sa



Weapons, Utensils, Etc.



Ax, battle Pi'-tong

Ax, cutting edge of To-pek'

Ax, handle of Pa-lik'

Ax, handle, bejuco ferrule of Tok'-no

Ax, handle, iron ferrule of Ka-lo'-lot

Ax, handle, top point of blade of Pow-wit'

Ax, working tool Wa'-say

Ax, working tool, blade turned as adz Sa'-ka

Ax, working tool, handle of Pa-ka'-cha

Basket, baby's food bottle Tuk-to'-pil

Basket, ceremonial, chicken Fi-ki'

Basket, dinner To'-pil

Basket, fish Kot-ten'

Basket, fish, small Fak-king'

Basket, gangsa Fa'-i si gang'-sa

Basket, grasshopper I-wus'

Basket, house, holding about a peck Fa-lo'-ko

Basket, man's carrying Ka-lu'-pit

Basket, man's dirt Ko-chuk-kod'

Basket, man's dirt scoop Tak-o-chug'

Basket, man's transportation Ki-ma'-ta

Basket, man's transportation, handle of Pa'-tang

Basket, man's traveling Sang'-i

Basket, man's traveling, with rain-proof covering (so-called "head basket") Fang'-ao

Basket, salt Fa-ni'-ta

Basket, side, small, for tobacco A-ku'-pan

Basket, spoon So'-long

Basket, threshed rice Ko'-lug

Basket, tobacco, small Ka-lu'-pit

Basket, woman's rum Ag-ka-win'

Basket, woman's transportation Lu'-wa

Basket, woman's transportation, large Tay-ya-an'

Basket, woman's vegetable A-fo-fang

Basket, woman's vegetable scoop Sug-fi'

Bellows Op-op'

Bellows, piston of Dot-dot'

Bellows, tube of, to fire To-bong'

Bird scarer, carabao horn Kong-ok'

Box, small wooden, for hair grease Tug-tug'-no

Chair, for corpse Sung-a'-chil

Coffin A-lo'-ang

Deadfall, for wild hogs Il-tib'

Dish, small wooden Chu'-yu

Dish, small wooden, bowl-shaped Suk-ong'

Drumstick Pat-tong'

Fire machine, bamboo Co-li'-li

Fire machine, flint and steel Pal-ting'

Fire machine, flint and steel, cotton used with as tinder A-mek'

Gong, bronze Gang'-sa

Gong, bronze (two varieties) Ka'-los, Co-ong'-an

Gourd, large bejuco-bound, for meat Fa'-lay

Head pad, woman's, for supporting load on head Ki'-kan

Jews-harp, wooden Ab-a'-fu

Jug, gourd, for basi Tak-ing'

Knife, man's small Ki-pan'

Ladle, common wooden, for rice Fa'-nu

Ladle, gourd Ki-ud

Ladle, narrow wooden Fak-ong'

Loom In-a-fu'-i

Mortar, double, for threshing rice Lu-song'

Needle Cha-kay'-yum

Net, grasshopper Se-chok'

Olla, roughly spherical jar Fang'-a

Olla, more paralleled-side jar Fu-o-foy'

Olla, preserved meat Tu-u'-nan

Paddle, olla-molding Pip-i

Pail, wooden, for feeding pigs Kak-wan'

Pestle, rice Al'-o

Pit-fall, for hogs Fi'-to

Plate, eating, of braided bamboo Ki'-ug

Scarecrows Pa-chek', ki'-lao

Scarecrows, water power, line of Pi-chug'

Scarecrows, water power, wood in rapids Pit-ug'

Sieve, rice A-ka'-ug

Snare, wild chicken Shi'-ay

Snare, spring, bird Si-sim' and Ling-an'

Snare, spring, wild chicken and cat Kok-o'-lang

Spear Fal-feg'

Spear, blade of Tu'-fay

Spear, blade, barbless Fang'-kao

Spear, blade, many-barbed Si-na-la-wi'-tan

Spear, blade, single-barbed Fal-feg'

Spear, blade Kay-yan'

Spoon, large wooden, for drinking Tug-on'

Spoon, large wooden, for pig's feed Ka-od'

Spoon, small wooden, for eating I-chus'

Stick, soil-turning Kay-kay

Stick, woman's camote Su-wan'

Sweep runo, for catching birds Ka-lib'

Tattooing instrument Cha-kay'-yum

Torch Si-lu'

Trap, fish, funnel, large O-kat'

Trap, fish, funnel, small Ob-o'-fu

Trap, fish, scoop Ko-yug'

Trap, wild-cat Fa-wang'

Tray, winnowing Lig-o'

