The second seedling is Smith's Improved, a comparatively new variety that is winning favor. It more closely resembles the Houghton in its habit of growth than the Downing, and yet is more vigorous and upright than its parent. The fruit is considerably larger than the Houghton, oval, light green, with a bloom, moderately firm, sweet and good.

Mountain Seedling, originating with the Shakers at Lebanon, New York, is the largest of the American varieties, but for some reason it does not gain in popularity.

Cluster, or American Red, is a variety of unknown origin. The ancestral bush may have been found in the woods. The fruit is scarcely as large as that of the Houghton, is darker in color when fully ripe, hangs long on the bush, and is sweet and good. Mr. P. Barry says that it never mildews. Therefore, it should be made one of the parents of new varieties, for in this direction lies the future of this fruit in America.

In support of this opinion, I am led to quote the following letter, recently received:

"I write to call your attention to a native variety of gooseberry, of which you make no mention in your 'Scribner Papers,' growing in great abundance in the Sierra Nevada, at an elevation of from 2,000 to 3,000 feet, often in the most exposed places, generally on northern slopes. Thinking it may not have come to your knowledge, I will describe it. The bush is of stiff, erect habit, two to three feet high, a stocky grower and an abundant bearer. The berries vary from one-half to one and one-quarter inches in diameter, are covered with innumerable thorns, scarcely less savage in the green state than those on an ordinary wild bush of this country. When cooked, the prickles soften down to the same consistence as the skin, which is rather thick. When ripe, they are easily peeled, and well repay the trouble, the spines being then much less obdurate than when green. The mature fruit is of a deep, dull, coppery red color, and in flavor is equal, if not superior, to any of the red varieties which I have eaten in England. I have often wondered whether cultivation might not remove the spines from the berries, or, that failing, whether a seedling could not be raised from them which would give us a berry far more reliable than any good gooseberry we now have. The scorching sun of the long, dry season of California seemed to have no effect on the foliage, and is five years' experience I never found a mildewed berry.

"The berry is round, like the red English berries, instead of ellipsoid, like their white or golden ones.

"There is also another variety, hairy instead of spiny, about the size of your picture of the Downing; bush not so free a grower, rarely reaching two feet, and the berry, to my taste, much inferior. Tastes, however, differ, and it may be the more promising fruit.

"Both varieties are common throughout the eastern end of El Dorado, Placer, and Nevada counties."

The first-named, or thorny gooseberry, probably belongs to the Ribes cynosbati, and the latter to the R. rotundifolium. The writer is correct in thinking that, if such gooseberries are growing wild, cultivation and selection could secure vast improvements. When we remember that English gardeners started with a native species inferior to ours, we are led to believe that effort and skill like theirs will here be rewarded by kinds as superb, and as perfectly adapted to our climate.



CHAPTER XXVIII

DISEASES AND INSECT ENEMIES OF SMALL FRUITS

Nature is very impartial. It is evidently her intention that we shall enjoy all the fruits for which we are willing to pay her price, in work, care, or skill, but she seems equally bent on supplying the hateful white grub with strawberry roots, and currant worms with succulent foliage. Indeed, it might even appear that she had a leaning toward her small children, no matter how pestiferous they are. At any rate, under the present order of things, lordly man is often their servant, and they reap the reward of his labors.

Did not Nature stumble a little when man fell? She manages to keep on the right side of the poets and painters, for it would seem that they see her only when in moods that are smiling, serious, or grand. The scientist, too, she beguiles, by showing under the microscope how exquisitely she has fashioned some little embodiment of evil that may be the terror of a province, or the scourge of a continent. While the learned man is explaining how wonderfully its minute organs are formed, for mastication, assimilation, procreation, etc., practical people, who have their bread to earn, are impatiently wishing that the whole genus was under their heels, confident that the organs would become still more minute.

The horticulturist should be cast in heroic mold, for he not only must bear his part in the fight with moral wrong, like other men, but must also cope with vegetable and insect evil. Weeds, bugs, worms, what hateful little vices many of them seem in nature! I do not wish to be thought indiscriminate. Many insects are harmless and beautiful; and, if harmless, no one can object if they are not pretty. Not a few are very useful, as, for instance, the little parasite of the cabbage worm. There is need of a general and unremitting crusade against our insect enemies; but it should be a discriminating war, for it is downright cruelty to kill a harmless creature, however small. Still, there are many pests that, like certain forms of evil, will destroy if not destroyed; and they have brought disaster and financial ruin to multitudes.

Mark Tapley hit upon the true philosophy of life, and it is usually possible to take a cheerful view of everything; such a view I suggest to the reader, in regard to the pests of the garden that often lead us into sympathy with the man who wished that there was "a form of sound words in the Prayer-Book which might be used in cases of great provocation." Under the present order of things, skills, industry, and prompt, vigilant action are rewarded. Humanity's besetting sin is laziness; but weeds and insects for months together make this vice wellnigh impossible, save to those who are so unfortunate as to live on the industry of others. Therefore, though our fruits often suffer, men are developed, and made more patient, energetic, resolute, persevering—in brief, more manly. Put the average man into a garden where there were no vegetable diseases, insects, and weeds to cope with, and he himself would become a weed. Moreover, it would seem that in those regions where Nature hinders men as much as she helps them, they are all the better for their difficulties, and their gardens also. Such skill and energy are developed that not only are the horticultural enemies vanquished, but they are often made the means of a richer and a fuller success.

In a valuable paper read before the New Jersey State Horticultural Society, and recently published in the "American Entomologist," Mr. A. S. Fuller makes the following useful suggestions:

"Insects and diseases are frequently so closely united, or so dependent upon each other, that the naturalist often finds it difficult to determine to which the fruit grower should attribute his losses. Some species of insects attack only diseased or dead plants; others only the living and healthy. If a plant shows signs of failing, we are inclined to speak of it as being diseased, whether the failure is caused by a lack of some element in the soil, attacks of parasitic fungi, or noxious insects. The loss is the same in the end, whether from one or all of these enemies combined.

"There are two practical methods of combating insect enemies and diseases of plants; one is to so carefully cultivate and stimulate the growth of the plants that they may possess the power of resisting attack; the other is to make war directly upon them by artificial means. Of course, the first method is most applicable or practicable against the more minute species, such as the plant-lice, rust, smut, and mildew. I do not recommend forcing plants to extremes, in order to enable them to resist their enemies, as this might work an irreparable injury; but the condition to be aimed at should be a healthy, vigorous growth; for anything beyond this is more the sign of weakness than strength.

"The half-starved, overworked and uncared-for horse is sure, sooner or later, to become the prey of various kinds of internal and external parasites, which are thrown off, or successfully resisted in their attacks, by the healthy, vigorous, and well-fed animal; and the same principle holds good all through the animal and vegetable kingdoms— whether the subject be a man, horse, sturdy oak, or delicate strawberry plant. Not that all diseases are due to loss of vigor through starvation and neglect; but that a large number of them are is well known."

STRAWBERRIES

We all have seen these principles verified. In the Great American strawberry, I think, we have an example of feebleness resulting from over-stimulation. The Wilson Seedling, that, in the local vernacular, is sometimes said to be "running out," is, in contrast, the consequence of starvation, neglect, and long-continued propagation from poor, mixed stock. Feebleness can scarcely be called a disease, and yet it is best counteracted by the tonic treatment suggested by Mr. Fuller.

In loose, light soils, the Aphis, or Green Fly, often penetrates to the roots of strawberry plants in immense numbers, and they suck away life or vitality. The tonic of wood-ashes scattered over the rows will usually destroy the pests. Refuse from the tobacco-factory is also recommended.

I think that wood-ashes and bone-dust are excellent preventives of burning or sun-scalding. They give the plants such vigor that they are able to resist sudden or great climatic changes, from heat to cold, or from drought to moisture.

Many varieties are enfeebled by their disposition to run profusely. Kerr's Prolific, for example, will speedily sod the ground with small, puny plants, whose foliage will burn so badly that the fruit can scarcely mature. Set out these small plants, and give the tonic treatment of cutting off all runners, and large, bushy stools, with vigorous foliage and superb fruit, will result. Indeed, next to fertilizers and moisture, there is nothing that so enhances the vigor and productiveness of a plant as clipping the runners as fast as they appear. The uncurbed habit of running depletes almost like disease; and but few varieties will make large fruit buds and runners at the same time.

In close, wet weather the fruit and leaf stalks will sometimes suffer from mildew; and occasionally a microscopic fungus, known as the strawberry brand, will attack the foliage. I have also seen, in a few instances, a disease that resembled the curl-leaf in raspberries. The plants were dwarfed, foliage wrinkled and rusty, and fruit misshapen, like small, gnarly apples. In all such instances I believe in tonic treatment, of wood-ashes, bone-dust, guano, and fertilizers of like nature, used with care. Plants do not need over-doses or over-feeding any more than we do ourselves. When a few plants are diseased, I believe in rigorously rooting them out and burning them. If a field is affected, as soon as possible turn the plants under, and renovate the land with clover, buckwheat, a light dressing of lime, and thorough exposure to the air, light, and frost. By such methods, and a wise selection of fertilizers, I believe that strawberries can be raised on the same ground for centuries. My plants have always been exceptionally free from all kinds of disease or rust, and I attribute it to the liberal use of wood-ashes.

