These facts will explain some of the fundamental principles in the care of trees. To a tree growing on a city street or on a lawn where nature fails to supply the requisite amount of water, the latter must be supplied artificially, especially during the hot summer months, or else dead branches may result as seen in Fig. 89. Too much thinning out of the crown causes excessive evaporation, and too much cutting out in woodlands causes the soil to dry and the trees to suffer for the want of moisture. This also explains why it is essential, in wooded areas, to retain on the ground the fallen leaves. In decomposing and mixing with the soil, the fallen leaves not only supply the trees with food material, but also tend to conserve moisture in the ground and to prevent the drying out of the soil. Raking off the leaves from wooded areas, a practice common in parks and on private estates—hurts the trees seriously. Some soils may have plenty of moisture, but may also be so heavily saturated with acids or salts that the tree cannot utilize the moisture, and it suffers from drought just the same as if there had been no moisture at all in the soil. Such soils are said to be "physiologically dry" and need treatment.

In the development of disease, moisture is a contributing factor and, therefore, in cavities or underneath bandages where there is likely to be an accumulation of moisture, decay will do more damage than in places that are dry and exposed to the sun.

(2) Influence of soil: Soil is made up of fine particles of sand and rock and of vegetable matter called humus. A tree will require a certain soil, and unsuitable soils can be very often modified to suit the needs of the tree. A deep, moderately loose, sandy loam, however, which is sufficiently aerated and well supplied with water, will support almost any tree. Too much of any one constituent will make a soil unfit for the production of trees. If too much clay is present the soil becomes "stiff." If too much vegetable matter is present, the soil becomes "sour." The physical character of the soil is also important. By physical character is meant the porosity which results from breaking up the soil. This is accomplished by ploughing or cultivation. In nature, worms help to do this for the soil, but on streets an occasional digging up of the soil about the base of the tree is essential.

Humus or the organic matter in the soil is composed of litter, leaves and animal ingredients that have decayed under the influence of bacteria. The more vegetable matter in the humus, the darker the soil; and therefore a good soil such as one finds on the upper surface of a well-tilled farm has quite a dark color. When, however, a soil contains an unusual quantity of humus, it is known as "muck," and when there is still more humus present we find peat. Neither of these two soils is suitable for proper tree growth.



(3) Influence of light: Light is required by the leaves in the process of assimilation. Cutting off some of the light from a tree affects its form. This is why trees grown in the open have wide-spreading crowns with branches starting near the ground as in Fig. 90, while the same species growing in the forest produces tall, lanky trees, free from branches to but a few feet from the top as in Fig. 91. Some trees can endure more shade than others, but all will grow in full light. This explains why trees like the beech, hemlock, sugar maple, spruce, holly and dogwood can grow in the shade, while the poplar, birch and willow require light. It also explains why, in the forest, the lower branches die and fall off—a process known in Forestry as "natural pruning," The influence of light on the form of trees should be well understood by all those who plant trees and by those designing landscape effects.



(4) Influence of heat: Trees require a certain amount of heat. They receive it partly from the sun and partly from the soil. Evaporation prevents the overheating of the crown. The main stem of the tree is heated by water from the soil; therefore trees in the open begin growth in the spring earlier than trees in the forest because the soil in the open is warmer. Shrubs begin their growth earlier than trees because of the nearness of their crowns to their root systems. This also explains why a warm rain will start vegetation quickly. Too much heat will naturally cause excessive drying of the roots or excessive evaporation from the leaves and therefore more water is needed by the tree in summer than in winter.

(5) Influence of season and frost: The life processes of a tree are checked when the temperature sinks below a certain point. The tree is thus, during the winter, in a period of rest and only a few chemical changes take place which lead up to the starting of vegetation. In eastern United States, growth starts in April and ceases during the latter part of August or in early September. The different parts of a tree may freeze solid during the winter without injury, provided the tree is a native one. Exotic trees may suffer greatly from extreme cold. This is one of the main reasons why it is always advisable to plant native trees rather than those that are imported and have not yet been acclimatized. Frosts during mid-winter are not quite as injurious as early and late frosts and, therefore, if one is going to protect plants from the winter's cold, it is well to apply the covering early enough and to keep it on late enough to overcome this difficulty.

The mechanical injuries from frost are also important. Snow and sleet will weigh down branches but rarely break them, while frost will cause them to become brittle and to break easily. Those who climb and prune trees should be especially cautious on frosty days.

(6) Influence of air: On the under side of leaves and on other surfaces of a tree little pores known as stomata may be found. In the bark of birch and cherry trees these openings are very conspicuous and are there known as lenticels. These pores are necessary for the breathing of the tree (respiration), whereby carbonic acid gas is taken in from the air and oxygen given out. The process of assimilation depends upon this breathing process and it is therefore evident that when the stomata are clogged as may occur where a tree is subjected to smoke or dust, the life processes of the tree will be interfered with. The same injurious effect results when the stomata of the roots are interfered with. Such interference may occur in cases where a heavy layer of soil is piled around the base of a tree, where the soil about the base of a tree is allowed to become compact, where a tree is planted too deep, or where the roots are submerged under water for any length of time. In any case the air cannot get to the roots and the tree suffers. Nature takes special cognizance of this important requirement in the case of cypress trees, which habitually grow under water. Here the trees are provided with special woody protuberances known as "cypress knees," which emerge above water and take the necessary air. See Fig. 18.

Conclusions: From the foregoing it will be seen that trees have certain needs that nature or man must supply. These requirements differ with the different species, and in all work of planting and care as well as in the natural distribution of trees it is both interesting and necessary to observe these individual wants, to select species in accordance with local conditions and to care for trees in conformity with their natural needs.



CHAPTER V

WHAT TREES TO PLANT AND HOW

The following classification will show the value of the more important trees for different kinds of planting. The species are arranged in the order of their merit for the particular object under consideration and the comments accompanying each tree are intended to bring out its special qualifications for that purpose.

Conditions for tree growth in one part of the country differ from those of another and these lists, especially applicable to the Eastern States, may not at all fit some other locality.



TREES BEST FOR THE LAWN

DECIDUOUS

1. American elm (Ulmus americana)

One of the noblest of trees. Possesses a majestic, wide-spreading, umbrella-shaped crown; is easily transplanted, and is suited to a variety of soils.

2. Pin oak (Quercus palustris)

Has a symmetrical crown with low-drooping branches; requires a moist situation.

3. European linden (Tilia microphylla)

Possesses a beautiful shade-bearing crown; grows well in ordinary soil.

4. Red maple (Acer rubrum)

Shows pleasing colors at all seasons; grows best in a fairly rich, moist soil.

5. Copper beech (Fagus sylvatica, alropurpurea)

Exceedingly beautiful in form, bark, and foliage and possesses great longevity and sturdiness. It is difficult to transplant and therefore only small trees from 6 to 10 feet in height should be used.

6. Coffee tree (Gymnocladus dioicus)

A unique and interesting effect is produced by its coarse branches and leaves. It is free from insects and disease; requires plenty of light; will grow in poor soils.

7. European white birch (Belula alba)

A graceful tree and very effective as a single specimen on the lawn, or in a group among evergreens; should be planted in early spring, and special care taken to protect its tender rootlets.

8. Gingko or Maiden-hair tree (Gingko biloba)

Where there is plenty of room for the spread of its odd branches, the gingko makes a picturesque specimen tree. It is hardy and free from insect pests and disease.

9. Horsechestnut (Aesculus hippocastanum)

Carries beautiful, showy flowers, and has a compact, symmetrical low-branched crown; is frequently subject to insects and disease. The red flowering horsechestnut (A. rubicunda) is equally attractive.



10. Sugar maple (Acer saccharum)

Has a symmetrical crown and colors beautifully in the fall; requires a rich soil and considerable moisture.

11. Soulange's magnolia (Magnolia soulangeana)

Extremely hard and flowers in early spring before the leaves appear.

12. Flowering dogwood (Cornus florida)

Popular for its beautiful white flowers in the early spring and the rich coloring of its leaves in the fall; does not grow to large size. The red-flowering variety of this tree, though sometimes not quite as hardy, is extremely beautiful.

13. Japanese maple (Acer polymorphum)

It has several varieties of different hues and it colors beautifully in the fall; it does not grow to large size.

CONIFEROUS

14. Oriental spruce (Picea orientalis)

Forms a dignified, large tree with a compact crown and low branches; is hardy.

15. Austrian pine (Pinus austriaca)

Is very hardy; possesses a compact crown; will grow in soils of medium quality.

16. Bhotan pine (Pinus excelsa)

Grows luxuriantly; is dignified and beautiful; requires a good soil, and in youth needs some protection from extreme cold.

17. White pine (Pinus strobus)

Branches gracefully and forms a large, dignified tree; will thrive on a variety of soils.

18. European larch (Larix europaea)

Has a beautiful appearance; thrives best in moist situations.

19. Blue spruce (Picea pungens)

Extremely hardy; forms a perfect specimen plant for the lawn.