Trough, for salt at Mayinit Ko-long'-ko

Tube, for basi Fu-us

Whetstone A-san'



Home and Field



Canal, irrigating A'-lak

Council house for men Fa'-wi

Council house, open court of Chi-la'

Council house, open court of, posts in Po-si'

Council house, roofed portion of Tung-fub'

Council house, closed room of A'-fo

Council house, closed room, doorway of Pan-tu

Council house, closed room, fireplace of A-ni-chu'-an

Council house, closed room, floor of Chap-ay'

Council house, wall of To-ping

Dam, in river Lung-ud'

Dormitory, boys' Pa-ba-fu'-nan

Dormitory, girls' O'-lag

Dwelling A'-fong

Dwelling, better class of Fay'-u

Dwelling, better class, aisle in Cha-la'-nan

Dwelling, better class, door of Tang-ib

Dwelling, better class, first room on left of aisle Chap-an'

Dwelling, better class, second room on left of aisle Cha-le-ka-nan' si mo-o'-to

Dwelling, better class, sleeping room of Ang-an'

Dwelling, better class, small recesses at ends of sleeping room Kub-kub

Dwelling, better class, stationary shelf in Chuk'-so

Dwelling, poorer class Kat-yu'-fong

Fence, garden A'-lad

Granary A-lang'

Lands, public Pag-pag'

Sementera, rice Pay-yo'

Sementera, abandoned Nud-yun a pay-yo'

Sementera, large, producing more than five cargoes Pay-yo' chuk-chuk'-wag

Sementera, small, producing less than five cargoes Pay-yo' ay fa-nig

Sementera, irrigated by hand Pay-yo' a kao-u'-chan

Sementera, unirrigated mountain Fo-ag'

Sementera, used as seed bed Pad-cho-kan'

Stones, groups of in pueblo, said to be places to rest and talk O-bub-fu'-nan

Troughs, irrigation Ta-la'-kan

Troughs, irrigation, scaffolding of To-kod'

Walls, sementera Fa-ning'



Animals



Ant, large black Ku'-sim

Ant, large red A-lala-sang'

Ant, large red, pincers of Ken'-ang

Ant, small red Fu'-wis

Bedbug Ki'-teb

Bee Yu'-kan

Bee, wax of A-tid'

Bird Ay-ay'-am

Butterfly, large Fi-no-lo-fo'-lo

Butterfly, small Ak-a'-kop

Carabao No-ang'

Carabao, backbone of Tig-tig-i'

Carabao, body of Po'-to

Carabao bull Tot'-o

Carabao calf I-na-nak' ay no-ang'

Carabao cow Kam-bat'-yan

Carabao cow, udder of So'-so

Carabao, dew claw of Pa-king-i'

Carabao, foot of Ko'-kod

Carabao, fore leg of Kong-kong'-o ay pang-u-lo

Carabao, forequarters of Pang-u-lo

Carabao, hair of Tot-chut'

Carabao, hind leg of Kong-kong'-o ay o-chi-chi'

Carabao, horn of Sa-kod'

Carabao, white mark on neck of La-fang'

Carabao, point of shoulder of Mok-mok-ling pang-u-lo

Carabao, rear quarters of O-chi-chi'

Carabao, rump of Ba-long'-a

Carabao, tail of I'-pus

Carabao, wild Ay-ya-wan'

Caterpillar Ge'-cheng

Chicken Mo-nok'

Chicken, cock Kao-wi'-tan

Chicken, cock, spur of Pa-ging-i'

Chicken, cock, wild Sa'-fug

Chicken, comb of Ba-long-a-bing'

Chicken, crop of Fi-chong'

Chicken, ear lobe of, white Ko-weng'

Chicken, egg Et-log'

Chicken, foot of Go-mot'

Chicken, gall of Ak-ko'

Chicken, gizzard of Fit-li'

Chicken, heart of Leng-ag'

Chicken, hen Mang-a'-lak

Chicken, leg of Pu-yong' or o-po'

Chicken, liver of A'-ti

Chicken, mandible of To-kay'

Chicken, pullet Chi'-sak

Chicken, stomach of Fu-ang'

Chicken, tail of Ga-tod'

Chicken, toe of Ga'-wa

Chicken, toe nail of Ko-ko'

Chicken, wattles of Ba-long-a-bing'

Chicken, wing of Pay-yok'

Chicken, young Im'-pas

Crab Ag-ka'-ma

Crab (found in sementeras) Song'-an

Cricket Fil-fil'-ting

Crow Gay-yang

Deer Og'-sa

Dog A'-su

Dog, male La-la'-ki ay a'-su

Dog, female Fa-fay'-i ay a'-su

Dog, puppy O-ken'