But there is one enemy that inspires me with fear and unmingled disgust. It is the type of a certain phase of character in society most difficult to deal with, and which the mantle of charity is rarely broad enough to cover—the stupidly and stolidly malignant, who have just sense enough to do a great deal of mischief, and to keep it hidden until too late for remedy. Science has dignified the detestable thing with a sonorous name, as usual—the Lachnosterna Fusca, already referred to. It does not deserve even its name in the common vernacular—White Grub; for its white is of a dingy hue, and its head dark, like its deeds. Has it a redeeming trait? "Give the de'il his due," says the proverb. The best I can say of the white grub is that crows, and an odorous animal I forbear to name, are very fond of it, This fact, I think, is its sole virtue, its one entry on the credit side; but there is a long, dark score against it. Of its havoc on the lawn and farm I will not speak, since it is sufficient for our purposes to state that it is the strawberry's worst foe.

The best method of circumventing the "varmint" is to learn its ways; and therefore I shall outline its history, beginning at a period in its being when stupidity predominates over its evil-that is, when it is the May beetle or June bug, that blunders and bumps around in utter disregard of itself and every one else. In this stage it is like the awkward village loafer, quiet by day, but active and obtrusive in the early evening. It dislikes honest sunshine, but is attracted by artificial light, at which it precipitates itself with the same lack of sense and reason that marks the loafer's gravitation toward a lighted groggery. Moreover, in the beetle phase, it is sure to appear at the most inopportune times and unsuitable places, creating the inevitable commotion which the blunder and tactless are born to make. As it whisks aimlessly around, it may hit the clergyman's nose in the most pathetic sentence of his sermon, or drop into the soprano's mouth at the supreme climax of her trill. Satan himself could scarcely produce a more complete absence of devotion than is often caused by these brainless creatures.

Because quiet by day, they are not out of mischief, as defoliated trees often prove. As midsummer approaches, they die off; but never until each female beetle has put into the ground about two hundred eggs, which never fail to hatch. The first year, the grubs are little, and, while they do all the harm they can, the small roots they destroy are not seriously missed by the plants. The second year, their ability keeps pace with their disposition, and they occasionally destroy strawberries by the acre. More often, certain patches of a field or garden are infested, and sometimes will be kept bare of plants in spite of all one can do. Too often, the presence of the grub is learned only after the mischief is complete. You may have petted a strawberry plant for a year, and after it has developed into noble proportions, and awakened the best expectations from its load of immature fruit, you will, perhaps, find it wilting some morning. You then learn, for the first time, that this insidious enemy has been at work for days, and that not a root is left. An inch or two beneath the dying plant, the grub lies gorged and quiet in the early morning; but if undisturbed it soon seeks the next-best plant it can find, and it is so voracious that it is hard to compute the number it can destroy throughout the long season in which it works.

Having made its full growth in the spring of the third year, this grub passes into the chrysalis state, and in May or June comes out a perfect insect or beetle. It is "one, two, three, and out."

While there are beetles every year, there is, in every locality, a special crop every third year; in other words, if we observe beetles in great numbers during the coming May and June, we may expect them again in like quantities three years after; and every second year from such super-abundance they will be very destructive in all those fields throughout the locality wherein the eggs were laid.

REMEDIES

When once our soil is full of them, scarcely any remedy is possible that year. Surface applications that would kill the grubs would also kill the plants. Where they are few and scattering, they can be dug out and killed. Sometimes boys are paid so much a pint. When seeing a wilting plant, it would scarcely be human nature not to dig out the pest and grind it under our heel. Prevention of the evil is usually our best hope. Mr. Downing writes to me: "I believe that if you would use refuse salt three or four years in succession, at the rate of five or six bushels to the acre, the grubs would not trouble you much. Salt will not kill the full-grown larvae, but those in a very young state." The reader will remember a statement in Mr. Hale's letter on commercial fertilizers confirmatory of this view.

Experiments in this direction should be carefully made, since, in one instance that I am aware of, a fruit grower remarked, "I do not know whether the salt killed the grubs, but I know it killed my plants." It is my purpose, however, to try this agent very thoroughly. There is danger of our being misled in our estimate of the value of remedies, from forgetfulness of the habits of the insect. We find our ground full of larvae one year, and apply some cure or preventive. The following spring, the larvae become beetles and fly away, and, even if they fill the same ground with eggs again, the grubs are too small to be noticed that year; and therefore we may claim that our remedy is effectual, when there may have been no effect from it whatever.

One of the best preventives is to keep the soil under cultivation, for this beetle rarely lays its eggs in loose soil, preferring old meadows and moist, loamy, sodded land; the larvae are equally fond of grass roots. This is one of the reasons why a year or two of cultivation must often precede the planting of strawberries. When this fruit is grown in matted beds, they afford as attractive a place for the deposit of eggs as grass land; and this is another fact in favor of the narrow-row system and thorough cultivation.

Mr. Caywood, a nurseryman, says that he has prevented the approach of the grub by mixing a teaspoonful of sulphur in the soil just beneath a plant, when setting it out. Mr. Peter B. Mead recommends the pomace of the castor bean spread on the surface around the plants. I have never tried these preventives. One thing certainly might be done; exterminating war might be waged on the beetles. In the morning they are sluggish and easily caught; and in the evening we can treat them as whiskey venders do the loafers—burn them up. "Every female beetle killed heads off 200 grubs." If one could discover a complete remedy for this pest, he would deserve a statue in bronze. Mr. Fuller had a domesticated crow that would eat a hundred of these grubs daily. "When domesticated," he adds, "the crow forgets the tricks of his wild nature, and, not being a timid bird, he is not frightened by hoe or spade, but when the earth is turned over, is generally there to see and do his duty."

A fruit grower writes to Professor C. V. Riley: "I inclose specimens of a terrible pest on my strawberry vines. The leaves are almost entirely destroyed. I must fight them some way, or else give up the fruit entirely," etc. In a letter to the "New York Tribune," Professor Riley replied:

"The insect referred to is the Strawberry Worm (Emphytus maculatus), the larva of a saw-fly, which is of quite frequent occurrence in the West. I quote the following account of it from my Ninth Report:

"'Early in the spring numerous flies may be seen hanging to and flying about the vines in fields which have been previously affected. They are dull and inactive in the cool of the morning and evening, and at these hours are seldom noticed. They are of a pitchy black color, with two rows of large, transverse, dull, whitish spots upon the abdomen. The female, with the saw-like instrument peculiar to the insects of this family, deposits her eggs, by a most curious and interesting process, in the stems of the plants, clinging the while to the hairy substance by which these stems are covered.

"'The eggs are white, opaque, and 0.03 of an inch long, and may be readily perceived upon splitting the stalk, though the outside orifice at which they were introduced is scarcely visible. They soon increase somewhat in bulk, causing a swelling of the stalk, and hatch in two weeks—more or less, according to the temperature; and during the early part of May the worms attract attention by the innumerable small holes they make in the leaves. Their colors are dirty yellow and gray- green, and when not feeding, they rest on the under side of the leaf, curled up in a spiral manner, the tail occupying the centre, and fall to the ground at the slightest disturbance. After changing their skin four times they become fully grown, when they measure about three- fourths of an inch.

"'At this season they descend into the ground, and form a weak cocoon of earth, the inside being made smooth by a sort of gum. In this they soon change to pupae, from which are produced a second breed of flies by the end of June and beginning of July. Under the influence of July weather, the whole process of egg depositing, etc., is rapidly repeated, and the second brood of worms descend into the earth during the fore part of August, and form their cocoons; in which they remain in the caterpillar state through the fall, winter, and early spring months, till the middle of April following, when they become pupae and flies again, as related.

"'The remedy is the same as that employed against the currant worm, which belongs to the same family. It consists of white hellebore, used either in powder or liquid.'"

I think that tobacco dust or a strong decoction from the stems would prove effective, also.

I have never had any experience with this worm, but have read of instances in which fields had been entirely cleared of the pest by young chickens and turkeys.

The common little flea-beetle has often caused great injury to my recently planted beds. I once paid nearly $100 for a new, high-priced variety, and before I was aware of it every plant had been devoured. They rarely injure large, fully matured plants, but are often very destructive to those recently planted, especially if set during the summer. You can not catch them; for, as your hand approaches a leaf on which they cluster, they scatter with a sudden bound, and are at once lost to view, so nearly do they resemble the color of the ground. Slight dustings of dry wood-ashes impede their feeding somewhat; but I think we must cope with this insect as we do with the Colorado or potato beetle. It must be poisoned. Paris green, of course, will finish them speedily, but such a deadly poison must be used with great care, and if there is any green or ripe fruit on the vines, not used at all. Hellebore, London purple, tobacco dust, may destroy them; and when little chickens can be employed, they are a sure remedy.

"Black eyes," or the receptacle turning black, is caused by light frosts, to which the open flowers are very susceptible. If one's strawberry bed were in bloom, and there was a prospect of a frosty night, I think the blossoms could be saved by covering the bed with four or five inches of straw or hay, and raking it off again as soon as the temperature rose sufficiently high in the morning.

Without doubt, new diseases and enemies to the strawberry will be developed in the future, and as they come we must experiment till we find some means of mastering them.

RASPBERRIES AND BLACKBERRIES

These two fruits are so near akin that they are subject to the attacks of the same diseases and enemies. The most fatal scourge of red raspberries that I have seen is what is called at Marlboro' the curl- leaf; and, if unchecked, it will eventually banish the famous Hudson River Antwerp from cultivation. As yet, no remedy has been found for it that I am aware of. I believe it to be contagious, and would advise that the plants be dug out and burned immediately, and that plantations of strong, healthy plants be made on new land that has never been in raspberries. I also suggest the free use of wood-ashes and well-decayed compost. As far as my experience goes, this disease is confined to foreign varieties, and almost wholly, as yet, to the Antwerps.