20. Japanese umbrella pine (Sciadopitys verlicillata)

Very hardy; retains a compact crown. An excellent specimen plant when grouped with other evergreens on the lawn. Does not grow to large size.

21. Mugho pine (Pinus mughus)

A low-growing evergreen; hardy; important in group planting.

22. Obtuse leaf Japanese cypress (Retinospora obtusa)

Beautiful evergreen of small size; hardy; desirable for group planting.

23. English yew (Taxus baccata)

An excellent evergreen usually of low form; suitable for the lawn, massed with others or as a specimen plant; will grow in the shade of other trees. There are various forms of this species of distinctive value.



TREES BEST FOR THE STREET

1. Oriental sycamore (Platanus orientalis)

Very hardy; will adapt itself to city conditions; grows fairly fast and is highly resistant to insects and disease.

2. Norway maple (Acer platanoides)

Very hardy; possesses a straight trunk and symmetrical crown; is comparatively free from insects and disease and will withstand the average city conditions.

3. Red oak (Quercus rubra)

Fastest growing of the oaks; very durable and highly resistant to insects and disease; will grow in the average soil of the city street.



4. Gingko (Gingko biloba)

Hardy and absolutely free from insects and disease; suited for narrow streets, and will permit of close planting.

5. European linden (Tilia microphylla)

Beautiful shade-bearing crown; is very responsive to good soil and plenty of moisture.

6. American elm (Ulmus americana)

When planted in rows along an avenue, it forms a tall majestic archway of great beauty. It is best suited for wide streets and should be planted further apart than the other trees listed above. Requires a fairly good soil and plenty of moisture, and is therefore not suited for planting in the heart of a large city.

7. Pin oak (Quercus palustris)

This tree exhibits its greatest beauty when its branches are allowed to droop fairly low. It, moreover, needs plenty of moisture to thrive and the tree is therefore best suited for streets in suburban sections, where these conditions can be more readily met.

8. Red maple (Acer rubrum)

Beautiful in all seasons of the year; requires a rich soil and considerable moisture.



TREES BEST FOR WOODLAND

FOR OPEN PLACES

1. Red oak (Quercus rubra)

Grows rapidly to large size and produces valuable wood; will grow in poor soil.

2. White pine (Pinus strobus)

Rapid grower; endures but little shade; wood valuable; will do well on large range of soils.

3. Red pine (Pinus resinosa)

Very hardy; fairly rapid growing tree.

4. Tulip tree (Liriodendron tulipifera)

Grows rapidly into a stately forest tree with a clear tall trunk; wood valuable; requires a fairly moist soil. Use a small tree, plant in the spring, and pay special attention to the protection of the roots in planting.

5. Black locust (Robinia pseudacacia)

Grows rapidly; adapts itself to poor, sandy soils. The wood is suitable for posts and ties.

6. White ash (Fraxinus americana)

Grows rapidly; prefers moist situations. Wood valuable.

7. American elm (Ulmus americana)

Grows rapidly to great height; will not endure too much shade; does best in a deep fertile soil. Wood valuable.

8. European larch (Larix europaea)

Grows rapidly; prefers moist situations.



FOR PLANTING UNDER THE SHADE OF OTHER TREES

9. Beech (Fagus)

Will stand heavy shade; holds the soil well along banks and steep slopes. Both the American and the English species are desirable.

10. Hemlock (Tsuga canadensis)

Will stand heavy shade and look effective in winter as well as in summer.

11. Dogwood (Cornus florida)

Will grow under other trees; flowers beautifully in the spring and colors richly in the fall.

12. Blue beech (Carpinus caroliniana)

Native to the woodlands of the Eastern States; looks well in spring and fall.



TREES BEST FOR SCREENING

1. Hemlock (Tsuga canadensis)

Will stand shearing and will screen in winter as well as in summer. Plant from 2 to 4 feet apart to form a hedge.

2. Osage orange (Toxylon pomiferum)

Very hardy. Plant close.

3. English hawthorn (Crataegus oxyacantha)

Flowers beautifully and grows in compact masses. Plant close.

4. Lombardy poplar (Populus nigra var. italica)

Forms a tall screen and grows under the most unfavorable conditions. Plant 8 to 12 feet apart.



Quality of trees: Trees grown in a nursery are preferable for transplanting to trees grown in the forest. Nursery-grown trees possess a well-developed root system with numerous fibrous rootlets, a straight stem, a symmetrical crown, and a well-defined leader. Trees grown in neighboring nurseries are preferable to those grown at great distances, because they will be better adapted to local climatic and soil conditions. The short distances over which they must be transported also will entail less danger to the roots through drying. For lawn planting, the branches should reach low to the ground, while for street purposes the branches should start at about seven feet from the ground. For street planting, it is also important that the stem should be perfectly straight and about two inches in diameter. For woodland planting, the form of the tree is of minor consideration, though it is well to have the leader well defined here as well as in the other cases. See Fig. 95.

When and how to procure the trees: The trees should be selected in the nursery personally. Some persons prefer to seal the more valuable specimens with leaden seals. Fall is the best time to make the selection, because at that time one can have a wider choice of material. Selecting thus early will also prevent delay in delivery at the time when it is desired to plant.

When to plant: The best time to plant trees is early spring, just before growth begins, and after the frost is out of the ground. From the latter part of March to the early part of May is generally the planting period in the Eastern States.

Where one has to plant both coniferous and deciduous trees, it is best to get the deciduous in first, and then the conifers.

How to plant: The location of the trees with relation to each other should be carefully considered. On the lawn, they should be separated far enough to allow for the full spread of the tree. On streets, trees should be planted thirty to thirty-five feet apart and in case of the elm, forty to fifty feet. In woodlands, it is well to plant as close as six feet apart where small seedlings are used and about twelve feet apart in the case of trees an inch or more in diameter. An abundance of good soil (one to two cubic yards) is essential with each tree where the specimens used are an inch or two in diameter. A rich mellow loam, such as one finds on the surface of a well-tilled farm, is the ideal soil. Manure should never be placed in direct contact with the roots or stem of the tree.

Protection of the roots from drying is the chief precaution to be observed during the planting process, and for this reason a cloudy day is preferable to a sunny day for planting. In case of evergreens, the least exposure of the roots is liable to result disastrously, even more so than in case of deciduous trees. This is why evergreens are lifted from the nursery with a ball of soil around the roots. All bruised roots should be cut off before the tree is planted, and the crown of the tree of the deciduous species should be slightly trimmed in order to equalize the loss of roots by a corresponding decrease in leaf surface.

The tree should be set into the tree hole at the same depth that it stood in the nursery. Its roots, where there is no ball of soil around them, should be carefully spread out and good soil should be worked in carefully with the fingers among the fine rootlets. Every root fibre is thus brought into close contact with the soil. More good soil should be added (in layers) and firmly packed about the roots. The last layer should remain loose so that it may act as a mulch or as an absorbent of moisture. The tree should then be thoroughly watered.



After care: During the first season the tree should be watered and the soil around its base slightly loosened at least once a week, especially on hot summer days. Where trees are planted on streets, near the curb, they should also be fastened to stakes and protected with a wire guard six feet high. See Fig. 95. Wire netting of 1/2-inch mesh and 17 gauge is the most desirable material.



Suggestions for a home or school nursery: Schools, farms, and private estates may conveniently start a tree nursery on the premises and raise their own trees. Two-year seedling trees or four-year transplants are best suited for this purpose. These may be obtained from several reliable nurseries in various parts of the country that make a specialty of raising small trees for such purposes. The cost of such trees should be from three to fifteen dollars per thousand.

The little trees, which range from one to two feet in height, will be shipped in bundles. Immediately upon arrival, the bundles should be untied and the trees immersed in a pail containing water mixed with soil. The bundles should then be placed in the ground temporarily, until they can be set out in their proper places. In this process, the individual bundles should be slanted with their tops toward the south, and the spot chosen should be cool and shady. At no time should the roots of these plants be exposed, even for a moment, to sun and wind, and they should always be kept moist. The little trees may remain in this trench for two weeks without injury. They should then be planted out in rows, each row one foot apart for conifers and two feet for broadleaf trees. The individual trees should be set ten inches apart in the row. Careful weeding and watering is the necessary attention later on.



CHAPTER VI

THE CARE OF TREES



STUDY I. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO TREES AND HOW TO COMBAT THEM

In a general way, trees are attacked by three classes of insects, and the remedy to be employed in each case depends upon the class to which the insect belongs. The three classes of insects are:

1. Those that *chew* and swallow some portion of the leaf; as, for example, the elm leaf beetle, and the tussock, gipsy, and brown-tail moths.

2. Those that *suck* the plant juices from the leaf or bark; such as the San Jose scale, oyster-shell, and scurfy scales, the cottony maple scale, the maple phenacoccus on the sugar maples, and the various aphides on beech, Norway maple, etc.

3. Those that *bore* inside of the wood or inner bark. The principal members of this class are the leopard moth, the hickory-bark borer, the sugar-maple borer, the elm borer, and the bronze-birch borer.