Dragon fly Lang-fay'-an

Fish, large, 3 to 5 feet long Cha-lit'

Fish, 6 to 10 inches long Li'-ling

Fish, small Ka-cho'

Flea Ti'-lang

Fly (house fly) La'-lug

Hawk La-fa'-an

Hog Fu-tug'

Hog, barrow Na-fit-li'-an

Hog, boar Bu'-a

Hog, boar, tusk of Tang-o'-fu

Hog, sow O-go'

Hog, wild La'-man or fang'-o

Hog, young A-mug'

Horse Ka-fay'-o

Horse, colt I-na-nak' ay ka-fay'-o

Horse, mare Fa-fay'-i ay ka-fay'-o

Horse, stallion La-la'-ki ay ka-fay'-o

Lizard Fa-ni'-as

Locust Cho'-chon

Locust, young, without wings O-non

Louse Ko'-to

Louse, nit I'-lit

Maggot Fi'-kis

Monkey Ka-ag'

Mosquito Tip'-kan

Mouse Cho-cho'

Owl Ko-op'

Rat O-tot'

Snail, in river Ko'-ti

Snail, in sementera (three mollusks) Kit-an', Fing'-a, Lis'-chug

Snake O-wug'

Spider Ka-wa'

Wasp A-tin-fa-u'-kan

Wild-cat In'-yao

Wild-cat (so called) Si'-le, co'-lang

Worm Ka-lang'



Vegetal Life



Bamboo Ka-way'-gan

Bamboo, used for baskets A'-nis

Bamboo, used to tie bunches of palay Fi'-ka

Bamboo, used to tie bunches of palay, fiber of Ping-el

Banana Fa'-lat

Banana, green variety Sa-ging

Banana, yellow variety Mi-nay'-ang

Bark Sip-sip

Bark, from which brown fiber is made Lay-i'

Bark, inner, for spinning Ko-pa'-nit

Bean, black and gray I'-tab

Bean, black, small Ba-la'-tong

Bean, pale green, small Ka'-lap

Bejuco (rattan) Wu-e

Bud Fo'-a

Camote To-ki'

Camote, blossom of Tup-kao'

Camote, red, two varieties Si'-sig, Pit-ti'-kan

Camote vine Fi-na-li'-ling

Camote, white, six varieties Li-no'-ko, Pa-to'-ki, Ki'-nub fa-fay'-i, Pi-i-nit', Ki-weng', Tang-tang-lab'

Flower Feng'-a

Forest Pag-pag

Fruit Fi-kus'-na

Leaf To-fo'-na

Limb, tree Pang'-a

Maize Pi'-ki

Millet Sa'-fug

Millet, dark grain, "black" Pi-ting'-an

Millet, white, three varieties Mo-di', Poy-ned', Si-nang'-a

Plant, cultivated for spinning fiber Pu-ug'

Plant, wild, fiber gathered for spinning A-pas

Plant, wild, fiber of above Las-las'

Rice Pa-ku'

Rice, beard of Fo-ok'

Rice, boiled Mak-an'

Rice, head of Sin-lu'-wi

Rice, kernel of I-ta'

Rice, red varieties, smooth Chay-yet'-it, Gu-mik'-i

Rice, red variety, bearded Fo-o'-kan

Rice, roots of Tad-lang'

Rice, shelled grain Fi-na-u'

Rice, stalk of Pang-ti-i'

Rice, white, four varieties Ti'-pa, Ga'-sang, Pu-i-a-pu'-i, Tu'-peng

Root, of plant La-mot'

Runo Lu'-lo

Squash Ka-lib-as'

Tree Kay'-o, cha-pon'

Tree, dead Na-lu'-yao

Tree, knot on Ping-i'

Tree, stump of Tung-ed'

Vine, wild, from which fiber for spinning is gathered Fa-ay'-i

Wood, from which pipes are made, three varieties Ga-sa'-tan, La-no'-ti, Gi-gat'

Wood, fire May-i-su'-wo

Wood, fire, pitch pine Kay'-o

Wood, fire, from all other trees Cha'-pung



Verbs



Burn, to Fin-mi'-chan

Come (imperative) A-li-ka'

Cut, to Ku-ke'-chun

Die, to Ma-ti'

Drink, to U-mi-num'

Eat, to Mang-an'; ka-kan'

Get heads, to Na-ma'-kil

Get up, to Fo-ma-ong'

Go, I Um-i-ak'

Hear, to Chung-nen'

Kill, to Na-fa'-kug

Run, to In-tug'-tug

Sit down, to Tu-muck'-chu

Sleep, to Ma-si-yip'

Steal, to Mang-a-qu'

Talk, to En-ka-li'