Mr. Fuller, in the paper already named, describes a disease among blackberries that resembles the raspberry curl-leaf so closely that it may be identical, and spring from the same cause.

"Some ten years ago, the cultivators of the blackberry in various parts of New Jersey noticed that the ends of the young, growing canes, in summer, would occasionally curl, twist about, and often assume a singular, fasciated form, resulting in an entire check to their growth. The leaves on these infested shoots did not die and fall off, but merely curled up, sometimes assuming a deeper green than the healthy leaves on the same stalk. At the approach of winter, the infested leaves remained firmly attached to the diseased stems; and all through the cold weather, and far into the spring, these leaf- laden and diseased stems were a conspicuous object in many of the blackberry plantations of this State.

"If the infested shoots are examined in summer, thousands of minute insects, of a pale yellow color, and covered with a powdery exudation, will be found sucking the juices of the succulent stem and leaves, causing the crimping, curling, and twisting of these parts as described.

"This parasite resembles somewhat an ordinary greenfly (Aphis) or plant louse; but, according to the observations of Professor Riley, it belongs to the closely allied Flea-lice family (Psyllidae), distinguished from the plant-lice by a different veining of the wings, and by the antennae being knobbed at the tip, like those of the butterfly, the knob usually terminating in two bristles. These insects jump as briskly as a flea, from which characteristic they derive their scientific name. The particular species in question was called by Professor Riley the 'Bramble-Flea-louse (Psylla rubi[Footnote: "It can not be distinguished from Psylla tripunctata, Fitch (Catalogue of Homoptera, etc.), and, what is most singular, the same species is very common on pine-trees all over the eastern part of the continent, from Florida to Canada."]),' in the American Entomologist (Vol. I., p. 225). It has increased rapidly during the past half-dozen years or more, and unless fruit-growers make a more vigorous fight than they have yet done, it will soon get the mastery of many blackberry plantations. The only practical method as yet discovered for checking the ravages of this insect is to cut off the ends of the infested canes and burn them. This operation should always be performed either in the morning or during cool, wet weather, else many of the insects will escape; and at all times the severed shoots should be immediately dropped into bags, and in them carried to the place where they are to be burned, and there emptied into the fire. If every one having blackberry bushes in their gardens would practice this method of destruction, this pest would soon cease to do much harm."

There are species of borers and gall insects that attack these two fruits, but as yet they have not become formidable. All infested canes should be cut out and burned with their contents, or else the pests may so increase as to cause much injury.

The larvae of the Selandria rubi, an insect nearly related to the imported currant worm, and known as the raspberry saw-fly, is destructive in some regions. It is semi-transparent, and so like the foliage in color that it could scarcely be detected, did not the ragged, perforated leaves indicate both its presence and its mischief. This worm measures half an inch in length, when fully developed. It has two black eyes, like spots, upon a green head, and usually a slightly fuzzy body. The remedies recommended are the same as those used against the currant worm. I have had no experience with this pest.

The Orange-rust (Uredo rubrum) is one of the worst of foes to both the blackberry and raspberry—the Rubus occidentalis, or black-cap family, suffering the most, usually. I have seen fields of the Early Wilson and Kittatinny blackberries in New Jersey that presented a melancholy appearance. It is believed to be very contagious, and it can be spread by both trimmer and pickers. Mr. Chas. A. Green, of Monroe County, N. Y., writes: "The end plant of a row in my garden was affected, and I let it remain, as an experiment. In three years, nearly every plant in the row was more or less diseased. We have tried picking the leaves and cutting back the canes, without relief, and have found that the only safe method is to dig out and destroy all affected plants without delay." Mr. Fuller says that "application of lime, salt, or some similar substance, may check the disease; but I know of no remedy except that of rooting up every affected plant, and burning it." Mr. Downing recommends the same course. It is one of those evils that should be stamped out at once. If a plantation were generally affected with this yellow symbol of contagion, it would be well to destroy all the plants, and, obtaining new, healthful stock from a distance, start again on different grounds. Should the snowy tree-cricket become very abundant, it might cause much injury, chiefly by cutting off the leaves, as the ordinary cut-worm serves the stem of a young plant.

CURRANTS AND GOOSEBERRIES

We have not only imported our best currants from Europe, but also their worst enemies. The most formidable of these is popularly known as the currant worm. Robert Thompson, the English authority, thus describes it: "The magpie moth (Abraxas grossulariata) deposits its eggs upon the foliage, and from them is hatched a slightly hairy cream-colored caterpillar, spotted with black, and marked with orange along the sides, and which forms a loop in walking. It feeds upon the leaves, devouring all but the petiole, and often entirely defoliating both gooseberry and currant bushes. It changes into a pupa in May or June, and in about three weeks afterward, the perfect insect makes its appearance." Very naturally, this currant worm made its debut near Rochester, N. Y., a great fruit centre, receiving annually large importations of plants. Its first appearance was in 1857.

In England, the caterpillar of the Phalaena vanaria, a similar insect, is often destructive. Whether it has appeared among us yet, I am not informed. They fight it abroad as they do the ordinary worm.

The gooseberry and currant saw-fly (Nematus ribesii), another pestiferous foreigner, has made its appearance in some localities.

We have, besides, a native saw-fly (_Pristiphera grossulariae), which resembles its European congener, and emulates it in mischief. The larva of this fly feeds upon both, the currant and the gooseberry, but prefers the latter.

Nature is liberal, and has given us, in addition, a native gooseberry span-worm, the larva of a small moth. These several worms, unchecked, would soon render the culture of the currant and gooseberry impossible in the regions where they abounded; and, at first, horticulturists were almost in despair, for the pests seemed proof against the usual insecticides and means of destruction. It was eventually discovered that powdered white hellebore was a specific remedy. Usually, it is applied unmixed with other substances; and pains should be taken to get a genuine article, or else it will not destroy the worms.

Mr. H. T. Jones, of Rochester, recommends the following:

"To one pailful of wood-ashes, add one quart each of white hellebore and flowers of sulphur; mix thoroughly; apply by sifting on the bushes while the dew is on them. I used nothing else on my plantation of over two acres last season, and want nothing better; but it must be used daily as long as any worms are seen."

I have heard that, if applied in a liquid form, a heaping table- spoonful of hellebore to a gallon of water is a good proportion.

At the meeting of the New Jersey Historical Society, it was stated by good authorities, as the result of actual experience, that tobacco- dust would kill the worms as readily as hellebore. I hope this is true, since the latter is expensive when applied on a large scale, and the tobacco-dust can be bought at from two dollars to three dollars per barrel. I shall try it next year.

I also quote the following from a recent editorial by Mr. Fuller, in the New York "Weekly Sun:"

"White hellebore has long been considered one of the most efficacious of all poisons for the imported currant worm, but a New Jersey fruit- grower of considerable experience informed us not long ago that he had found strong tobacco water quite as good as the hellebore, and it was also soon washed off by heavy rains, whereby the fruit was not rendered unfit for use, as when other and more virulent poisons are employed. To make a strong solution, put a half-bushel or bushel of tobacco stems, or even the leaves, into a cask or barrel, and press down and hold in place with a stone or other weight; then pour on hot water enough to cover the tobacco, and leave it for a few days to steep. After steeping, the cask may be filled up with warm or cold water, and the solution is ready for use. If a half-pound or pound of crude potash is added, or a quart or two of soft soap is stirred in, the solution will be much improved, especially in its destructive properties. After using the first liquid, the barrels may be filled again with water, and left to steep a few days longer than the first time, or some fresh tobacco may be added, to give the solution the required strength. Tobacco water is certainly a cheap insecticide, and will frequently be found quite as efficacious as those that are more costly and troublesome to apply."

A gentleman from Erie, Pa., writes to me that he has used this remedy for years, with complete success.

Mr. J. McK. Beattie, of Pictou, Nova Scotia, has written to me of a still simpler method:

"I notice in the April number of 'Scribner's Monthly' that you intend to use tobacco-dust to destroy the currant worms. It will prove effectual; but as I can give you a far more simple plan, I take the liberty of writing. It is one which I have proved for the past seven years, and never have known it to fail wherever tried.

"After digging about my bushes, and manuring in the spring, I cover the earth around the bushes with tobacco stems, and place a handful in the middle of the bush, and the work is done for the season. I found that when using the dust I had to renew it after every heavy rain, whereas the stems did not need renewing, unless it was a very wet season, and then, if any worms appeared, a handful of fresh stems scattered through the bushes made them disappear.

"The stems have several advantages: they are cheaper than dust; they serve as a mulch to keep the ground off the fruit; and when dug in about the bush, they make an excellent manure. I think if you once gave them a fair trial you would never be tempted to try any other method.

"Last year stems were very scarce here, and I could not get enough to mulch all my bushes, so I only put a generous handful in the centre of a good many bushes, and they were not troubled; but I would not like to recommend that plan until I experimented further."

For the past two years the worm has attacked my bushes savagely; but, as I am very fond of currants, and relish white, powdered sugar more than hellebore, I fought the pests successfully by hand-picking. I kept a boy, at moderate wages, whose business it was to kill insects and worms. He had a lively time of it occasionally, for Nature sometimes appeared to take sides with the pests.