The chewing insects are destroyed by spraying the leaves with arsenate of lead or Paris green. The insects feed upon the poisoned foliage and thus are themselves poisoned.

The sucking insects are killed by a contact poison: that is, by spraying or washing the affected parts of the tree with a solution which acts externally on the bodies of the insects, smothering or stifling them. The standard solutions for this purpose are kerosene emulsion, soap and water, tobacco extract, or lime-sulfur wash.



The boring insects are eliminated by cutting out the insect with a knife, by injecting carbon bisulphide into the burrow and clogging the orifice immediately after injection with putty or soap, or in some cases where the tree is hopelessly infested, by cutting down and burning the entire tree.



For information regarding the one of these three classes to which any particular insect belongs, and for specific instructions on the application of a remedy, the reader is advised to write to his State Entomologist or to the U.S. Bureau of Entomology at Washington, D.C. The letter should state the name of the tree affected, together with the character of the injury, and should be accompanied by a specimen of the insect, or by a piece of the affected leaf or bark, preferably by both. The advice received will be authentic and will be given without charge.



When to spray: In the case of chewing insects, the latter part of May is the time to spray. The caterpillars hatch from their eggs, and the elm leaf beetle leaves its winter quarters at that time. In the case of sucking insects, the instructions will have to be more specific, depending upon the particular insect in question. Some sucking insects can best be handled in May or early June when their young emerge, others can be effectively treated in the fall or winter when the trees are dormant.

How to spray: Thoroughness is the essential principle in all spraying. In the case of leaf-eating insects, this means covering every leaf with the poison and applying it to the under side of the leaves, where the insects generally feed. In the case of sucking insects, thoroughness means an effort to touch every insect with the spray. It should be borne in mind that the insect can be killed only when hit with the chemical. The solution should be well stirred, and should be applied by means of a nozzle that will coat every leaf with a fine, mist-like spray. Mere drenching or too prolonged an application will cause the solution to run off. Special precautions should be taken with contact poisons to see that the formula is correct. Too strong a solution will burn the foliage and tender bark.

Spraying apparatus: There are various forms of spraying apparatus in the market, including small knapsack pumps, barrel hand-pumps, and gasolene and gas-power sprayers, Figs. 97 and 98. Hose and nozzles are essential accessories. One-half inch, three-ply hose of the best quality is necessary to stand the heavy pressure and wear. Two 50-foot lengths is the usual quantity required for use with a barrel hand-pump. Each line of hose should be supplied with a bamboo pole 10 feet long, having a brass tube passed through it to carry the nozzle. The Vermorel nozzle is the best type to use. The cost of a barrel outfit, including two lines of hose, nozzles and truck, should be from $30 to $40. Power sprayers cost from $150 to $300 or more.

Spraying material: Arsenate of lead should be used in the proportion Of 4 pounds of the chemical to 50 gallons of water. A brand of arsenate of lead containing at least 14 per cent of arsenic oxide with not more than 50 per cent of water should be insisted upon. This spray may be used successfully against caterpillars and other leaf-eating insects in the spring or summer.

Whale-oil soap should be used at the rate of 11/2 pounds of the soap to 1 gallon of hot water, if applied to the tree in winter. As a spray in summer, use 1 pound of the soap to 5 gallons of water. This treatment is useful for most sucking insects.

Lime-sulfur wash is an excellent material to use against sucking insects, such as the San Jose scale and other armored scales. The application of a lime-sulfur wash when put on during the dormant season is not likely to harm a tree and has such an excellent cleansing effect that the benefits to be derived in this direction alone are often sufficient to meet the cost of the treatment. Lime-sulfur wash consists of a mixture, boiled one hour, of 40 pounds of lime and 80 pounds of sulfur, in 50 gallons of water. It may be had in prepared form and should then be used at the rate of 1 gallon to about 9 gallons of water in winter or early spring before the buds open. At other times of the year and for the softer-bodied insects a more diluted mixture, possibly 1 part to 30 or 40 parts of water, should be used, varying with each case separately.

Kerosene emulsion consists of one-half pound of hard soap, 1 gallon of boiling water, and 2 gallons of kerosene. It may be obtained in prepared form and is then to be used at the rate of one part of the solution to nine parts of water when applied in winter or to the bark only in summer. Use 2 gallons of the solution to a 40-gallon barrel of water when applying it to the leaves in the summer. Kerosene emulsion is useful as a treatment for scale insects.

Tobacco water should be prepared by steeping one-half pound of tobacco stems or leaves in a gallon of boiling water and later diluting the product with 5 to 10 gallons of water. It is particularly useful for plant lice in the summer.

The life history of an insect: In a general way, all insects have four stages of transformation before a new generation is produced. It is important to consider the nature of these four stages in order that the habits of any particular insect and the remedies applicable in combating it may be understood.

All insects develop from eggs, Fig. 99. The eggs then hatch into caterpillars or grubs, which is the larva stage, in which most insects do the greatest damage to trees. The caterpillars or grubs grow and develop rapidly, and hence their feeding is most ravenous. Following the larva stage comes the third or pupa stage, which is the dormant stage of the insect. In this stage the insect curls itself up under the protection of a silken cocoon like the tussock moth, or of a curled leaf like the brown-tail moth, or it may be entirely unsheltered like the pupa of the elm leaf beetle. After the pupa stage comes the adult insect, which may be a moth or a beetle.

A study of the four stages of any particular insect is known as a study of its life history. The important facts to know about the life history of an insect are the stage in which it does most of its feeding, and the period of the year in which this occurs. It is also important to know how the insect spends the winter in order to decide upon a winter treatment.

IMPORTANT INSECTS

THE ELM LEAF BEETLE

Life history: The elm leaf beetle, Fig. 100, is annually causing the defoliation of thousands of elm trees throughout the United States. Several successive defoliations are liable to kill a tree. The insects pass the winter in the beetle form, hiding themselves in attics and wherever else they can secure shelter. In the middle of May when the buds of the elm trees unfold, the beetles emerge from their winter quarters, mate, and commence eating the leaves, thus producing little holes through them. While this feeding is going on, the females deposit little, bright yellow eggs on the under side of the leaves, which soon hatch into small larvae or grubs. The grubs then eat away the soft portion of the leaf, causing it to look like lacework. The grubs become full grown in twenty days, crawl down to the base of the tree, and there transform into naked, orange-colored pupae. This occurs in the early part of August. After remaining in the pupa stage about a week, they change into beetles again, which either begin feeding or go to winter quarters.

Remedies: There are three ways of combating this insect: First, by spraying the foliage with arsenate of lead in the latter part of May while the beetles are feeding, and repeating the spraying in June when the larvae emerge. The spraying method is the one most to be relied on in fighting this insect. A second, though less important remedy, consists in destroying the pupae when they gather in large quantities at the base of the tree. This may be accomplished by gathering them bodily and destroying them, or by pouring hot water or a solution of kerosene over them. In large trees it may be necessary to climb to the crotches of the main limbs to get some of them. The third remedy lies in gathering and destroying the adult beetles when found in their winter quarters. The application of bands of burlap or "tanglefoot," or of other substances often seen on the trunks of elm trees is useless, since these bands only prevent the larvae from crawling down from the leaves to the base and serve to prevent nothing from crawling up. Scraping the trunks of elm trees is also a waste of effort.



THE TUSSOCK MOTH

Life history: This insect appears in the form of a red-headed, yellow-colored caterpillar during the latter part of May, and in June and July. The caterpillars surround themselves with silken cocoons and change into pupae. The mature moths emerge from the cocoons after a period of about two weeks, and the females, which are wingless, soon deposit their eggs on the bark of trees, on twigs, fences, and other neighboring objects. These eggs form white clusters of nearly 350 individual eggs each, and are very conspicuous all winter, see Fig. 101.

Remedies: There are two ways of combating this insect: (1) By spraying with arsenate of lead for the caterpillars during the latter part of May and early June. (2) By removing and destroying the egg masses in the fall or winter.



THE GIPSY MOTH

Life history: This insect, imported from Europe to this country in 1868, has ever since proved a serious enemy of most shade, forest, and fruit trees in the New England States. It even feeds on evergreens, killing the trees by a single defoliation.

The insect appears in the caterpillar stage from April to July. It feeds at night and rests by day. The mature caterpillar, which is dark in color, may be recognized by rows of blue and red spots along its back. After July, egg masses are deposited by the female moths on the bark of trees, and on leaves, fences, and other neighboring objects. Here they remain over the winter until they hatch in the spring. The flat egg masses are round or oval in shape, and are yellowish-brown in color. See Fig. 102.

Remedies: Spray for the caterpillars in June with arsenate of lead and apply creosote to the egg masses whenever found.

THE BROWN-TAIL MOTH

Life history: This insect was introduced here from Europe in 1890 and has since done serious damage to shade, forest, and fruit trees, and to shrubs in the New England States.

It appears in the caterpillar stage in the early spring and continues to feed on the leaves and buds until the last of June. Then the caterpillars pupate, the moths come out, and in July and August the egg clusters appear. These hatch into caterpillars which form nests for themselves by drawing the leaves together. Here they remain protected until the spring. See Fig. 103.