Wake, to Ma-na'-lun



Adjectives



All Am-in'

Bad An-an-a-lut' or ngag

Black In-ni'-tit

Good Cug-a-wis'

Large Chuk-chuk'-i

Lazy Sang-a-an'

Long An-cho'

Many Ang-san

Red Lang-at'

Small Fan-ig'

White Im-po'-kan

Yellow Fa-king-i



Adverbs



Here Is'-na

No A-di'

There Is'-chi

Yes Ay



Cardinal Numerals



1 I-sa'

2 Chu'-wa

3 To-lo'

4 I-pat'

5 Li-ma'

6 I-nim'

7 Pi-to'

8 Wa-lo'

9 Si-am'

10 Sim po'-o

11 Sim po'-o ya i-sa'

12 Sim po'-o ya chu'-wa

13 Sim po'-o ya to-lo'

14 Sim po'-o ya i-pat'

15 Sim po'-o ya li-ma'

16 Sim po'-o ya i-nim

17 Sim po'-o ya pi-to'

18 Sim po'-o ya wa-lo'

19 Sim po'-o ya si-am'

20 Chu-wan po'-o

21 Chu-wan po'-o ya i-sa'

30 To-lon' po'-o

31 To-lon' po'-o ya i-sa'

40 I-pat' po'-o

41 I-pat' po'-o ya i-sa'

50 Li-man' po'-o

51 Li-man' po'-o ya i-sa'

60 I-nim' po'-o

61 I-nim' po'-o ya i-sa'

70 Pi-ton' po'-o

71 Pi-ton' po'-o ya i-sa'

80 Wa-lon' po'-o

81 Wa-lon' po'-o ya i-sa'

90 Si-am' ay po'-o

91 Si-am' ay po'-o ya i-sa'

100 La-sot' or Sin la-sot'

101 Sin la-sot' ya i-sa'

102 Sin la-sot' ya chu'-wa

200 Chu'-wan la-sot'

201 Chu'-wan la-sot' ya i-sa'

300 To-lon' la-sot'

301 To-lon' la-sot' ya i-sa'

400 I-pat' la-sot'

401 I-pat' la-sot' ya i-sa'

500 Li-man' la-sot'

501 Li-man' la-sot' ya i-sa'

600 I-nim' la-sot'

601 I-nim' la-sot' ya i-sa'

700 Pi-ton' la-sot'

701 Pi-ton' la-sot' ya i-sa'

800 Wa-lon' la-sot'

801 Wa-lon' la-sot' ya i-sa'

900 Si-am' ay la-sot'

901 Si-am' ay la-sot' ya i-sa'

1,000 Sin li'-fo

1,001 Sin li'-fo ya i-sa'

1,100 Sin li'-fo ya sin la-sot'

1,200 Sin li'-fo ya chu'-wan la-sot'

1,300 Sin li'-fo ya to-lon' la-sot'

1,400 Sin li'-fo ya i-pat' la-sot'

1,500 Sin li'-fo ya li-man' la-sot'

1,600 Sin li'-fo ya i-nim' la-sot'

1,700 Sin li'-fo ya pi-ton' la-sot'

1,800 Sin li'-fo ya wa-lon' la-sot'

1,900 Sin li'-fo ya si-am' la-sot'

2,000 Chu'-wa ay li'-fo

3,000 To-loy' li'-fo

4,000 I-pat' li'-fo

5,000 Li-may' li'-fo

6,000 I-nim' li'-fo

7,000 Pi-ton' li'-fo

8,000 Wa-lon' li'-fo

9,000 Si-am' ay li'-fo

10,000 Sin po'-oy li'-fo

11,000 Sin po'-o ya i-sang ay li'-fo

12,000 Sin po'-o ya nan chu'-wa li'-fo

[49]13,000 Sin po'-o ya nan to'-lo li'fo



Ordinal Numerals[50]



First Ma-ming'-san

Second Ma-mid-du'-a

Third Ma-mit-lo'

Fourth Mang-i-pat'

Fifth Mang-a-li-ma'

Sixth Mang-a-nim'

Seventh Mang-a-pi-to'

Eighth Mang-a-wa-lo'

Ninth Mang-nin-si-am'

Tenth Mang-a-po'-o

Eleventh Mang-a-po'-o ya i-sa'

Twelfth Mang-a-po'-o ya chu'-wa

Thirteenth Mang-a-po'-o ya to'-lo

Twentieth Ma-mid-du'-a' po'-o

Twenty-first Ma-mid-du'-a' po'-o ya i-sa'

Thirtieth Ma-mit-lo'-i po'-o

Thirty-first Ma-mit-lo'-i po'-o ya i-sa'