The cautious use of lime and salt around and under the bushes might prove beneficial, since the worm descends into the soil before changing into a pupa.

The current and gooseberry are also infested with several species of plant-lice. A gentleman whose bushes were attacked by lice and the currant worm at the same time, wrote to the "Country Gentleman" that he destroyed both by a strong decoction of white hellebore, applied from a fine rose-sprinkling can. The bushes were turned back and forth, so as to get the solution on the under side of the leaves. The writer concludes:

"The decoction of hellebore must be strong to be effectual. I make it as follows: To a gallon of boiling water add a tablespoonful of pulverized hellebore. After standing fifteen or twenty minutes, add three gallons of common soapsuds. When cool, apply with a sprinkler, I do not know that there is any virtue in the soapsuds, excepting it makes the solution stick to the leaves."

There are three species of currant borers with unpronounceable names. Their presence is shown by yellow foliage and withering fruit in summer, and by brown, shrivelled branches in winter. Cutting out and burning is the only remedy. Usually, a vigorous bush will outgrow the attacks of this enemy; and good cultivation gives vigor, and also disturbs and brings to the surface the worms that have entered the soil to undergo their transformation. From first to last, tonic treatment supplements and renders more effective our direct efforts to destroy diseases and enemies.

Most earnestly would I urge caution in using all virulent poisons like Paris green, London purple, hellebore, etc.

Whenever it is possible to substitute a less poisonous substance, do so by all means. Some good people regard tobacco as the bane of banes; but to many it does not cause the feeling of repugnance and fear inspired by hellebore and more poisonous insecticides. Let all such articles be kept under lock and key; and one person should have charge of their use, and be held responsible for them. Moreover, any watering-can used with Paris green and like substances should be marked with the word Poison, in large letters. If insecticides are used in the form of a powder, great care should be exercised to keep it from falling on other vegetation or fruit that might be eaten by man or beast. I have known of pigs and horses dying from eating herbage on which Paris green had blown from a potato field. London purple, which, as a cheaper and equally effective article, is taking the place of Paris green, must be used with the same caution, since it is a compound of arsenic, and equally poisonous.

It is my wish and intention to experiment carefully with the various means and methods of coping with the diseases and enemies of small fruits, and to give this chapter frequent revisions.



CHAPTER XXIX

PICKING AND MARKETING

In the proceedings of the New Jersey State Horticultural Society, I find the following interesting paper from the pen of Mr. C. W. Idell, a commission merchant, whose intelligent interest in fruits extends beyond their current price. He gives so graphic a picture of the diminutive beginning of small fruit growing and marketing, that I am led to quote freely:

"About the earliest knowledge I could obtain of the strawberry in our State is that it first grew wild in many regions, particularly in the county of Bergen. The negroes were the first to pick this fruit for the New York market, and invented those quaint old-fashioned splint baskets, with handles, that were and are still in use in that county. These berries were taken to New York, the baskets being strung on poles, and thus peddled through the city. I would state, for the benefit of those who have not seen these baskets, that it was the intention of the original makers of them to have them contain a half- pint each, but soon they became so reduced in size that each buyer was compelled to guess at the contents of those he bought.

"Just when cultivated berries made their appearance, I am unable to say, but I am inclined to think they were derived from seedlings of the wild fruit. From the information I have gathered, I think that the cultivation of the fruit for the market originated in the vicinity of Hackensack, Bergen county, and from there spread over the State. As there were no railroads in that section at that early date, all the berries had to be carted to New York in wagons, crossing the Hudson at Hoboken. Quite recently I met with Mr. Andrew M. Hopper, of Pascack, who gave me several interesting points from his early recollections.

"Mr. Hopper said: 'I am sixty-five years old, and can well remember picking berries for my father, when a boy ten years of age. At that time we had no crates as we have now, but packed them in large baskets that we called hampers.

"'Our only shipping point to New York was Piermont, on the Hudson, New York State, a distance of about eight miles.

"'At this point there was a line of sloops that sailed semi-weekly, when wind and tide permitted. In those days there were no commission merchants in New York that dealt in berries, and each farmer was compelled to go with and sell his own fruit. The fare on these vessels was one shilling for a round trip, board not included; and as it sometimes required two days to reach the city, each farmer provided a lunch for himself before starting from home, as well as provender for his team, which was left at the landing to await his return. The usual fee for caring for the team while they were gone was twenty-five cents.'

"The Hautbois was the first named variety he could remember, which was introduced among them in 1835. In about 1840 the Scotch Runner was introduced at Hackensack. It was a valuable variety for the growers, as it was hardy, a good bearer, and the fruit grew unusually large for that period. An incident connected with the introduction of this variety is worth mentioning, showing the eagerness of the cultivators to procure the plants.

"A gentleman living at 'Old Bridge,' which is a few miles above Hackensack, secured quite a number of plants and set them out in his garden for the purpose of propagating them, so that he could in due time plant a large patch of them. The vines being in great demand, his neighbors insisted upon his selling them; but this proposition he positively refused, and the consequence was that, one night, some person entered his garden and stole every plant he had. At this period and up to the introduction of the Wilson, all strawberries in that section were picked and marketed without the hulls.

"For a long time I have been trying to find out the originator of the quart-berry-box and crate, and, thinking Mr. Hopper might possess some knowledge on this point, I inquired of him. He replied: 'I know nothing about the quart box, for I never used them, but I do about the crate.

"'In 1840 I made the first crate ever used in our section, if not in the State, and I will tell you how I came to do it. In those days I raised large quantities of apricots, and marketed them in such baskets as we happened to have. In the year named my fruit was very large and finely colored, and knowing they would be damaged by carting in the usual way, I had a number of small baskets made, and then I constructed a crate to fit them. The next day after I made them, Gen. Acker, who was an old fruit grower, called on me, admired the arrangement, and suggested that they would answer to pack berries in, and requested me to make two for him, which I did. From these the use of them became general.'

"The cases referred to were skeleton cases, some with and others without lids, each grower making them to suit his own convenience for handling; but they generally contained from one to two hundred baskets each. The number of baskets in each was marked either on the lid or slat."

From the above quotation, the reader can realize what vast changes have taken place within the last fifty years. A few sable pedlers, with little baskets strung on poles, form a decided contrast with a Charleston steamer, bringing in one trip North far more strawberries, in patent refrigerators, than were then sold in a year; or with an Old Dominion steamship, discharging six thousand bushels as a single item of cargo. Ninety-four car-loads of strawberries have passed over the Delaware railroad in one day. According to one computation already given, New York consumes $25,000,000 worth of small fruits annually. If the business has grown to such proportions within the last half- century, may we not expect even greater increase in the future? The appliances for preserving fruit, and for transporting it quickly and safely, become more perfect every year. Thus a market is created in vast regions which, though populous, are not adapted to the raising of fruit.

The modern conditions of marketing fruit are just the reverse of those described by Mr. Idell. Then the berries, both in size and quantity, were small; but the labor and difficulty in reaching the consumer were immense. Now, strawberries that in size resemble tomatoes can be forwarded by the ship and car load, with brief printed labels, and the commission merchant sells for his correspondent, who may reside hundreds of miles away, and for years never follow his fruits to their market. Our chief ground for solicitude is success in finding a commission house able to dispose of our fruit promptly at current rates, and sufficiently honest to make exact returns at the end of each week. There are many who do this, and not a few who do not. If one has not satisfactory business acquaintance in the city, I suggest that they learn from their neighbors who have been in the habit of shipping produce, the names of merchants that uniformly have made the best returns. Moreover, it is often well, if one has considerable fruit, to ship to two or more parties, and compare prices. The homely proverb hinting that it is not wise to put all our eggs in one basket, is sound.

FRUIT PACKAGES

My experience and observation have led me to market my strawberries in square quart baskets, and round pints, and raspberries in half-pints; although pints answer equally well for a firm raspberry, like the Cuthbert or Brandywine.

If I were shipping long distances, I would prefer baskets of which, the round Beecher quarts and pints are the types. Such packages occupy too much space, however, to be forwarded in refrigerators. I think berries remain in good condition longer in this circular, open basket than in any other. Of the crate, it is sufficient to say that it should be light, strong, and so constructed as to permit free circulation of air. Few of the square "quart baskets" hold a quart. Indeed, there are but few honest baskets in the market; and the fact has come to be so well recognized that they are now sold by the "basket," the majority being aware that they are simply packages of fruit. I think there should be a change in this respect, and that the several packages should hold a full quart, pint, etc. Square quarts fill a crate compactly, requiring the least amount of space; there is no chance for the baskets to upset, and when the crate is opened there is a continuous surface of fruit, which is very attractive. Very large, showy strawberries appear best, however, in round baskets. If my market were a near one, I would plan to dispose of the bulk of my crop in round pints, since they could be used for strawberries, the firmer raspberries, and blackberries. Thus one stock and style of baskets would last throughout the whole season.

A little good taste bestowed upon the appearance of a fruit package often adds several cents per pound or quart to the price received, and thus it comes that the brand of certain growers is sought after in the market. A few green leaves, judiciously placed, cost nothing, but may catch the eye and secure a fancy price.

After much inquiry in the market, however, I am led to the conclusion that the size, quality, and appearance of the fruit count for far more than ail other considerations combined.

The old Marlboro' thirds, still largely in use on the Hudson, should be superseded as soon as possible by baskets that permit circulation of air. We should use boxes cheap enough to be given away with the fruit. There is a box of this kind, called the "Sunnyside fruit-box," which can be obtained for about $10 per 1,000. The purchaser sees a pretty box of fruit at a shop, buys and takes it with him, and is at no trouble to return the box. The present frequent practice of pouring the fruit into brown-paper bags is villanous.