Remedies: Collect the winter nests from October to April and burn them. Also spray the trees for caterpillars in early May and especially in August with arsenate of lead.



THE FALL WEBWORM

The caterpillars of this insect congregate in colonies and surround themselves with a web which often reaches the size of a foot or more in diameter. These webs are common on trees in July and August. Cutting off the webs or burning them on the twigs is the most practical remedy.



THE LEOPARD MOTH

Life history: This insect does its serious damage in the grub form. The grubs which are whitish in color with brown heads, and which vary in size from 3/8 of an inch to 3 inches in length (Fig. 104), may be found boring in the wood of the branches and trunk of the tree all winter. Fig. 105. The leopard moth requires two years to complete its round of life. The mature moths are marked with dark spots resembling a leopard's skin, hence the name. Fig. 106. It is one of the commonest and most destructive insects in the East and is responsible for the recent death of thousands of the famous elm trees in New Haven and Boston. Fig. 107.



Remedies: Trees likely to be infested with this insect should be examined three or four times a year for wilted twigs, dead branches, and strings of expelled frass; all of which may indicate the presence of this borer. Badly infested branches should be cut off and burned. Trees so badly infested that treatment becomes too complicated should be cut down and destroyed. Where the insects are few and can be readily reached, an injection of carbon bisulphide into the burrow, the orifice of which is then immediately closed with soap or putty, will often destroy the insects within.



THE HICKORY BARK BORER

Life history: This insect is a small brown or black beetle in its mature form and a small legless white grub in its winter stage. The beetles appear from June to August. In July they deposit their eggs in the outer sapwood, immediately under the bark of the trunk and larger branches. The eggs soon hatch and the grubs feed on the living tissue of the tree, forming numerous galleries. The grubs pass the winter in a nearly full-grown condition, transform to pupae in May, and emerge as beetles in June.

Remedies: The presence of the insect can be detected by the small holes in the bark of the trees and the fine sawdust which is ejected from these holes, when the insects are active. It is important to emphasize the advisability of detecting the fine sawdust because that is the best indication of the actual operations of the hickory bark borer. These holes, however, will not be noticeable until the insect has completed its transformation. In summer, the infested trees show wilted leaves and many dead twigs. Holes in the base of the petioles of these leaves are also signs of the working of the insect. Since the insect works underneath the bark, it is inaccessible for treatment and all infested trees should be cut down and burned, or the bark removed and the insects destroyed. This should be done before the beetles emerge from the tree in June.

PLANT LICE OR APHIDES

These often appear on the under side of the leaves of the beech, Norway maple, tulip tree, etc. They excrete a sweet, sticky liquid called "honey-dew," and cause the leaves to curl or drop. Spraying with whale-oil soap solution formed by adding one pound of the soap to five gallons of water is the remedy.



STUDY II. TREE DISEASES

Because trees have wants analogous to those of human beings, they also have diseases similar to those which afflict human beings. In many cases these diseases act like cancerous growths upon the human body; in some instances the ailment may be a general failing due to improper feeding, and in other cases it may be due to interference with the life processes of the tree.

How to tell an ailing tree: Whatever the cause, an ailing tree will manifest its ailment by one or more symptoms.

A change of color in the leaves at a time when they should be perfectly green indicates that the tree is not growing under normal conditions, possibly because of an insufficiency of moisture or light or an overdose of foreign gases or salts. Withering of the leaves is another sign of irregularity in water supply. Dead tops point to some difficulty in the soil conditions or to some disease of the roots or branches. Spotted leaves and mushroom-like growths or brackets protruding from the bark as in Fig. 108, are sure signs of disease.

In attempting to find out whether a tree is healthy or not, one would therefore do well to consider whether the conditions under which it is growing are normal or not; whether the tree is suitable for the location; whether the soil is too dry or too wet; whether the roots are deprived of their necessary water and air by an impenetrable cover of concrete or soil; whether the soil is well drained and free from foreign gases and salts; whether the tree is receiving plenty of light or is too much exposed; and whether it is free from insects and fungi.

If, after a thorough examination, it is found that the ailment has gone too far, it may not be wise to try to save the tree. A timely removal of a tree badly infested with insects or fungi may often be the best procedure and may save many neighboring trees from contagious infection. For this, however, no rules can be laid down and much will depend on the local conditions and the judgment and knowledge of the person concerned.



Fungi as factors of disease: The trees, the shrubs and the flowers with which we are familiar are rooted in the ground and derive their food both from the soil and from the air. There is, however, another group of plants,—the fungi,—the roots of which grow in trees and other plants and which obtain their food entirely from the trees or plants upon which they grow. The fungi cannot manufacture their own food as other plants do and consequently absorb the food of their host, eventually reducing it to dust. The fungi are thus disease-producing factors and the source of most of the diseases of trees.

When we can see fungi growing on a tree we may safely assume that they are already in an advanced state of development. We generally discover their presence when their fruiting bodies appear on the surface of the tree as shown in Fig 109. These fruiting bodies are the familiar mushrooms, puffballs, toadstools or shelf-like brackets that one often sees on trees. In some cases they spread over the surface of the wood in thin patches. They vary in size from large bodies to mere pustules barely visible to the naked eye. Their variation in color is also significant, ranging from colorless to black and red but never green. They often emulate the color of the bark, Fig. 110.

Radiating from these fruiting bodies into the tissues of the tree are a large number of minute fibers, comprising the mycelium of the fungus. These fibers penetrate the body of the tree in all directions and absorb its food. The mycelium is the most important part of the fungous growth. If the fruiting body is removed, another soon takes its place, but if the entire mycelium is cut out, the fungus will never come back. The fruiting body of the fungus bears the seed or spores. These spores are carried by the wind or insects to other trees where they take root in some wound or crevice of the bark and start a new infestation.



The infestation will be favored in its growth if the spore can find plenty of food, water, warmth and darkness. As these conditions generally exist in wounds and cavities of trees, it is wise to keep all wounds well covered with coal tar and to so drain the cavities that moisture cannot lodge in them. This subject will be gone into more fully in the following two studies on "Pruning Trees" and "Tree Repair."



While the majority of the fungi grow on the trunks and limbs of trees, some attack the leaves, some the twigs and others the roots. Some fungi grow on living wood some on dead wood and some on both. Those that attack the living trees are the most dangerous from the standpoint of disease.

The chestnut disease: The disease which is threatening the destruction of all the chestnut trees in America is a fungus which has, within recent years, assumed such vast proportions that it deserves special comment. The fungus is known as Diaporthe parasitica (Murrill), and was first observed in the vicinity of New York in 1905. At that time only a few trees were known to have been killed by this disease, but now the disease has advanced over the whole chestnut area in the United States, reaching as far south as Virginia and as far west as Buffalo. Fig. 111 shows the result of the chestnut disease.

The fungus attacks the cambium tissue underneath the bark. It enters through a wound in the bark and sends its fungous threads from the point of infection all around the trunk until the latter is girdled and killed. This may all happen within one season. It is not until the tree has practically been destroyed that the disease makes its appearance on the surface of the bark in the form of brown patches studded with little pustules that carry the spores. When once girdled, the tree is killed above the point of infection and everything above dies, while some of the twigs below may live until they are attacked individually by the disease or until the trunk below their origin is infected.

All species of chestnut trees are subject to the disease. The Japanese and Spanish varieties appear to be highly resistant, but are not immune. Other species of trees besides chestnuts are not subject to the disease.



There is no remedy or preventive for this disease. From the nature of its attack, which is on the inner layer of the tree, it is evident that all applications of fungicides, which must necessarily be applied to the outside of the tree, will not reach the disease. Injections are impossible and other suggested remedies, such as boring holes in the wood for the purpose of inserting chemicals, are futile.

The wood of the chestnut tree, within three or four years after its death, is still sound and may be used for telephone and telegraph poles, posts, railroad ties, lumber and firewood.

Spraying for fungous diseases: Where a fungous disease is attacking the leaves, fruit, or twigs, spraying with Bordeaux mixture may prove effective. The application of Bordeaux mixture is deterrent rather than remedial, and should therefore be made immediately before the disease appears. The nature of the disease and the time of treatment can be determined without cost, by submitting specimens of affected portions of the plant for analysis and advice to the State Agricultural Experiment Station or to the United States Department of Agriculture.

Bordeaux mixture, the standard fungicide material, consists of a solution of 6 pounds of copper sulphate (blue vitriol) with 4 pounds of slaked lime in 50 gallons of water. It may be purchased in prepared form in the open market, and when properly made, has a brilliant sky-blue color. Spraying with Bordeaux mixture should be done in the fall, early spring, or early summer, but never during the period when the trees are in bloom.



STUDY III. PRUNING TREES

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES

Trees are very much like human beings in their requirements, mode of life and diseases, and the general principles applicable to the care of one are equally important to the intelligent treatment of the other. The removal of limbs from trees, as well as from human beings, must be done sparingly and judiciously. Wounds, in both trees and human beings, must be disinfected and dressed to keep out all fungus or disease germs. Fungous growths of trees are similar to human cancers, both in the manner of their development and the surgical treatment which they require. Improper pruning will invite fungi and insects to the tree, hence the importance of a knowledge of fundamental principles in this branch of tree care.