Fortieth Mang-i-pat' ay po'-o

Forty-first Mang-i-pat' ay po'-o ya i-sa'

Fiftieth Mang-a-li-ma' ay po'-o

Fifty-first Mang-a-li-ma' ay po'-o ya i-sa'

Sixtieth Mang-a-nim ay po'-o

Sixty-first Mang-a-nim ay po'-o ya i-sa'

Seventieth Mang-a-pi-to' ay po'-o

Seventy-first Mang-a-pi-to' ay po'-o ya i-sa'

Eightieth Mang-a-wa-lo' ay po'-o

Eighty-first Mang-a-wa-lo' ay po'-o ya i-sa'

Ninetieth Mang-a-si-am ay po'-o

Ninety-first Mang-a-si-am ay po'-o ya i-sa'

One hundredth Mang-a-po'-o ya po'-o

One hundred and first Mang-a-po'-o ya po'-o ya i-sa'

Two hundredth Ma-mid-dua' la-sot'

Two hundred and first Ma-mid-dua' la-sot' ya i-sa'

Three hundredth Ma-mit-lo'-i la-sot'

Three hundred and first Ma-mit-lo'-i la-sot' ya i-sa'

Four hundredth Mang-i-pat' ay la-sot'

Four hundred and first Mang-a-pat' ay la-sot' ya i-sa'

Thousandth Ka-la-so la-sot' or ka-li-fo-li'-fo

Last A-nong-os'-na



Distributive Numerals



One to each I-sas' nan i-sa'

Two to each Chu-was' nan i-sa'

Three to each To-los' nan i-sa'

Ten to each Po-os' nan i-sa'

Eleven to each Sim po'-o ya i-sas' nan i-sa'

Twelve to each Sim po'-o ya chu'-wa is nan i-sa'

Twenty to each Chu-wan' po-o' is nan i-sa'



NOTES

[1] — The proof sheets of this paper came to me at the Philippine Exposition, St. Louis, Mo., July, 1904. At that time Miss Maria del Pilar Zamora, a Filipino teacher in charge of the model school at the Exposition, told me the Igorot children are the brightest and most intelligent of all the Filipino children in the model school. In that school are children from several tribes or groups, including Christians, Mohammedans, and pagans.

[2] — There are many instances on record showing that people have been planted on Pacific shores many hundred miles from their native land. It seems that the primitive Pacific Islanders have sent people adrift from their shores, thus adding a rational cause to those many fortuitous causes for the interisland migration of small groups of individuals.

"In 1696, two canoes were driven from Ancarso to one of the Philippine Islands, a distance of eight hundred miles. They had run before the wind for seventy days together, sailing from east to west. Thirty-five had embarked, but five had died from the effects of privation and fatigue during the voyage, and one shortly after their arrival. In 1720, two canoes were drifted from a remote distance to one of the Marian Islands. Captain Cook found, in the island of Wateo Atiu, inhabitants of Tahiti, who had been drifted by contrary wind in a canoe, from some islands to the eastward, unknown to the natives. Several parties have, within the last few years, (prior to 1834), reached the Tahitian shores from islands to the eastward, of which the Society Islands had never before heard. In 1820, a canoe arrived at Maurua, about thirty miles west of Borabora, which had come from Rurutu, one of the Austral Islands. This vessel had been at sea between a fortnight and three weeks; and, considering its route, must have sailed seven or eight hundred miles. A more recent instance occurred in 1824: a boat belonging to Mr. Williams of Raiatea left that island with a westerly wind for Tahiti. The wind changed after the boat was out of sight of land. They were driven to the island of Atiu, a distance of nearly eight hundred miles in a south-westerly direction, where they were discovered several months afterwards. Another boat, belonging to Mr. Barff of Huahine, was passing between that island and Tahiti about the same time, and has never since been heard of; and subsequent instances of equally distant and perilous voyages in canoes or open boats might be cited." — (Ellis) Polynesian Researches, vol. I, p. 125.

"In the year 1799, when Finow, a Friendly Island chief, acquired the supreme power in that most interesting group of islands, after a bloody and calamitous civil war, in which his enemies were completely overpowered, the barbarian forced a number of the vanquished to embark in their canoes and put to sea; and during the revolution that issued in the subversion of paganism in Otaheite, the rebel chiefs threatened to treat the English missionaries and their families in a similar way. In short, the atrocious practice is, agreeably to the Scotch law phrase, "use and wont," in the South Sea Islands." — John Dunmore Lang, View of the Origin and Migrations of the Polynesian Nation, London, 1834, pp. 62, 63.