Mr. J. T. Budd, of Wilmington, Del., in a sensible letter, gives several excellent reasons why it would be better, and, in the end, cheaper, to use such cheap crates and baskets that one could afford to let them go with the fruit. The expenses of transportation would thus be reduced, and the prices of the berries enhanced, not only because the purchaser would not have the trouble of returning packages, but chiefly for the reason that the fruit would always appear in fresh, new baskets, instead of those soiled, and often musty, from long use. Mr. Budd shows that, in Delaware, crates and baskets could be made sufficiently cheap for this practice.

PICKING

Having procured the baskets which suit us best, the next thing is to fill them properly, and get them into market looking fresh and attractive. It is just at this point that very many wrong themselves, or permit themselves to be wronged, The time is past when all strawberries will sell as such, at so much per quart. Appearance often doubles the price, or makes it difficult to sell the fruit at all. Soiled, muddy berries, even though large, will fetch but wretched prices; therefore the importance of mulching. The fruit may be in beautiful condition upon the vines and yet be spoiled by careless picking. The work is often performed by children, or by those who have had no experience, or who, from inherent shiftlessness, do everything in the worst possible way, I have seen beautiful berries that in their brief transit through grimy hands lost half their value. Many pickers will lay hold of the soft berry itself and pinch it as they pull it off; then, instead of dropping it into the basket, they will hold it in the hand as they pick others, and as the hand grows fuller, will squeeze them tighter, and when, at last, the half-crushed handful is dropped into the basket, the berries are almost ruined for market purposes. Not for $10 per day would I permit such a person to pick for me, for he not only takes fifty per cent from the price of the fruit, but gives my brand a bad reputation. If possible, the grower should carefully select his pickers, and have them subscribe to a few plain rules, like the following:

1. Each berry must be picked with the thumb and forefinger nails, and not held in the hand, but dropped into the basket at once.

2. No green, decayed, or muddy berries will be received.

3. There must be no getting down upon all fours in the beds, thus crushing both green and ripe fruit.

4. There must be no "topping off" with large berries, but the fruit must be equally good all through the basket.

In the early pickings of Wilsons, when many of the berries are of good size, and of all the large, choice kinds, it is best to make two grades, putting the large and small by themselves, and keeping varieties separate. A small frame, with short legs at the corners, and a handle, is a convenient appliance to hold six or more baskets while picking. Give to each picker two sets of baskets, one for the small and one for the large berries, and pay equally for both, or perhaps a little more for the small ones, so that there may be no motive to thwart your purpose; one and a half to two cents per quart is the usual price. Have two styles of tickets, red and blue, for instance; the red having a higher value and being given to those who bring the berries to the place of packing in good order, according to rule; let the baskets not picked in conformity to the rules be receipted for with the blue tickets. Receiving many of the latter soon becomes a kind of disgrace, and thus you appeal to the principle of self-respect as well as self-interest. Get rid of those who persist in careless picking as soon as possible. Insist that the baskets be full and rounded up, and the fruit equal in quality down to the bottom. As far as possible, let the hulls be down out of sight, and only the fruit showing. If you have berries that are extra fine, it will pay you to pick and pack them yourself, or have some one to do it who can be depended upon. Do not pick the fruit, if you can help it, when it is wet with dew or rain; still, there are times when this must be done to save it. Never let the baskets or crates stand long in the sun and wind, as the berries so treated soon become dull and faded. As soon as a crate is filled, put it under cover in a cool place till shipped to market. As far as possible, insist upon careful, gentle handling.

Raspberries should be treated with even greater care than strawberries, since they are softer and more perishable. They should never be put into anything larger than a pint basket, while thirds of a quart and half-pints are much better. Round half-pints seem to be coming into favor. There is a wide, shallow basket made in Rochester, that some growers think highly of. With most varieties of raspberries, if any considerable number are placed together they soon become a soft, mouldy mass. The ideal raspberry basket, therefore, is small, open, and shallow; and the crates should permit free circulation. Pick the fruit when dry, and as soon as it is ripe, as over-ripe berries decay quickly. Keep varieties by themselves. Mr. Parry says that raspberries will pay at ten cents per quart, but the margin of profit will be small. They usually sell at much higher figures. Black-caps of late years have scarcely brought paying prices in New York market. The following statement shows what a difference variety, and therefore quality, makes in the same market. On the 7th day of July, 1871, raspberries were sold at wholesale, in Philadelphia, as follows, viz.:

Black-cap ....................5 cents per quart. Philadelphia ................ 8 " Pearl ................... 16 " Susqueco, or Brandywine .... 30 " Hornet ..................... 60 "

Blackberries sell well in both quart and pint baskets, but if one is sending a long distance, pints will carry the fruit in better condition. One of the best methods of shipping currants is to have tills, or shallow boxes, two or three in number, fitting in one's berry crates, which can thus be made to serve a double purpose. Mark on these tills the net weight of the fruit. For large, Cherry currants, quart and verbena baskets are often used. Many like a long market basket, holding about twenty-five pounds, while those who raise grapes often make the same shallow boxes answer for both.

Gooseberries are shipped in all kinds of packages, from barrels to quart boxes. I prefer a crate with tills, for both gooseberries and currants. These two fruits, especially the latter, are becoming increasingly profitable every year. In summing up, it may be briefly stated that with all fruits, and in all the large markets, beauty, size, and good keeping qualities are the points which are chiefly considered. Very few know much about the names of varieties, but eagerly purchase that which appears the most attractive. The grower who can make his crates of berries, when opened, look better than others near, will always receive good prices. If he tops off poor fruit with large berries, he will scarcely find a market eventually. If he always fills his baskets well and honestly, and gives good weight, taking pains to make his packages appear attractive, his fruit will soon be in much demand and spoken for in advance.



CHAPTER XXX

IRRIGATION

This is a topic on which a book might be written. The reader will draw a sigh of relief, however, on learning that I shall content myself with giving a few facts and suggestions, since I am well aware that, in spite of its title, this chapter will be dry to many.

The first rays that fall from the lamp of history reveal vast systems of irrigation in full operation. In many parts of the globe artificial watering is absolutely essential, and there are few agricultural regions which might not be rendered far more productive if the supply of moisture could be regulated in accordance with the needs of each crop. The question, as we shall consider it, is a practical one. In California and other sections, the land must be irrigated; here, and wherever the rainfall is more equally distributed throughout the year, we can water if we find the practice remunerative. The increased yield from the proper application of water is often marvellous. Mr. James Neilson, in a paper read before the New Jersey State Board of Agriculture, gives some interesting facts observed abroad. In regions along the Cavour Canal, the people were able to mow in one season six heavy burdens of grass, and in the vicinity of Edinburgh, by the use of sewage water, five or six crops of grass annually. In Belgium, "sandy, barren land (resembling the pine barrens of New Jersey) was put into profitable cultivation when it could be irrigated." The plain of Gennevilliers, near Paris, seemed utterly worthless for cultivation. It consisted almost wholly of coarse gravel, and bore no rent. No land owner would make any effort to use water, so the city of Paris bought about twenty-five acres and turned upon it part of the sewage. It now rents for nearly $50 per acre, with sewage supplied. In parts of Spain, land is worth $2,500 irrigated, and but $125 without the privilege of water. The enormous and long-continued crops of strawberries raised in California prove that water is equally effective in our new land, where the climate is similar, as in the older countries. Will irrigation pay in our latitude, where we hope for seasonable rains? I think that in many sections it will, and occasionally I hear of remarkable results obtained by the free use of water. In one instance a gravelly hillside, almost worthless for ordinary cultivation, became the wonder of the neighborhood, so large were the crops of strawberries secured by irrigation.

Mr. Chas. W. Garfield, Secretary of the Michigan State Pomological Society, gives an interesting account of his visit to Mr. Dunkley, a successful gardener, at Kalamazoo: "A force," he writes, "were picking strawberries from rows of vigorous plants, and as we opened the vines in advance of the pickers, a more delightful strawberry prospect we had never seen. The varieties were Monarch, Seneca Chief, and Wilson, and under the system of irrigation employed they were just prime for market, after all the other berries in the vicinity had ripened and were gone. Very remunerative prices were thus secured. His vines were vigorous and independent of the rains. Every berry that set reached perfection in size and form." The abundant moisture greatly increases the size of the fruit, but retards the ripening. When the fruit has reached the proper stage for maturity, the water is withheld, and then the berries ripen fast, but in their perfect development are firm, and are shielded from the sun by the luxuriant foliage. "We water," said Mr. Dunkley," only to supplement the rain. If the season is wet, we employ our artificial system but little, or not at all, and in such seasons get no profit from our investments; but generally, sometime during a season there is a drought that shortens some crop; then we irrigate, and have the advantage of neighboring gardeners." This statement suggests the practical question, Do droughts or dry seasons occur with sufficient frequency to warrant the outlay required for irrigation? In a very interesting paper read before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, Mr. W. D. Philbrick gives much information on the subject of artificial watering, and its need in our latitude and section, and I quote from him freely:

"The amount of water required will depend largely on the rainfall, velocity of the wind, atmospheric humidity, soil, etc. A loose, sandy soil will require much more water than a retentive clay. In general, however, it may be assumed that in the warm, growing months of May, June, July, August and September, most vegetation requires an inch in depth over the entire surface of the land every five days. This is, of course, only an average. This quantity, estimated as needed by our gardens, would be equivalent to six inches per month of rainfall. If we compare this amount with the actual rainfall, we shall arrive at an idea of what is to be supplied artificially.