Time: Too much pruning at one time should never be practiced (Fig. 112), and no branch should be removed from a tree without good reason for so doing. Dead and broken branches should be removed as soon as observed, regardless of any special pruning season, because they are dangerous, unsightly and carry insects and disease into the heart of the tree. But all other pruning, whether it be for the purpose of perfecting the form in shade trees, or for increasing the production of fruit in orchard trees, should be confined to certain seasons. Shade and ornamental trees can best be pruned in the fall, while the leaves are still on the tree and while the tree itself is in practically a dormant state.

Proper cutting: All pruning should be commenced at the top of the tree and finished at the bottom. A shortened branch (excepting in poplars and willows, which should be cut in closely) should terminate in small twigs which may draw the sap to the freshly cut wound; where a branch is removed entirely, the cut should be made-close and even with the trunk, as in Fig. 113. Wherever there is a stub left after cutting off a branch, the growing tissue of the tree cannot cover it and the stub eventually decays, falls out and leaves a hole (see Fig. 114), which serves to carry disease and insects to the heart of the tree. This idea of close cutting cannot be over-emphasized.

Where large branches have to be removed, the splitting and ripping of the bark along the trunk is prevented by making one cut beneath the branch, about a foot or two away from the trunk, and then another above, close to the trunk.



Too severe pruning: In pruning trees, many people have a tendency to cut them back so severely as to remove everything but the bare trunk and a few of the main branches. This process is known as "heading back." It is a method, however, which should not be resorted to except in trees that are very old and failing, and even there only with certain species, like the silver maple, sycamore, linden and elm. Trees like the sugar maple will not stand this treatment at all. The willow is a tree that will stand the process very readily and the Carolina poplar must be cut back every few years, in order to keep its crown from becoming too tall, scraggy and unsafe.



Covering wounds: The importance of immediately covering all wounds with coal tar cannot be overstated. If the wound is not tarred, the exposed wood cracks, as in Fig. 115, providing suitable quarters for disease germs that will eventually destroy the body of the tree. Coal tar is by far preferable to paint and other substances for covering the wound. The tar penetrates the exposed wood, producing an antiseptic as well as a protective effect. Paint only forms a covering, which may peel off in course of time and which will later protrude from the cut, thus forming, between the paint and the wood, a suitable breeding place for the development of destructive fungi or disease. The application of tin covers, burlap, or other bandages to the wound is equally futile and in most cases even injurious.



SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS

Pruning shade trees: Here, the object is to produce a symmetrical crown and to have the lowest branches raised from the ground sufficiently high to enable pedestrians to pass under with raised umbrellas. Such pruning should, therefore, necessarily be light and confined to the low limbs and dead branches.

Pruning lawn trees: Here the charm of the tree lies in the low reach of the branches and the compactness of the crown. The pruning should, therefore, be limited to the removal of dead and diseased branches only.

Pruning forest trees: Forest trees have a greater commercial value when their straight trunks are free from branches. In the forest, nature generally accomplishes this result and artificial pruning seldom has to be resorted to. Trees in the forest grow so closely together that they shut out the sunlight from their lower limbs, thus causing the latter to die and fall off. This is known as natural pruning. In some European forests, nature is assisted in its pruning by workmen, who saw off the side branches before they fall of their own accord; but in this country such practice would be considered too expensive, hence it is seldom adopted.

TOOLS USED IN PRUNING

Good tools are essential for quick and effective work in pruning. Two or three good saws, a pair of pole-shears, a pole-saw, a 16-foot single ladder, a 40-foot extension ladder of light spruce or pine with hickory rungs, a good pruning knife, plenty of coal tar, a fire-can to heat the tar, a pole-brush, a small hand brush and plenty of good rope comprise the principal equipment of the pruner.

SUGGESTIONS FOR THE SAFETY OF TREE CLIMBERS

1. Before climbing a tree, judge its general condition. The trunk of a tree that shows age, disease, or wood-destroying insects generally has its branches in an equally unhealthy condition.

2. The different kinds of wood naturally differ in their strength and elasticity. The soft and brash woods need greater precautions than the strong and pliable ones. The wood of all the poplars, the ailanthus, the silver maple and the chestnut, catalpa and willow is either too soft or too brittle to be depended upon without special care. The elm, hickory and oak have strong, flexible woods and are, therefore, safer than others. The red oak is weaker than the other oaks. The sycamore and beech have a tough, cross-grained wood which is fairly strong. The linden has a soft wood, while the ash and gum, though strong and flexible, are apt to split.

3. Look out for a limb that shows fungous growths. Every fungus sends fibers into the main body of the limb which draw out its sap. The interior of the branch then loses its strength and becomes like a powder. Outside appearances sometimes do not show the interior condition, but one should regard a fungus as a danger sign.

4. When a limb is full of holes or knots, it generally indicates that borers have been working all kinds of galleries through it, making it unsafe. The silver maple and sycamore maple are especially subject to borers which, in many cases, work on the under side of the branch so that the man in the tree looking down cannot see its dangerous condition.

5. A dead limb with the bark falling off indicates that it died at least three months before and is, therefore, less safe than one with its bark tightly adhering to it.

6. Branches are more apt to snap on a frosty day when they are covered with an icy coating than on a warm summer day.

7. Always use the pole-saw and pole-shears on the tips of long branches, and use the pole-hook in removing dead branches of the ailanthus and other brittle trees where it would be too dangerous to reach them otherwise.

8. Be sure of the strength of a branch before tying an extension ladder to it.



STUDY IV. TREE REPAIR

Where trees have been properly cared for from their early start, wounds and cavities and their subsequent elaborate treatment have no place. But where trees have been neglected or improperly cared for, wounds and cavities are bound to occur and early treatment becomes a necessity.

There are two kinds of wounds on trees: (1) surface wounds, which do not extend beyond the inner bark, and (2) deep wounds or cavities, which may range from a small hole in a crotch to the hollow of an entire trunk.

Surface wounds: Surface wounds (Fig. 116) are due to bruised bark, and a tree thus injured can no longer produce the proper amount of foliage or remain healthy very long. The reason for this becomes very apparent when one looks into the nature of the living or active tissue of a tree and notes how this tissue becomes affected by such injuries.



This living or active tissue is known as the "cambium layer," and is a thin tissue situated immediately under the bark. It must completely envelop the stem, root and branches of the trees. The outer bark is a protective covering to this living layer, while the entire interior wood tissue chiefly serves as a skeleton or support for the tree. The cambium layer is the real, active part of the tree. It is the part which transmits the sap from the base of the tree to its crown; it is the part which causes the tree to grow by the formation of new cells, piled up in the form of rings around the heart of the tree; and it is also the part which prevents the entrance of insects and disease to the inner wood. From this it is quite evident that any injury to the bark, and consequently to this cambium layer alongside of it, will not only cut off a portion of the sap supply and hinder the growth of the tree to an extent proportional to the size of the wound, but will also expose the inner wood to the action of decay. The wound may, at first, appear insignificant, but, if neglected, it will soon commence to decay and thus to carry disease and insects into the tree. The tree then becomes hollow and dangerous and its life is doomed.

Injury to the cambium layer, resulting in surface wounds, may be due to the improper cutting of a branch, to the bite of a horse, to the cut of a knife or the careless wielding of an axe, to the boring of an insect, or to the decay of a fungous disease. (See Fig. 117.) Whatever the cause, the remedy lies in cleaning out all decayed wood, removing the loose bark and covering the exposed wood with coal tar.

In cutting off the loose bark, the edges should be made smooth before the coal tar is applied. Loose bark, put back against a tree, will never grow and will only tend to harbor insects and disease. Bandages, too, are hurtful because, underneath the bandage, disease will develop more rapidly than where the wound is exposed to the sun and wind. The application of tin or manure to wounds is often indulged in and is equally injurious to the tree. The secret of all wound treatment is to keep the wound smooth, clean to the live tissue, and well covered with coal tar.

The chisel or gouge is the best tool to employ in this work. A sharp hawk-billed knife will be useful in cutting off the loose bark. Coal tar is the best material for covering wounds because it has both an antiseptic and a protective effect on the wood tissue. Paint, which is very often used as a substitute for coal tar, is not as effective, because the paint is apt to peel in time, thus allowing moisture and disease to enter the crevice between the paint and the wood.



Cavities: Deep wounds and cavities are generally the result of stubs that have been permitted to rot and fall out. Surface wounds allowed to decay will deepen in course of time and produce cavities. Cavities in trees are especially susceptible to the attack of disease because, in a cavity, there is bound to exist an accumulation of moisture. With this, there is also considerable darkness and protection from wind and cold, and these are all ideal conditions for the development of disease.

The successful application of a remedy, in all cavity treatment, hinges on this principal condition—that all traces of disease shall be entirely eliminated before treatment is commenced.