[3] — The Christianized dialect groups are: Bikol, of southern Luzon and adjacent islands; Cagayan, of the Cagayan Valley of Luzon; Ilokano, of the west coast of northern Luzon; Pampango and Pangasinan, of the central plain of Luzon; Tagalog, of the central area South of the two preceding; and the Visayan, of the central islands and northern Mindanao.

[4] — No pretense is now made for permanency either in the classification of the many groups of primitive people in the Philippines or for the nomenclature of these various groups; but the groups of non-Christian people in the Archipelago, as they are to-day styled in a more or less permanent way by The Ethnological Survey, are as follows: Ata, north and west of Gulf of Davao in southeastern Mindanao; Batak, of Paragua; Bilan, in the southern highlands west of Gulf of Davao, Mindanao; Bagobo, of west coast of Gulf of Davao, Mindanao; Bukidnon, of Negros; Ibilao or Ilongot, of eastern central Luzon; Igorot, of northern Luzon; the Lanao Moro, occupying the central territory of Mindanao between the Bays of Iligan and Illana, including Lake Lanao; Maguindanao Moro, extending in a band southeast from Cotabato, Mindanao, toward Sarangani Bay, including Lakes Liguasan and Buluan; Mandaya, of southeastern Mindanao east of Gulf of Davao; Mangiyan, of Mindoro: Manobo, probably the most numerous tribe in Mindanao, occupying the valley of the Agusan River draining northward into Butuan Bay and the extensive table-land west of that river, besides in isolated territories extending to both the east and west coasts of the large body of land between Gulf of Davao and Illana Bay; Negrito, of several areas of wild mountains in Luzon, Negros, Mindanao, and other smaller islands; the Sama, of the islands in Gulf of Davao, Mindanao; Samal Moro, of scattered coastal areas in southern Mindanao, besides the eastern and southern islands of the Sulu or Jolo Archipelago; the Subano, probably the second largest tribal group in Mindanao, occupying all the mountain territory west of the narrow neck of land between Illana Bay and Pangul Bay; the Sulu Moro, of Jolo Island; the Tagabili, on the southern coast of Mindanao northwest of Sarangani Bay; the Tagakola, along the central part of the west coast of Gulf of Davao, Mindanao; Tagbanua, of Paragua; Tinguian, of western northern Luzon; Tiruray, south of Cotabato, Mindanao; Yakan Moro, in the mountainous interior of Basilan Island, off the Mindanao coast at Zamboanga. Under the names of these large groups must be included many more smaller dialect groups whose precise relationship may not now be confidently stated. For instance, the large Igorot group is composed of many smaller groups of different dialects besides that of the Bontoc Igorot of which this paper treats.

[5] — IMPERATA ARUNDICEA.

[6] — BUBALUS KERABAU FERUS (Nehring).

[7] — Pages 72 — 74 of the Report of the Director of the Philippine Weather Bureau, 1901 — 1902; Part First, The Climate of Baguio (Benguet), by Rev. Fr. Jose Algue, S. J. (Manila, Observatory Printing Office, 1902.)

[8] — Map No. 7 in the Atlas of the Philippine Islands. (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1900.)

[9] — R. P. Fr. Angel Perez, Igorrotes, Estudio Geografico y Etnografico, etc. (Manila, 1902), p. 7.

[10] — Op. cit., p. 29.

[11] — Major Godwin-Austen says of the Garo hill tribes, Bengal, India:

"In every village is the 'bolbang,' or young men's house. ... In this house all the unmarried males live, as soon as they attain the age of puberty, and in this any travelers are put up." — The Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, vol. II, p. 393. See also op. cit., vol. XI, p. 199.

S. E. Peal says:

"Barracks for the unmarried young men are common in and around Assam among non-Aryan races. The institution is here seen in various stages of decline or transition. In the case of 'head-hunters' the young men's barracks are invariably guardhouses, at the entrance to the village, and those on guard at night keep tally of the men who leave and return." — Op. cit., vol. XXII, p. 248.

Gertrude M. Godden writes at length of the young men's house of the Naga and other frontier tribes of northeast India: "Before leaving the Naga social customs one prominent feature of their village society must be noticed. This is the DEKHA CHANG, an institution in some respects similar to the bachelors' hall of the Melanesians, which again is compared with the BALAI and other public halls of the Malay Archipelago. This building, also called a MORANG, was used for the double purpose of a sleeping place for the young men and as a guard or watch house for the village. The custom of the young men sleeping together is one that is constantly noticed in accounts of the Naga tribes, and a like custom prevailed in some, if not all, cases for the girls. ... "The young men's hall is variously described and named. An article in the Journal of the Indian Archipelago, 1848, says that among the Nagas the bachelors' hall of the Dayak village is found under the name of 'Mooring.' In this all the boys of the age of 9 or 10 upward reside apart. In a report of 1854 the 'morungs' are described as large buildings generally situated at the principal entrances and varying in number according to the size of the village; they are in fact the main guardhouse, and here all the young unmarried men sleep. In front of the morung is a raised platform as a lookout, commanding an extensive view of all approaches, where a Naga is always kept on duty as a sentry. ... In the Morungs are kept skulls carried off in battle; these are suspended by a string along the wall in one or more rows over each other. In one of the Morungs of the Changuae village, Captain Brodie counted one hundred and thirty skulls. ... Besides these there was a large basket full of broken pieces of skulls. Captain Holroyd, from whose memorandum the above is quoted, speaks later of the Morung as the 'hall of justice' in which the consultations of the clan council are held.