"The rainfall at Boston for the past six years (to 1878), for the five growing months named, varies from a maximum of 10.5 inches, in August, 1872, to a minimum of 0.65 inch, in June, 1873. During these six years there was not a single season when we did not suffer more or less from drought during some portion of the summer. Twenty-one of the thirty months in question had less rainfall than six inches per month, and the average of these twenty-one months was about 3.02 inches per month, or only about half of what was needed. Some of the protracted seasons of drought were almost entirely rainless for six weeks, during which the weather was excessively hot and windy, and vegetation suffered extremely in consequence."

Mr. Philbrick estimates that 27,000 gallons, or 108 tons, of water are needed per acre at each watering, which, in a dry period, should be repeated every five days. This enormous quantity leads him to suggest that—

"before embarking in an enterprise of irrigation, it would be best to make sure that the source can be depended upon for a sufficient supply of water in the driest seasons; for it is precisely at such times that the most water is needed. Ordinary springs and wells, therefore, are entirely inadequate to furnish water for anything more than a small patch or garden. The only sources to be depended upon for large areas are unfailing streams, lakes, and ponds. There are few gardens so favorably situated that the water can be drawn from canals and ditches directly from some pond or stream. When this can be done it is by far the cheapest method; and it is in this way that the extensive irrigating works of Lombardy, Spain, France, California, and Colorado are constructed. Where this system is adopted, considerable expense is required to grade the land into inclined beds, so as to distribute the water easily and evenly; but, once done, the water is applied at a very trifling cost—so cheaply that it is used for farm crops in Lombardy and the South of France."

In most instances, however, our land is so located that we cannot irrigate it by a natural flow and fall of water. In this case, it may be distributed by water-carts and by hand. This can be done only on a very small scale. The cost in time and labor would be much too great for profitable returns, and the ground would be so beaten and trampled as to cause much injury. Such methods may answer very well for small and well-mulched fruit gardens, making the home supply certain and large, but it is inadequate from a business point of view. Distributing water through pipes laid underground, beneath the plow, does not work well at all, practically, and is not in accordance with nature. Most of the water is wasted.

Mr. Phil brick continues:

"The only method of distributing water much used in gardens where pumping is practiced is the system of iron pipes laid underground, with hydrants distant 200 feet asunder, from which the water is distributed by 100 feet of India rubber hose. This is also the plan adopted by gardeners who make use of the public water supply."

When practicable, such iron pipes should be carried along ridges and headlands, so as to let the water flow where we wish it by gravity as far as possible.

"Where the water has to be distributed by hose and sprinkler it will be found good economy to use a powerful pump, that will give a head of at least thirty feet, and to use for distribution pipes of not less than one and a half inches in diameter; provided, of course, that any considerable area—an acre or more—is to be watered. Thus, for example, we will suppose that it is required to water five acres of land, and that we have near by a never-failing pond or river; we can locate a steam pump near the river, and, while at work watering, we load the safety-valve upon the delivering water pipe at fifteen pounds per square inch, which corresponds to a head of about thirty feet of water. We have 300 feet of iron pipe, two inches in diameter, and 100 feet of India rubber hose, one and a half inches in diameter, for the delivery of the water. This apparatus would be capable of delivering 45 gallons per minute, or 27,000 gallons per day of ten hours—enough for the thorough wetting of one acre per day, or every acre of the five once in five days; by running nights, ten acres could be watered.

"When only a limited area is to be watered—less than an acre—the wind-mill furnishes a cheaper source of power than the steam pump. To make it available, large storage of water must be provided at a high level, so that the mill may work during stormy weather and store the water until needed. A wind-mill, costing with pump and tank about $500, will furnish water enough for one or two acres of land, provided storage can be provided for 200,000 gallons of water. To provide this storage might cost as much as a steam pump. Where elevated reservoirs can easily be made, and the amount of water needed is not over 10,000 gallons daily, the wind-mill is, without doubt, cheaper power than steam."

Mr. Philbrick shows conclusively that where a gardener pays at the rate of twenty-five cents per 1,000 gallons, or even much less, only crops approaching $1,000 per acre in value will warrant the outlay. When land can be easily graded, and irrigated through canals and ditches, the yearly cost has been reduced, in some cases, as low as from one to three dollars per acre per year.

"Wherever drainage is not perfect, it must be made so before irrigation can be safely practiced; otherwise, if a heavy fall of rain should occur just after application of water, the plants might suffer seriously from being too wet."

In the discussion which followed the reading of this paper, Mr. John B. Moore said, among other things: "No crop takes the moisture out of the soil more quickly than strawberries, and, for these and other crops which soon suffer from dryness, he lets the water run down the rows all night from half a dozen large pipes."

Hon. Marshall T. Wilder then remarked that "the secret how Mr. Moore produced his large strawberries had now come out."

(In a letter recently received, Mr. Moore further states: "In the garden, I have had the best results where I have let the water run out of open hose between the rows of raspberries, strawberries, etc., always making it a rule to wet the ground thoroughly, and then stop, and not apply any more until there is good evidence of the soil needing it again. A constant drizzle is detrimental to vegetation.")

Mr. W. C. Strong said that the "even distribution of water was very important; otherwise, the ground became sodden in places, and other parts received no benefit. He thought that considerable part of the benefit of irrigation arose from showering the foliage, especially at night, as in a green-house."

Mr. Philbrick said that he applied water in sunshine sometimes, but that in general he did not like to do so. (I would caution the reader to be very careful about wetting foliage under a hot sun, as it often causes both leaves and fruit to scald. I once lost a crop of gooseberries through a midday shower, followed by a hot afternoon.)

Mr. E. P. Richardson had found a hose perforated with holes an eighth of an inch in diameter, and about three or four inches apart, very convenient for applying water. It can be laid anywhere, in a straight or crooked line, and under plants whose leaves are injured by watering in the bright sun. Such a hose may be left for hours without attention.

In the garden at Kalamazoo already referred to, the water was obtained by damming up a spring. "The water was conveyed in a wooden conduit, made of two-inch plank, and rendered water-tight by coal tar." The whole apparatus was very inexpensive, and proves that in many instances the ingenious and enterprising horticulturist can work out a simple system of his own that, at slight cost, will answer his purpose.

This chapter aims at little more than to put the reader on the right track for further investigation, and to suggest a few of the first principles and requirements of irrigation. The great majority have little realization of the amount of water required, and very often much loss is incurred and injury caused by attempting artificial watering with an insufficient supply. Mr. Dunkley, at Kalamazoo, started with a wind-mill, but found it wholly inadequate. Partial watering is worse than useless. By liberal mulching, very much less water is required, and much longer intervals between irrigation may elapse.

If one designs to undertake irrigation upon a large scale, he should employ the services of an expert, and "make haste slowly." At the same time, many fruit farms are so located, or might be, that the laborer with a pick and shovel could solve the problem of an abundant supply of water.

When unfailing moisture can be maintained, and plants are not permitted to bear in June, nor to make runners, almost a full crop may be obtained in the autumn.



CHAPTER XXXI

SUGGESTIVE EXPERIENCES FROM WIDELY SEPARATED LOCALITIES

It is often said that there is no teaching like experience, and in view of this sound principle I am led to quote from a few of the letters that I have received. These statements, from successful and intelligent cultivators, throw side lights on the preceding pages from various standpoints. I would advise the reader to note carefully the adaptation of different varieties to different parts of the country. As we have just been discussing the subject of irrigation, I will first quote from California letters, since they touch on this topic.

From Mr. James Shinn's interesting communication, I take the following facts:

"NILES, ALAMEDA CO., CAL.

"The greater part of the strawberries consumed in San Francisco are grown in the neighborhood of San Jose, some fifty miles south of the city. We are situated about halfway between, in the great valley that borders the bay of San Francisco. We have occupied this place over twenty years, and have made observations upon the culture of small fruits, and have always grown more or less ourselves. While, therefore, I do not claim to be authority on the points you inquire about, I feel pretty safe in mentioning one or two things in this connection, that I can hardly be mistaken about!

"First—Those who plant extensively for market make it a sine qua non to have at hand plenty of water; except in very favored localities, they can't be grown to profit without this essential. I know that the plants are planted on each side of a small ridge, previously thrown up for the purpose. The vines along the ridge stand twelve to fifteen inches apart. The space between the ridges allows three and a half feet for cultivation and water. The water is allowed to run between these ridges, and, of course, wets the roots effectually. It will be perceived that the ground must be nearly level. I cannot tell how often these rows are watered, but frequently. The proper season for planting is as early in the winter as the ground can be put in order—from November 1st, all winter—the earlier the better. If planted early, a fair crop of berries may be expected the next summer. For many years the Longwood's Prolific and Peabody Seedling were the varieties generally grown. Recently some other varieties have been introduced, but are mostly confined to the hands of amateurs. The Monarch of the West has, however, certainly secured a strong foothold among the large growers. This berry commanded a much larger price in the market than the old varieties. I just remark respecting irrigation that, of course, as you will see, the object of planting upon ridges is to place the vines so high that when the water is let in, the berries will be above its reach. Nearly all our large growers let their fields to Chinamen, who do all the work, boarding themselves, for half the net proceeds.

"SAN JOSE, CAL.