Fungous diseases attacking a cavity produce a mass of fibers, known as the "mycelium," that penetrate the body of the tree or limb on which the cavity is located. In eliminating disease from a cavity, it is, therefore, essential to go beyond the mere decaying surface and to cut out all fungous fibers that radiate into the interior of the tree. Where these fibers have penetrated so deeply that it becomes impossible to remove every one of them, the tree or limb thus affected had better be cut down. (Fig. 118.) The presence of the mycelium in wood tissue can readily be told by the discolored and disintegrated appearance of the wood.

The filling in a cavity, moreover, should serve to prevent the accumulation of water and, where a cavity is perpendicular and so located that the water can be drained off without the filling, the latter should be avoided and the cavity should merely be cleaned out and tarred. (Fig. 116.) Where the disease can be entirely eliminated, where the cavity is not too large, and where a filling will serve the practical purpose of preventing the accumulation of moisture, the work of filling should be resorted to.



Filling should be done in the following manner: First, the interior should be thoroughly freed from diseased wood and insects. The chisel, gouge, mall and knife are the tools, and it is better to cut deep and remove every trace of decayed wood than it is to leave a smaller hole in an unhealthy state. The inner surface of the cavity should then be covered with a coat of white lead paint, which acts as a disinfectant and helps to hold the filling. Corrosive sublimate or Bordeaux mixture may be used as a substitute for the white lead paint. A coat of coal tar over the paint is the next step. The cavity is then solidly packed with bricks, stones and mortar as in Fig. 119, and finished with a layer of cement at the mouth of the orifice. This surface layer of cement should not be brought out to the same plane with the outer bark of the tree, but should rather recede a little beyond the growing tissue (cambium layer) which is situated immediately below the bark, Fig. 120. In this way the growing tissue will be enabled to roll over the cement and to cover the whole cavity if it be a small one, or else to grow out sufficiently to overlap the filling and hold it as a frame holds a picture. The cement is used in mixture with sand in the proportion of one-third of cement to two-thirds of sand. When dry, the outer layer of cement should be covered with coal tar to prevent cracking.



Trees that tend to split: Certain species of trees, like the linden and elm, often tend to split, generally in the crotch of several limbs and sometimes in a fissure along the trunk of the tree. Midwinter is the period when this usually occurs and timely action will save the tree. The remedy lies in fastening together the various parts of the tree by means of bolts or chains.

A very injurious method of accomplishing this end is frequently resorted to, where each of the branches is bound by an iron band and the bands are then joined by a bar. The branches eventually outgrow the diameter of the bands, causing the latter to cut through the bark of the limbs and to destroy them.

Another method of bracing limbs together consists in running a single bolt through them and fastening each end of the bolt with a washer and nut. This method is preferable to the first because it allows for the growth of the limbs in thickness.



A still better method, however, consists in using a bar composed of three parts as shown in Fig. 121. Each of the two branches has a short bolt passed through it horizontally, and the two short bolts are then connected by a third bar. This arrangement will shift all the pressure caused by the swaying of the limbs to the middle connecting-bar. In case of a windstorm, the middle bar will be the one to bend, while the bolts which pass through the limbs will remain intact. The outer ends of the short bolts should have their washers and nuts slightly embedded in the wood of the tree, so that the living tissue of the tree may eventually grow over them in such a way as to hold the bars firmly in place and to exclude moisture and disease. The washers and nuts on the inner side of the limbs should also be embedded.

A chain is sometimes advantageously substituted for the middle section of the bar and, in some cases, where more than two branches have to be joined together, a ring might take the place of the middle bar or chain.

Bolts on a tree detract considerably from its natural beauty and should, therefore, be used only where they are absolutely necessary for the safety of the tree. They should be placed as high up in the tree as possible without weakening the limbs.



CHAPTER VII

FORESTRY



STUDY I. WHAT FORESTRY IS AND WHAT IT DOES

Although Forestry is not a new idea but, as a science and an art, has been applied for nearly two thousand years, there are many persons who still need an explanation of its aims and principles.

Forestry deals with the establishment, protection and utilization of forests.

By establishment, is meant the planting of new forests and the cutting of mature forests, in such a way as to encourage a natural growth of new trees without artificial planting or seeding. The planting may consist of sowing seed, or of setting out young trees. The establishment of a forest by cutting may consist of the removal of all mature trees and dependence upon the remaining stumps to reproduce the forest from sprouts, or it may consist of the removal of only a portion of the mature trees, thus giving the young seedlings on the ground room in which to grow.

By protection, is meant the safeguarding of the forest from fire, wind, insects, disease and injury for which man is directly responsible. Here, the forester also prevents injury to the trees from the grazing and browsing of sheep and goats, and keeps his forest so well stocked that no wind can uproot the trees nor can the sun dry up the moist forest soil.



By utilization, is meant the conservative and intelligent harvesting of the forest, with the aim of obtaining the greatest amount of product from a given area, with the least waste, in the quickest time, and without the slightest deterioration of the forest as a whole. The forester cuts his mature trees, only, and generally leaves a sufficient number on the ground to preserve the forest soil and to cast seed for the production of a new crop. In this way, he secures an annual output without hurting the forest itself. He studies the properties and values of the different woods and places them where they will be most useful. He lays down principles for so harvesting the timber and the by-products of the forest that there will be the least waste and injury to the trees which remain standing. He utilizes the forest, but does not cut enough to interfere with the neighboring water-sheds, which the forests protect.



Forestry, therefore, deals with a vast and varied mass of information, comprising all the known facts relating to the life of a forest. It does not deal with the individual tree and its planting and care,—that would be arboriculture. Nor does it consider the grouping of trees for aesthetic effect,—that would be landscape gardening. It concerns itself with the forest as a community of trees and with the utilization of the forest on an economic basis.

Each one of these activities in Forestry is a study in itself and involves considerable detail, of which the reader may obtain a general knowledge in the following pages. For a more complete discussion, the reader is referred to any of the standard books on Forestry.

The life and nature of a forest: When we think of a forest we are apt to think of a large number of individual trees having no special relationship to each other. Closer observation, however, will reveal that the forest consists of a distinct group of trees, sufficiently dense to form an unbroken canopy of tops, and that, where trees grow so closely together, they become very interdependent. It is this interdependence that makes the forest different from a mere group of trees in a park or on a lawn. In this composite character, the forest enriches its own soil from year to year, changes the climate within its own bounds, controls the streams along its borders and supports a multitude of animals and plants peculiar to itself. This communal relationship in the life history of the forest furnishes a most interesting story of struggle and mutual aid. Different trees have different requirements with regard to water, food and light. Some need more water and food than others, some will not endure much shade, and others will grow in the deepest shade. In the open, a tree, if once established, can meet its needs quite readily and, though it has to ward off a number of enemies, insects, disease and windstorm—its struggle for existence is comparatively easy. In the forest, the conditions are different. Here, the tree-enemies have to be battled with, just as in the open, and in addition, instead of there being only a few trees on a plot of ground, there are thousands growing on the same area, all demanding the same things out of a limited supply. The struggle for existence, therefore, becomes keen, many falling behind and but few surviving.



This struggle begins with the seed. At first there are thousands of seeds cast upon a given area by the neighboring trees or by the birds and the winds. Of these, only a few germinate; animals feed on some of them, frost nips some and excessive moisture and unfavorable soil conditions prevent others from starting. The few successful ones soon sprout into a number of young trees that grow thriftily until their crowns begin to meet. When the trees have thus met, the struggle is at its height. The side branches encroach upon each other (Fig. 123), shut out the light without which the branches cannot live, and finally kill each other off. The upper branches vie with one another for light, grow unusually fast, and the trees increase in height with special rapidity. This is nature's method of producing clear, straight trunks which are so desirable for poles and large timber. In this struggle for dominance, some survive and tower above the others, but many become stunted and fail to grow, while the majority become entirely overtopped and succumb in the struggle; see Fig. 139.

But in this strife there is also mutual aid. Each tree helps to protect its neighbors against the danger of being uprooted by the wind, and against the sun, which is liable to dry up the rich soil around the roots. This soil is different from the soil on the open lawn. It consists of an accumulation of decayed leaves mixed with inorganic matter, forming, together, a rich composition known as humus. The trees also aid each other in forming a close canopy that prevents the rapid evaporation of water from the ground.

The intensity of these conditions will vary a great deal with the composition of the forest and the nature and habits of the individual trees. By composition, or type of forest, is meant the proportion in which the various species of trees are grouped; i.e., whether a certain section of woodland is composed of one species or of a mixture of species. By habit is meant the requirements of the trees for light, water and food.



Some trees will grow in deep shade while others will demand the open. In the matter of water and food, the individual requirements of different trees are equally marked.