"The 'MORANGS' of another tribe, the 'Naked' Naga, have recently been described as situated close to the village gate, and consist of a central hall, and back and front verandahs. In the large front verandah are collected all the trophies of war and the chase, from a man's skull down to a monkey's. Along both sides of the central hall are the sleeping berths of the young men. ...

"Speaking of the Mao and Muran tribes [continues Miss Godden], Dr. Brown says, 'the young men never sleep at home, but at their clubs, where they keep their arms always in a state of readiness.' ...

"With the Aos at the present day the custom seems to be becoming obsolete; sleeping houses are provided for bachelors, but are seldom used except by small boys. Unmarried girls sleep by twos and threes in houses otherwise empty, or else tenanted by one old woman.

"The analogy between the DAKHA CHANG, or MORANG, of the Nagas and the men's hall of the Melanesians is too close to be overlooked, and in view of the significance of all evidence concerning the corporate life of early communities a description of the latter is here quoted. I am aware of no recorded instance of the women's house, other than these Naga examples. 'In all the Melanesian groups it is the rule that there is in every village a building of public character where the men eat and spend their time, the young men sleep, strangers are entertained; where as in the Solomon Islands the canoes are kept; where images are seen, and from which women are generally excluded; ... and all these no doubt correspond to the balai and other public halls of the Malay Archipelago.' " — Op. cit., vol. XXVI, pp. 179 — 182.

Similar institutions appear to exist also in Sumatra.

In Borneo among the Land Dyaks "head houses," called "pangah," are found in each village. Low says of them: "The Pangah is built by the united efforts of the boys and unmarried men of the tribe, who, after having attained the age of puberty, are obliged to leave the houses of the village; and do not generally frequent them after they have attained the age of 8 or 9 years." — Sir Hugh Low, Sarawak, its Inhabitants and Productions (London, 1848), p. 280.

Lieutenant F. Elton writes of the natives of Solomon Islands: "In every village they have at least one so-called tamboo house of TOHE, generally the largest building in the settlement. This is only for the men, it being death for a female to enter there. It is used as a public place and belongs to the community. Any stranger coming to the village goes to the tamboo house and remains there until the person he is in quest of meets him there." — The Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, vol. XVII, p. 97.

Mr. H. O. Forbes writes of the tribes of Timor (islands between New Guinea and Australia) that they have a building called "Uma-lulik." He says: "The LULIK can be at once recognized, were it by nothing else than by the buffalo crania with which it is decorated on the outside." An officer who holds one of the highest and certainly the most influential positions in the kingdom has charge of the building, and presides over the sacred rites which are conducted in them. ... The building is cared for by some old person, sometimes by a man and his wife, but they must not both — being of opposite sex — stay all night." — Op. cit., XIII, pp. 411, 412.

[12] — The o'-lag of Buyayyeng is known as La-ma'-kan; that of Amkawa, in Buyayyeng, is Ma-fa'-lat; that of Polupo is Ma-lu-fan'. The two of Fatayyan are Ka-lang'-kang and A-la'-ti. Ta-ting' is the o'-lag in the Tang-e-ao' section of Fatayyan. Chung-ma' is the one in Filig. Lang-i-a' and Ab-lo' are the two of Mageo, both in Pudpudchog. The o'-lag of Chakong is called Kat'-sa, and that of Lowingan is Si-mang'-an. The one of Pudpudchog is Yud-ka'. Sung-ub' is the o'-lag of Sipaat, situated in Lowingan. Kay-pa', Tek-a-ling, and Sak-a-ya' are, respectively, the o'-lag of Sigichan, Somowan, and Pokisan. Ag-lay'-in is the o'-lag of Luwakan, and Tal-pug and Say-ki'-pit are o'-lag of Choko and Longfoy, respectively.

[13] — The Journal of The Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, vol. XXVI, pp. 179, 180.

[14] — Op. cit., vol. XXII, p. 248.