"In answer to your letter, asking about irrigation, I would state that in the first place we grade the land, after first plowing and harrowing it. We do not like to do too much grading. If the land is very uneven, we make the rows conform to it, bringing the water on the highest portions, and cutting escape ditches through the low parts, so that the water can run off readily. The rows are made three feet apart, and every alternate row is shovelled or plowed out to make a shallow ditch about three or four inches deep. Soil is thrown on or between the alternate rows, making the ground look like small beds. The plants are set in rows about six inches from the edge of the ditches. We are now ready for the water, which is nearly all taken from artesian wells. The first year, the plants do not require so much moisture; but the second year, we water about once a week. We keep all runners cut off. "J. H. Ogier."

"Brown's Valley, Yuba Co., Cal.

"My business is raising strawberries and blackberries for market, which is eleven miles distant, and I send all my fruit by stage. I have experimented with all leading varieties, since Orange Judd introduced the Agriculturist, but succeed best with Triomphe de Gand, Longworth's Prolific, Jucunda, and Colonel Cheney. The latter is rather soft to carry so far to market. I commence sending to market about the middle of April. About the middle of June the Triomphe begins to ripen a second crop. Last year they were the largest and finest berries I ever saw. In September the Jucunda bears a third crop. Prom May until October we depend entirely on irrigation. Our soil is red, stiff, and heavy. I use abundantly well-rotted stable manure and barnyard compost. I prepare by deep plowing, and then harrowing. I then go over the ground for the plants with Hexamer's pronged hoe, making the soil very fine. I set the plants two feet apart each way, and where each one is to grow, I work in a large shovelful of manure deeply and thoroughly. I give blackberries the same mode of culture, setting them three feet by eight. No winter protection is needed. In ordinary seasons, there are a few strawberries all winter long. Strawberries and blackberries are very productive, and enormous in size, but currants, gooseberries, and red raspberries do not succeed in this region, the long and intensely hot and dry season being unfavorable. John Palmer."

"NEW CASTLE, CAL.

"The President Wilder is the finest flavored berry we have ever tasted, and it is the most attractive in color of all. The Jucunda does not do well on our light soil. The Monarch is splendid. We grow raspberries quite extensively, our climate and location being better adapted to them, perhaps, than any other part of California. The earliest berry with us is the Red Antwerp (probably the English). It is a week earlier than the Franconia. The Herstine is a fine berry every way, except as regards firmness. The cap varieties are inferior in flavor here. C. M. SILVA & SON"

From other sources I learn that the Triomphe de Gand and Seth Boyden are among the chief favorites in California.

Mr. Felix Gillet, Nevada City, Cal., author of an excellent little treatise on the culture of the strawberry in his region, says: "The row and hill system is certainly the best of all, especially to raise large, fine fruit. The rows should be two feet apart, or thirty-six inches, if irrigating by running water in each row as it is done in California. The plants should be set, the large-growing sorts two feet from each other in the row, the smaller ones from twelve to eighteen inches."

"AUSTIN, TEXAS

"I put in water-works, and it is the best investment I ever made. I supply Austin with vegetables the whole year round. It was very dry last year, but I loaded three wagons with vegetables every day. We watered twenty acres regularly, and will water thirty this year. I am making a large reservoir on a hill, which will be supplied from a large well through a six-inch pipe. I use Knowles's steam pump, 30 horse-power, capable of pumping 750,000 gallons daily. Of strawberries, the Kentucky Seedling can stand the most heat and drought. Crescent Seedling looks well here, also the Forest Rose. Raspberries, currants, and gooseberries cannot be raised. We plant strawberries one foot apart in the row, and the rows are three feet apart We mulch early in spring, and cultivate by horse-power after the bearing season is over. I regard cow manure, leaf mould, and bone flour as the best fertilizers. I consider fall, October or November, as the best time for planting.

"WILLIAM RADAM."

"PALESTINE, TEXAS.

"The Charles Downing, Seth Boyden, and President Wilder have done well. The Charles Downing has flourished as though native and to the manner born. The Kentucky has done remarkably well; the Wilson not so well. Raspberries, on the whole, have done well, but currants and gooseberries will not survive. The strawberries have done better than I hoped. I have always looked upon the strawberry as a semi-aquatic plant, and this view has been strengthened by an account of a wonderful crop produced in this region by abundant and systematic watering. The great difficulty against which we have to contend is the prolonged summer, when, for weeks, the thermometer ranges from 90 degrees to 95 degrees in the shade. To this must be added spells of dry weather, lasting sometimes for six or eight consecutive weeks in July, August, and September.

"D. S. H. SMITH."

"NEW ORLEANS, LA.

"Experienced cultivators prepare for strawberries by thorough plowing and subsoiling. We cultivate by subsoil plow, cultivator, and hoe, with no stones to impede our work. The bearing season lasts about 90 days. I have had two full crops in the same season. The best time to plant is, 1st, in August; 2d, in December. The Wilson and Charles Downing do well. The black-cap raspberries succeed: the red raspberries are thus far a failure. Blackberries do very well. D. M. WIGGINS, Agricultural editor, 'N. 0. Times.'"

Mr. H. W. Lamb, of Colorado Springs, writes me that strawberries and the hardy red raspberries do well in his section. They regard sheep manure as one of the best fertilizers. Dr. Samuel Hape, of Atlanta, Ga., writes: "In reply to your favor, I would say that strawberries and blackberries do splendidly here, raspberries moderately, and currants and gooseberries as exceptions; grapes finely.

"Our soils are mostly loam, with some sand, and a clay subsoil. Bottom lands have the usual deposits of muck and partially decomposed vegetable matter. The damp, rich soil, of course, suits strawberries and blackberries; though the latter grow wild to such perfection, and in such abundance, as to do away with cultivation almost entirely. The red raspberry does not succeed very well as a rule. While damp, under- drained soil and sandy loam are best for strawberries, the dry uplands have almost invariably produced well. As to fertilizers, well- decomposed stable manure and bone meal have done the best with us.

"No winter protection is needed. The fall, with us, is the best season to transplant strawberries, by all odds—as soon as the September rains set in. DR. SAMUEL HAPE."

"JACKSONVILLE, FLA., Dec. 23, 1878.

"With pleasure, I answer your questions to the best of my ability. 1. What varieties of small fruits do best in your locality? Strawberries and blackberries do well, but owing to the abundance of wild fruit, late and early, the blackberry is not cultivated largely. No other small fruits have been fairly tried. The general opinion is that our warm weather lasts too long for the raspberry, gooseberry, and currant. I have given the raspberry a trial, and cannot recommend it. 2. What soils are best adapted to them? We have two soils on which the strawberry thrives, the low hummock bordering on the river. It is rich in vegetable and mineral matter—clay from two to four feet under surface. The next is our pine land; soil light, and of grayish color, nearly devoid of vegetable matter, but largely supplied with lime and potash. Strawberries and blackberries do well on this soil. We have what is termed high hummock. It is a yellow loam, with clay, varying from two to six feet from surface. The orange, peach, grape, fig, quince and plum do well on this soil. 3. What is your mode of culture? For strawberries, I lay off beds, slightly raised, 8 feet wide. On each bed I put four rows of plants, running the full length of beds. For Wilsons, rows 18 inches, and 12 inches between plants; Charles Downing, and Seth Boyden, 18 by 18 inches. Cover all the space with pine-needles by the time warm weather sets in, and shade their fruit from the hot sun. I cultivate with a small hand cultivator, partly invented by myself, and by hoeing. 4. What fertilizer do you consider most efficient? A compost of stable manure, muck, and potash. 5. What winter protection do you give, if any? None needed. For summer protection, pine straw between plants; this answers a double purpose— to keep the fruit clean, also to protect the plants in warm, dry weather, and retain moisture. 6. Do you consider spring or fall the best season for planting in your locality? If I have home-grown plants, I prefer planting from last of August to first of December. Northern plants, unless grown in pots, do best if obtained in November or December. I will add here, for your information, Wilson's Albany is very shy of making runners for the first year or two after coming from the North. Seth Boyden and Charles Downing take possession of the ground after fruiting is over. WILLIAM JAMES."

Mr. P. J. Berkmans, the well-known horticulturist of Augusta, Ga., informed me that the Kentucky, Charles Downing, and Crescent endured the southern sun well, and that the Captain Jack and Sharpless were fine with them; all the purple cane and black-cap raspberries did well, but none of the foreign kinds thrived. Mr. Berkmans remarked that, even after ten years of bearing, he hesitated to express a positive opinion concerning a fruit, so great are the differences caused by location and soil. It is your young men that have been two or three years in the business, who have positive opinions on every subject.

In the suburbs of Savannah, Ga., I found three-quarters of an acre of strawberries that had yielded a clear profit of $800 in one season. The preparation and culture for this profitable crop were as follows: A good coat of manure was spread early in spring and plowed under. Cow-peas were then sown and plowed under in August, when another coat of manure was harrowed in. Planting was commenced August 10, and the plants set fourteen inches from each other, in beds with alleys between, twenty-eight inches wide. They were worked with a cultivator, mulched with pine straw in January, and stimulated from time to time with liquid manure. The fact that they secured a good home market accounts, in part, for the large profit.