The natural rapidity of growth of different species is also important, and one caring for a forest must know this rate of growth, not only as to the individual species, but also with respect to the forest as a whole. If he knows how fast the trees in a forest grow, both in height and diameter, he will know how much wood, in cubic feet, the forest produces in a year, and he can then determine how much he may cut without decreasing the capital stock. The rate of growth is determined in this way: A tree is cut and the rings on the cross-section surface are counted and measured; see Fig. 124. Each ring represents one year's growth. The total number of rings will show the age of the tree. By a study of the rings of the various species of trees on a given plot, the rate of growth of each species in that location can be ascertained and, by knowing the approximate number of trees of each species on the forest area, the rate of growth of the whole forest for any given year can be determined.



Forests prevent soil erosion and floods: Forests help to regulate the flow of streams and prevent floods. Most streams are bordered by vast tracts of forest growths. The rain that falls on these forest areas is absorbed and held by the forest soil, which is permeated with decayed leaves, decayed wood and root fibers. The forest floor is, moreover, covered with a heavy undergrowth and thus behaves like a sponge, absorbing the water that falls upon it and then permitting it to ooze out gradually to the valleys and rivers below. A forest soil will retain one-half of its own quantity of water; i.e., for every foot in depth of soil there can be six inches of water and, when thus saturated, the soil will act as a vast, underground reservoir from which the springs and streams are supplied (Fig. 125). Cut the forest down and the land becomes such a desert as is shown in Fig. 126. The soil, leaves, branches and fallen trees dry to dust, are carried off by the wind and, with the fall of rain, the soil begins to wash away and gullies, such as are shown in Fig. 127, are formed. Streams generally have their origins in mountain slopes and there, too, the forests, impeding the sudden run off of the water which is not immediately absorbed, prevent soil erosion.



Where the soil is allowed to wash off, frequent floods are inevitable. Rain which falls on bare slopes is not caught by the crowns of trees nor held by the forest floor. It does not sink into the ground as readily as in the forest. The result is that a great deal of water reaches the streams in a short time and thus hastens floods. At other periods the streams are low because the water which would have fed them for months has run off in a few days. The farms are the first to suffer from the drouths that follow and, during the period of floods, whole cities are often inundated. Fig. 128 shows such a scene. The history of Forestry is full of horrible incidents of the loss of life and property from floods which are directly traceable to the destruction of the local forests and, on the other hand, there are many cases on record where flood conditions have been entirely obviated by the planting of forests. France and Germany have suffered from inundations resulting from forest devastation and, more than a hundred years ago, both of these countries took steps to reforest their mountain slopes, and thereby to prevent many horrible disasters.



How forests are established: New forests may be started from seed or from shoots, or suckers. If from seed, the process may be carried on in one of three ways:

First, by sowing the seed directly on the land.

Second, by first raising young trees in nurseries and later setting them out in their permanent locations in the forest. This method is applicable where quick results are desired, where the area is not too large, or in treeless regions and large open gaps where there is little chance for new trees to spring up from seed furnished by the neighboring trees. It is a method extensively practiced abroad where some of the finest forests are the result. The U.S. government, as well as many of the States, maintain forest-tree nurseries where millions of little trees are grown from seed and planted out on the National and State forests. Fig. 129 shows men engaged in this work. The fundamental principles of starting and maintaining a nursery have already been referred to in the chapter on "What Trees to Plant and How."

The third method of establishing a forest from seed is by cutting the trees in the existing forest so that the seed falling from the remaining trees will, with the addition of light and space, readily take root and fill in the gaps with a vigorous growth of trees, without artificial seeding or planting. This gives rise to several methods of cutting or harvesting forests for the purpose of encouraging natural reproduction. The cutting may extend to single trees over the whole area or over only a part of the whole area. Where the cutting is confined to single trees, the system is known as the "Selection System," because the trees are selected individually, with a view to retaining the best and most vigorous stock and removing the overcrowding specimens and those that are fully mature or infested with disease or insects.

Fig. 130 is a diagrammatic illustration of the operation of this system. In another system the cutting is done in groups, or in strips, and the number of areas of the groups or strips is extended from time to time until the whole forest is cleared. This system is illustrated in Fig. 131. Still another method consists in encouraging trees which will thrive in the shade, such as the beech, spruce and hemlock, to grow under light-demanding trees like the pine. This system presents a "two-storied" forest and is known by that name. The under story often has to be established by planting.



In the system of reproducing forests from shoots or suckers, all trees of a certain species on a given area are cut off and the old stumps and roots are depended upon to produce a new set of sprouts, the strongest of which will later develop into trees. The coniferous trees do not lend themselves at all to this system of treatment, and, among the broadleaf trees, the species vary in their ability to sprout. Some, like the chestnut and poplar, sprout profusely; others sprout very little.

How forests are protected: Forestry also tries to protect the forests from many destructive agencies. Wasteful lumbering and fire are the worst enemies of the forest. Fungi, insects, grazing, wind, snow and floods are the other enemies.



By wasteful lumbering is meant that the forest is cut with no regard for the future and with considerable waste in the utilization of the product. Conservative lumbering, which is the term used by foresters to designate the opposite of wasteful lumbering, will be described more fully later in this study.

Protection from fire is no less important than protection from wasteful lumbering. Forest fires are very common in this country and cause incalculable destruction to life and property; see Fig. 132. From ten to twelve million acres of forest-land are burnt over annually and the timber destroyed is estimated at fifty millions of dollars. The history of Forestry abounds in tales of destructive fires, where thousands of persons have been killed or left destitute, whole towns wiped out, and millions of dollars in property destroyed. In most cases, these uncontrollable fires started from small conflagrations that could readily, with proper fire-patrol, have been put out.

There are various ways of fighting fires, depending on the character of the fire,—whether it is a surface fire, burning along the surface layer of dry leaves and small ground vegetation, a ground fire, burning below the surface, through the layer of soil and vegetable matter that generally lines the forest floor, or a top fire, burning high up in the trees.

When the fire runs along the surface only, the injury extends to the butts of the trees and to the young seedlings. Such fires can be put out by throwing dirt or sand over the fire, by beating it, and, sometimes, by merely raking the leaves away.

Ground fires destroy the vegetable mold which the trees need for their sustenance. They progress slowly and kill or weaken the roots of the trees.



Top fires, Fig. 133, are the most dangerous, destroying everything in their way. They generally develop from surface fires, though sometimes they are started by lightning. They are more common in coniferous forests, because the leaves of hardwoods do not burn so readily. Checking the progress of a top fire is a difficult matter. Some fires will travel as rapidly as five miles an hour, and the heat is terrific. The only salvation for the forest lies, in many cases, in a sudden downpour of rain, a change of wind, or some barrier which the fire cannot pass. A barrier of this kind is often made by starting another fire some distance ahead of the principal one, so that when the two fires meet, they will die out for want of fuel. In well-kept forests, strips or lanes, free from inflammable material, are often purposely made through the forest area to furnish protection against top fires. Carefully managed forests are also patrolled during the dry season so that fires may be detected and attacked in their first stages. Look-out stations, watch-towers, telephone-connections and signal stations are other means frequently resorted to for fire protection and control. Notices warning campers and trespassers against starting fires are commonly posted in such forests. (Fig. 143.)



The grazing of sheep, goats and cattle in the forest is another important source of injury to which foresters must give attention. In the West this is quite a problem, for, when many thousands of these animals pass through a forest (Fig. 134), there is often very little young growth left and the future reproduction of the forest is severely retarded. Grazing on our National Forests is regulated by the Government.

As a means of protection against insects and fungi, all trees infested are removed as soon as observed and in advance of all others, whenever a lumbering operation is undertaken.



How forests are harvested: Forestry and forest preservation require that a forest should be cut and not merely held untouched. But it also demands that the cutting shall be done on scientific principles, and that only as much timber shall be removed in a given time as the forest can produce in a corresponding period. After the cutting, the forest must be left in a condition to produce another crop of timber within a reasonable time: see Fig. 122. These fundamental requirements represent the difference between conservative lumbering and ordinary lumbering. Besides insuring a future supply of timber, conservative lumbering, or lumbering on forestry principles, also tends to preserve the forest floor and the young trees growing on it, and to prevent injury to the remaining trees through fire, insects and disease. It provides for a working plan by which the kind, number and location of the trees to be cut are specified, the height of the stumps is stipulated and the utilization of the wood and by-products is regulated.

Conservative lumbering provides that the trees shall be cut as near to the ground as possible and that they shall be felled with the least damage to the young trees growing near by. The branches of the trees, after they have been felled, must be cut and piled in heaps, as shown in Fig. 122, to prevent fire. When the trunks, sawed into logs, are dragged through the woods, care is taken not to break down the young trees or to injure the bark of standing trees. Waste in the process of manufacture is provided against, uses are found for the material ordinarily rejected, and the best methods of handling and drying lumber are employed. Fig. 135 shows a typical sawmill capable of providing lumber in large quantities.

In the utilization of the by-products of the forest, such as turpentine and resin, Forestry has devised numerous methods for harvesting the crops with greater economy and with least waste and injury to the trees from which the by-products are obtained. Fig. 136 illustrates an improved method by which crude turpentine is obtained.



Forestry here and abroad: Forestry is practiced in every civilized country except China and Turkey. In Germany, Forestry has attained, through a long series of years, a remarkable state of scientific thoroughness and has greatly increased the annual output of the forests of that country.