[15] — Sweet potato, IPOMOEA BATATAS. — J.H.

[16] — An anito, as is developed in a later chapter, is the name given the spirit of a dead person. The anito dwell in and about the pueblo, and, among other of their functions, they cause almost all diseases and ailments of the people and practically all deaths.

[17] — Earthenware pot. — J.H.

[18] — Gong. — J.H.

[19] — David J. Doherty, M.D., translator of The Philippines, A Summary Account of their Ethnological, Historical, and Political Conditions, by Ferdinand Blumentritt, etc. (Chicago, 1900), p. 16.

[20] — A fermented drink.

[21] — A fermented drink.

[22] — The accompanying photo was an instantaneous exposure, taken in the twilight. The people could not be induced to wait for a time exposure.

[23] — No true cats are known to be indigenous to the Philippines, but the one shown in the plate was a wild mountain animal and was a true cat, not a civet. Its ancestors may have been domestic.

[24] — This estimate was obtained by a primitive surveying outfit as follows:

A rifle, with a bottle attached used for a liquid level, was sighted from a camera tripod. A measuring tape attached to the tripod showed the distance of the rifle above the surface of the water. A surveyor's tape measured the distance between the tripod and the leveling rod, which also had an attached tape to show the distance of the point sighted above the surface of the water.

I am indebted to Mr. W. F. Smith, American teacher in Bontoc, for assisting me in obtaining these measurements.

The strength of the scaffolding supporting the troughs is suggested by the statement that the troughs were brimming full of swift-running water, while our "surveying" party of four adults, accompanied by half a dozen juvenile Igorot sightseers, weighed about 900 pounds, and was often distributed along in the troughs, which we waded, within a space of 30 feet.

[25] — MUNIA JAGORI (Martens).

[26] — Mr. Elmer D. Merrill.

[27] — Mr. F. A. Thanisch.

[28] — Igorrotes, Estudio Geografico y Etnografico sobre algunos Distritos del Norte de Luzon, by R. P. Fr. Angel Perez (Manila), 1902.

[29] — This typical Malayan bellows is also found in Siam, and is shown in a half tone from a photograph facing page 186 of Maxwell Somerville's Siam on the Meinam from the Gulf to Aynthia (London, Sampson Low, Marston & Co., 1897).

There is also a crude woodcut of this bellows printed as fig. 2, Pl. XIV, in The Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, vol. XXII. With the illustration is the information that the bellows is found in Assam, Salwin, Sumatra, Java, Philippines, and Madagascar.

[30] — It is believed to be either a PORCELAIN (PORCELANA) or a SPIDER (MAIOIDEA) crab.

[31] — Analysis made for this study by Bureau of Government Laboratories, Manila, P.I., February 21, 1903.

[32] — Charles A. Goessmann in Universal Cyclopaedia, vol. X (1900), p. 274.

[33] — The Natives of Sarawak and British North Borneo (2 vols., London, 1896); pp. 140 — 174, vol. II.

[34] — A party, consisting of the Secretary of the Interior for the Philippine Islands, Hon. Dean C. Worcester; the governor and lieutenant-governor of Lepanto-Bontoc, William Dinwiddie and Truman K. Hunt, respectively; Captain Chas. Nathorst of the Constabulary, and the writer, was in Banawi in time to witness the procession and burial but not the previous ceremonies at the dwelling.

[35] — See also the story, "Who took my father's head?" Chapter IX, p 225.

[36] — The bird called "co-ling'" by the Bontoc Igorot is the serpent eagle (SPILOMIS HOLOSPLILUS Vigors). It seems to be found in no section of Bontoc Province except near Bontoc pueblo.

There were four of these large, tireless creatures near the pueblo, but an American shot one in 1900. The other three may be seen day in and day out, high above the mountain range west of the pueblo, sailing like aimless pleasure boats. Now and then they utter their penetrating cry of "qu-iu'-kok."

[37] — MUNIA JAGORI (Martens).

[38] — "A wife monkey."

[39] — An iguana some two feet long.

[40] — CORONE PHILIPPA (Bonap.).

[41] — The Korean Review, July, 1903, pp. 289 — 294.

[42] — William Edwin Safford, American Anthropologist, April — June, 1903, p. 293.

[43] — Otto Scheerer (MS.), The Ibaloi Igorot, MS. Coll., Ethnological Survey for the Philippine Islands.

[44] — One blind.

[45] — From Ilokano.

[46] — Many small stars

[47] — The country northward

[48] — The country southward

[49] — It is probable they seldom count as high as 13,000

[50] — These people say they have no separate adverbs denoting repetition of action — as, once, twice, thrice, four times, ten times, etc. They use the ordinal numerals for this purpose also.

THE END