Through the courtesy of Captain Sigwald, himself a successful horticulturist, I was able to visit many strawberry plantations in the vicinity of Charleston, S. C., and will give a few statistics from one of the most nourishing. The plants were vigorous, and the long rows clean and free from runners. The best plants had been set out in the preceding September. The force employed to set five and a half acres was: five hands taking up the plants with a large patent transplanter, that brought away a ball of earth with the roots; five more laborers "toting," or carrying on hand-barrows, the plants from the propagating bed to the fruiting field, and four planting. The expense of planting was $15 per acre. Prom the five and a half acres, there were shipped to New York 15,200 quarts, on which the freight, at fifteen cents per quart, amounted to $2,280. Commission on sales was $4l3—leaving a balance of only $1,670, and out of this all other expenses had to come. Thus it way be seen that the expense of marketing the crop was greater than the expense of growing it and the net profit combined—a condition of things that should not last. The freight has been reduced to ten cents per quart this year, I understand.

The Monarch seems peculiarly adapted to East Tennessee, and Mr. Ed. S. Sheppard, who first introduced them, found a sensation resulting that in its proportions resembled the mammoth berry.

The Crystal City and Captain Jack are favorite varieties in Missouri.

For the latitude and climate of New York, and westward, much suggestion has been given already.

Mr. J. T. Lovett, of Little Silver, N. J., gives the following list as the best selection for their light sandy soils:

FOR THE HOME GARDEN

Strawberries

French's Seedling—best early crop.

Charles Downing—best medium, or main crop.

Kentucky—best late.

Red Raspberries

Herstine—best early.[Footnote: "Requires winter protection to ensure a crop."]

Turner—best entirely hardy early.

Cuthbert—best medium and late.

Black-cap Raspberries

Doolittle's Improved—best early.

Mammoth Cluster—best medium and late.

Mammoth Blackberries

Wilson's Early—best early.

Kittatinny—best main crop.

Currants

Cherry—best red.

Red Dutch—best for culinary purposes.

White Grape—best white.

Victoria—best late.

Black Naples—best black.

Gooseberries

Downing

FOR MARKET—OF VALUE IN THE ORDER NAMED

Strawberries

Wilson's Albany, } Captain Jack, } For shipment.

Crescent Seedling, } Charles Downing, } For near market. Downer's Prolific, }

Red Raspberries

Cuthbert.

Brandywine.

Black-cap Raspberries

Mammoth Cluster.

Doolittle's Improved.

Blackberries

Kittatinny.

Wilson's early. [Footnote: "In former years this was the most profitable of all sorts, but latterly it is so frequently injured by winter, and so generally attacked by disease or insects throughout the State, as to render it uncertain."]

Currants

Cherry.

Red Dutch.

Black Naples.

Gooseberries

Downing.

Houghton Seedling.

In the Sixth Annual Report of the New Jersey State Board of Agriculture, I find the following interesting statement from the well- known horticulturist, Mr. P. T. Quinn.

"ONE ACRE OP STRAWBEREIES.

"NEWARK, October, 1878.

"The following are the methods of culture and the products of one acre of strawberries, grown on my farm near Newark, during the season of 1878. The ground on which these strawberries were grown was planted with Early Rose potatoes and heavily manured in the spring of 1877. These potatoes were dug and marketed during the last week in July and first week in August of the same year. The ground was at once cleared off, plowed and harrowed smoothly. Furrows were then opened four or five inches deep and two and a half feet apart. Between the 15th and 22d of August, 1877, the strawberry plants were set in these furrows from fifteen to eighteen inches apart, without any manure being added. Some plants died here and there, but the bulk of those set out made a strong growth before cold weather. They were kept free from weeds by running a cultivator twice between the rows and hoeing twice. This treatment kept the ground absolutely free from weeds. In the middle of December, the plants were covered over with a compost of the sweepings of the vegetable and fish markets, with some horse manure mixed through it. The whole was thoroughly decayed and light in character. About the middle of April, 1878, the coarsest part of this mulch was raked off the strawberry plants, and left in the spaces between the rows, the finer portion being left among the plants. To the coarse part raked off was added salt hay, pressed under the leaves of the plants on either side of the rows, enough being added to keep the soil around the plants moist and the fruit free from grit. There was no disturbance of the soil in any way in the spring, beyond the cutting off at the surface of a few straggling weeds that started up here and there.

"The varieties grown upon this acre were Charles Downing and Green Prolific, and the yield was five thousand four hundred and eighty- seven (5,487) quarts. The gross receipts from this acre of berries was seven hundred and ninety-five dollars and sixty-one cents ($795.61). Deducting the commissions and picking the fruit, the net returns were $620.60."

Messrs. Gibson and Bennett, of New Jersey, stated before the Western New York Horticultural Society, that they "liked the bedding system, say four-row beds, with plants one foot apart each way and two-feet walks between the beds. We fertilize with fine horse manure, spreading it heavily and plowing it under. We start plants in pots and transfer them to the beds in September, the earlier the better. These potted plants form fine large crowns ready for the finest fruit. The beds are covered with manure January 1. The fruit is picked the following June, and the beds then plowed under at once and planted with other crops."

By this system, it will be seen that the plants occupy the ground but about ten months, and little or no cultivation is given. It is practically the same method as that employed around Charleston, S. C., and, I am inclined to think, could often be practiced at the North with great profit. In contrast, Mr. J. K. Sharpless said, on the same occasion, "We grow in the hill system, and expect the plants to last four or five years;" adding, "My experience teaches me that strawberries should not be cultivated deeply until their season of rest is over, say the last of August." I think this view sound.

Mr. E. B. Underhill, of Poughkeepsie, N. Y., said that he "valued the Golden Defiance for late fruit. The Glendale is more vigorous. I think highly of the Champion and Kentucky. The Duncan is our best early of those well tested. As the mid-market in this section will probably be glutted with Crescents, I shall take great pains with the Cumberland Triumph, which, picked in pints (on account of its softness), will yield almost as well, and bring more dollars than any sort I have tested yet."

From Mr. Frank S. Alling I learn that all the small fruits succeed finely on the shores of Puget Sound, Washington Territory.

I will close this chapter of experiences with a very interesting letter from the Rev. Mr. A. A. Von Iffland, of Quebec, who gives an admirable statement of the conditions of success in the latitude of Northern Canada. It will be seen that his light, warm soil makes a difference of several degrees of latitude in his favor.

"My soil is of a light gravelly nature, with a subsoil of coarse sand. It requires annual applications of large quantities of manure to bring about the best results, but then yields generous returns. It is warm and quick, and so porous that it can be worked almost immediately after the heaviest showers. Plants form roots in the soil with marvellous rapidity. All kinds of vegetables can be successfully cultivated. Potatoes, tomatoes, squash, corn, carrots, parsnips, melons, cucumbers, beans, and peas are grown to perfection. Of course, it is liable to suffer severely in a drought—an evil which I find is best obviated by plenty of barnyard manure and cultivation. The climate is doubtless severe, and the winters long, but the abundance of snow affords the best kind of protection and is of the greatest possible advantage in the culture of small fruits. Winter sets in with us sometimes as early as the first of November, sometimes not till the middle of December, and the snow has not disappeared from the vicinity of the fences till the last week in April. The average depth of snow is 4 1/2 half feet, and we have cold spells of three or four days at a time, when the glass varies between 20 and 30 degrees below zero.

"STRAWBERRIES

"I think that all the varieties which are cultivated in the United States can be cultivated here under the same conditions of soil. I grow successfully the Colonel Cheney, Triomphe de Gand, Wilson, Charles Downing, Nicanor, Green Prolific, Monarch of the West, Seth Boyden, but have discarded Jucunda and Kentucky. I have the greatest success with the Cheney, Charles Downing, Wilson, and Triomphe, in the order written. I plant both in fall and spring, but prefer fall setting when it can be done early and you have good plants.

"I used to strike plants in three-inch pots, but have abandoned that plan, and instead, lay the runners as early as I can get them (from 1st to 20th July), and when well rooted, set them out, with a ball of earth, from 15th to 20th August. If the season is at all moist, so that the young plants make good progress before the frosts set in (about middle of October), I get a good crop (half a full crop) the following summer. From plants set in the spring, I take no fruit. With this exception, fall and spring settings are treated alike. As the cultivation is all done by hand, I have found that planting in beds of three rows each combines the greatest advantages. The rows are 15 inches apart, and the plants 18 inches apart in the row—in the quincunx form; each bed is separated from the rest by a path 80 inches wide. I need not say that the soil has been previously well enriched— with compost, generally, and well-decomposed manure. In fact, as I usually plant on soil from which a crop of potatoes has been removed, the ground has received two applications the year the plants are set. As the Colonel Cheney is my favorite, in order to fertilize it, I plant alternate beds of some good staminate variety, Charles Downing, Triomphe, or Wilson. The cultivation of the young plants the first season consists in cutting off any runners that may form, and keeping them clear of weeds. When well established, the beds are top-dressed with an inch or two of old manure; this feeds the plants, keeps the soil about the roots moist, and acts as a mulch when the fruit sets, and yields the following summer. The following spring and summer, nothing is done to these beds till after fruiting, except to hoe out the weeds. After fruiting, a thorough weeding is effected, and the runners are cut every three weeks; and before the frosts set in, the beds are given a top-dressing of old manure. After the second crop of fruit is taken off, they are weeded, and the runners are allowed to strike. The third spring, wood-ashes are applied; and after fruiting the plants are turned under. No winter protection is given to the plants, unless you except the top-dressing of manures; but this is sometimes not applied till spring, and I observe no appreciable difference between the plants with and those without it. What I do observe is that an early winter, and plenty of snow, kills fewer plants than a winter in which the snowfalls have been delayed till after frosts and rains.