In France, Switzerland, Austria, Hungary, Norway, Sweden, Russia and Denmark, Forestry is also practiced on scientific principles and the government in each of these countries holds large tracts of forests in reserve. In British India one finds a highly efficient Forest Service and in Japan Forestry is receiving considerable attention.

In the United States, the forest areas are controlled by private interests, by the Government and by the States. On privately owned forests, Forestry is practiced only in isolated cases. The States are taking hold of the problem very actively and in many of them we now find special Forestry Commissions authorized to care for vast areas of forest land reserved for State control. These Commissions employ technically trained foresters who not only protect the State forests, but also plant new areas, encourage forest planting on private lands and disseminate forestry information among the citizens. New York State has such a Commission that cares for more than a million acres of forest land located in the northern part of the State. Many other States are equally progressive.

The United States Government is the most active factor in the preservation of our forests. The Government to-day owns over two hundred million acres of forest land, set aside as National Forests. There are one hundred and fifty individual reserves, distributed as shown in Fig. 137 and cared for by the Forest Service, a bureau in the Department of Agriculture. Each of the forests is in charge of a supervisor. He has with him a professional forester and a body of men who patrol the tract against fire and the illegal cutting of timber. Some of the men are engaged in planting trees on the open areas and others in studying the important forest problems of the region. Fig. 138.



Where cutting is to be done on a National Forest, the conditions are investigated by a technically trained forester and the cutting is regulated according to his findings. Special attention is given to discovering new uses for species of trees which have hitherto been considered valueless, and the demand upon certain rare species is lessened by introducing more common woods which are suitable for use in their place.

Aside from the perpetuation of the national forests, the U.S. Forest Service also undertakes such tree studies as lie beyond the power or means of private individuals. It thus stands ready to cooperate with all who need assistance.



STUDY II. CARE OF THE WOODLAND

Almost every farm, large private estate or park has a wooded area for the purpose of supplying fuel or for enhancing the landscape effect of the place. In most instances these wooded areas are entirely neglected or are so improperly cared for as to cause injury rather than good. In but very few cases is provision made for a future growth of trees after the present stock has gone. Proper attention will increase and perpetuate a crop of good trees just as it will any other crop on the farm, while the attractiveness of the place may be greatly enhanced through the intelligent planting and care of trees.

How to judge the conditions: A close examination of the wooded area may reveal some or all of the following unfavorable conditions:

The trees may be so crowded that none can grow well. A few may have grown to large size but the rest usually are decrepit, and overtopped by the larger trees. They are, therefore, unable, for the want of light and space, to develop into good trees. Fig. 139 shows woodland in such condition.



There may also be dead and dying trees, trees infested with injurious insects and fungi and having any number of decayed branches. The trees may be growing so far apart that their trunks will be covered with suckers as far down as the ground, or there may be large, open gaps with no trees at all. Here the sun, striking with full force, may be drying up the soil and preventing the decomposition of the leaves. Grass soon starts to grow in these open spaces and the whole character of the woodland changes as shown in Figs. 140 and 141.



Where any of these conditions exist, the woodland requires immediate attention. Otherwise, as time goes on, it deteriorates more and more, the struggle for space among the crowded and suppressed trees becomes more keen, the insects in the dying trees multiply and disease spreads from tree to tree. Under such conditions, the soil deteriorates and the older trees begin to suffer.



The attention required for the proper care of woodland may be summed up under the four general heads of soil preservation, planting, cutting, and protection.

Improvement by soil preservation: The soil in a wooded area can best be preserved and kept rich by doing two things; by retaining the fallen leaves on the ground and by keeping the ground well covered with a heavy growth of trees, shrubs and herbaceous plants. The fallen leaves decompose, mix with the soil and form a dark-colored material known as humus. The humus supplies the tree with a considerable portion of its food and helps to absorb and retain the moisture in the soil upon which the tree is greatly dependent. A heavy growth of trees and shrubs has a similar effect by serving to retain the moisture in the soil.

Improvement by planting: The planting of new trees is a necessity on almost any wooded area. For even where the existing trees are in good condition, they cannot last forever, and provision must be made for others to take their place after they are gone. The majority of the wooded areas in our parks and on private estates are not provided with a sufficient undergrowth of desirable trees to take the place of the older ones. Thus, also, the open gaps must be planted to prevent the soil from deteriorating.

Waste lands on farms which are unsuited for farm crops often offer areas on which trees may profitably be planted. These lands are sufficiently good in most cases to grow trees, thus affording a means of turning into value ground which would otherwise be worthless. It has been demonstrated that the returns from such plantations at the end of fifty years will yield a six per cent investment and an extra profit of $151.97 per acre, the expense totaling at the end of fifty years, $307.03. The value of the land is estimated at $4 per acre and the cost of the trees and planting at $7 per acre. The species figured on here is white pine, one of the best trees to plant from a commercial standpoint. With other trees, the returns will vary accordingly.



The usual idea that it costs a great deal to plant several thousand young trees is erroneous. An ordinary woodlot may be stocked with a well-selected number of young trees at a cost less than the price generally paid for a dozen good specimen trees for the front lawn. It is not necessary to underplant the woodlot with big trees. The existing big trees are there to give character to the forest and the new planting should be done principally as a future investment and as a means of perpetuating the life of the woodlot. Young trees are even more desirable for such planting than the older and more expensive ones. The young trees will adapt themselves to the local soil and climatic conditions more easily than the older ones. Their demand for food and moisture is more easily satisfied, and because of their small cost, one can even afford to lose a large percentage of them after planting.

The young plants should be two-year-old seedlings or three-year-old "transplants."

Two-year-old seedlings are trees that have been grown from the seed in seed beds until they reach that age. They run from two to fifteen inches in height, depending upon the species.

Three-year-old "transplants" have been grown from the seed in seed beds and at the end of the first or second year have been taken up and transplanted into rows, where they grow a year or two longer. They are usually a little taller than the two-year-old seedlings, are much stockier and have a better root system. For this reason, three-year-old transplants are a little more desirable as stock for planting. They will withstand drought better than seedlings.

The best results from woodland planting are obtained with native-grown material. Such stock is stronger, hardier and better acclimated. Foreign-grown stock is usually a little cheaper, owing to the fact that it has been grown abroad, under cheap labor conditions.

The trees may be purchased from reputable dealers, of whom there are many in this country. These dealers specialize in growing young trees and selling them at the low cost of three to ten dollars per thousand. In States in which a Forestry Commission has been inaugurated, there have also been established State nurseries where millions of little trees are grown for reforestation purposes. In order to encourage private tree planting, the Forestry Commissions are usually willing to sell some of these trees at cost price, under certain conditions, to private land owners. Inquiries should be made to the State Forestry Commission.

Great care must be taken to select the species most suitable for the particular soil, climatic and light conditions of the woodlot. The trees which are native to the locality and are found growing thriftily on the woodlot, are the ones that have proven their adaptability to the local conditions and should therefore be the principal species used for underplanting. A list from which to select the main stock would, therefore, vary with the locality. In the Eastern States it would comprise the usual hardy trees like the red, pin and scarlet oaks, the beech, the red and sugar maples, the white ash, the tulip tree, sycamore, sweet gum and locust among the deciduous trees; the white, Austrian, red, pitch and Scotch pines, the hemlock and the yew among the conifers.

With the main stock well selected, one may add a number of trees and shrubs that will give to the woodland scene a pleasing appearance at all seasons. The brilliant autumnal tints of the sassafras, pepperidge, blue beech, viburnum, juneberry and sumach are strikingly attractive. The flowering dogwood along the drives and paths will add a charm in June as well as in autumn and an occasional group of white birch will have the same effect if planted among groups of evergreens. Additional undergrowth of native woodland shrubs, such as New Jersey tea, red-berried elder and blueberry for the Eastern States, will augment the naturalness of the scene and help to conserve the moisture in the soil.

Two or three years' growth will raise these plants above all grass and low vegetation, and a sprinkling of laurel, rhododendron, hardy ferns and a few intermingling colonies of native wild flowers such as bloodroot, false Solomon's seal and columbines for the East, as a ground cover will put the finishing touches to the forest scene.

As to methods of planting the little trees, the following suggestions may prove of value. As soon as the plants are received, they should be taken from the box and dipped in a thick puddle of water and loam. The roots must be thoroughly covered with the mud. Then the bundles into which the little trees are tied should be loosened and the trees placed in a trench dug on a slant. The dirt should be placed over the roots and the exposed parts of the plants covered with brush or burlap to keep away the rays of the sun.

When ready for planting, a few plants are dug up, set in a pail with thin mud at the bottom and carried to the place of planting. The most economical method of planting is for one man to make the holes with a mattock. These holes are made about a foot in diameter, by scraping off the sod with the mattock and then digging a little hole in the dirt underneath. A second man follows with a pail of plants and sets a single plant in this hole with his hands, see Fig. 129, making sure that the roots are straight and spread out on the bottom of the hole. The dirt should then be packed firmly around the plant and pressed down with the foot.