WHAT SPAWN IS.

The spawn of the mushroom is the popular word used in speaking of the mycelium of the mushroom. The term is commonly used in a commercial sense of material in which the mycelium is growing. This material is horse manure, or a mixture of one or two kinds of manure with some soil, and with the threads of the mycelium growing in it. The mycelium, as is well known, is the growing or vegetative part of the mushroom. Sometimes the word "fiber" is used by the mushroom growers in referring to the mycelium which appears in the spawn, or in the mushroom bed. The mycelium is that portion of the plant which, in the case of the wild varieties, grows in the soil, or in the leaf mold, in the tree trunk or other material from which the mushroom derives its food. The threads of mycelium, as we know, first originated from the spore of the mushroom. The spore germinates and produces delicate threads, which branch and increase by growth in extent, and form the mycelium. So the term spawn is rarely applied to the pure mycelium, but is applied to the substratum or material in which spawn is growing; that is, the substratum and mycelium together constitute the spawn.

Natural spawn or virgin spawn.—This is termed natural spawn because it occurs under natural conditions of environment. The original natural spawn was to be found in the fields. In the early history of mushroom culture the spawn from the pastures and meadows where mushrooms grew was one of the sources of the spawn used in planting. The earth containing the spawn underneath clumps of mushrooms was collected and used.

It occurs more abundantly, however, in piles of horse manure which have stood for some time in barn yards, or very often in stalls where the manure is allowed to accumulate, has been thoroughly tramped down and then has been left in this condition for some time. It occurs also in composts, hothouse beds, or wherever accumulations of horse manure are likely to occur, if other conditions are congenial. The origin of the natural spawn under these conditions of environment is probably accounted for in many cases by the presence of the spores which have been in the food eaten by the horse, have passed through the alimentary canal and are thus distributed through the dung.

The spores present in the food of the horse may be due to various conditions. Horses which go out to pasture are likely to take in with the food obtained in grazing the spores scattered around on the grass, and in the upper part of the sod, coming from mushrooms which grew in the field. In other cases, the spores may be present in the hay, having been carried by the wind from adjacent fields, if not from those which have grown in the meadow. In like manner they may be present in the oats which have been fed to the horse. In the case of stable-fed animals, the inoculation of the manure in this way may not always be certain or very free. But in the case of pasture-fed horses which are stalled at night probably the inoculation is very certain and very abundant, so that a large number of spores would be present in the manure from horses fed in this way.

The natural spawn also may originate from spores which are carried by the wind from the pasture or meadow mushrooms upon manure piles, or especially from spores which may lodge in the dust of the highways or street. Many of these spores would cling to the hoofs of the horses and at night, or at times of feeding, would be left with the manure in the stall. At other times horse droppings may be gathered from roads or streets where spores may be present in the dust. The piles of the droppings accumulated in this way, if left a sufficient time, may provide natural spawn by this accidental inoculation from the spores.

Probably few attempts have been made to grow the natural spawn with certainty in this country, though it does not appear to be an impracticable thing to do, since formerly this was one source of the virgin spawn in Europe. It is usually obtained by search through stables and barn yards or other places where piles of horse manure have accumulated and have remained for several months. In some cases the growers keep men employed through the summer season searching the yards and stables over a considerable area for the purpose of finding and gathering this natural spawn. It is probably termed virgin spawn because of its origin under these natural conditions, and never having been propagated artificially.

The natural spawn, as indicated above, is employed for a variety of purposes. It is used for inoculating the bricks in the manufacture of brick spawn. It is used for propagating once or twice in the mushroom beds, for the purpose of multiplying it, either in the manufacture of brick spawn, or for flake spawn, which is planted directly in the beds to be used for the crop. In some places in America it is collected on a large scale and relied on as the chief source of spawn for planting beds. In such cases the natural or virgin spawn is used directly and is of the first and most vigorous generation. It is believed by growers who employ it in this way that the results in the quality and quantity of the crop exceed those produced from the market spawn. But even these growers would not always depend on the natural spawn, for the reason, that collecting it under these conditions, the quantity is certain to vary from year to year. This is due probably to varying conditions of the season and also to the varying conditions which bring about the chance inoculation, or the accumulation of the material in the yard for a sufficient amount of time to provide the mycelium.

It would be interesting, and it might also prove to be profitable to growers, if some attempt were made to grow natural spawn under conditions which would perhaps more certainly produce a supply. This might be attempted in several different ways. Stall-fed horses might be fed a ripe mushroom every day or two. Or from the cap of ripe mushrooms the spores might be caught, then mixed with oats and fed to the horse. Again, the manure piles might be inoculated by spores caught from a number of mushrooms. Manure might also be collected during the summer months from the highways and aside from the probable natural inoculation which this material would probably have from the spores blown from the meadow and pasture mushrooms, additional inoculation might be made. The manure obtained in this way could be piled under sheds, packed down thoroughly, and not allowed to heat above 100 deg. F. These piles could then be left for several months, care being used that the material should have the proper moisture content, not too dry nor too wet. This is given only as a suggestion and it is hoped that some practical grower will test it upon a small scale. In all cases the temperature should be kept low during the fermentation of these piles, else the spawn will be killed.

One of the methods of obtaining natural spawn recommended by Cuthill ("Treatise on the Cultivation of the Mushroom") is to collect horse droppings all along the highways during the summer, mixing it with some road sand and piling it in a dry shed. Here it is packed down firmly to prevent the heat rising too high. A "trial" stick is kept in the pile. When this is pulled out, if it is so hot as to "burn the hand," the heat is too great and would kill the spawn. In several months an abundance of the spawn is generated here.

Mill-track spawn.—"Mill-track" spawn originated from the spawn found in covered roadways at mills or along tram-car tracks where horses were used. The accumulation of manure trodden down in these places and sometimes mixed with sawdust or earth, provided a congenial place for the growth of the mycelium. The spawn was likely introduced here through spores taken in with the food of the horse, or brought there from highways, if they were not already in the soil from mushrooms grown there. It would be then multiplied by the growth of the spawn, and from spores of mushrooms which might appear and ripen. The well tramped material in which the mycelium grew here, when broken up, formed convenient blocks of spawn for storage and transportation, and probably led to the manufacture of brick spawn.

Manufactured spawn.—The manufactured spawn, on the other hand, is that which is propagated artificially by the special preparation of the substratum or material in which the mycelium is to grow. This material is inoculated either with a piece of natural spawn, or with pieces of previously manufactured spawn. It is put upon the market in two different forms; the brick spawn, and the flake spawn. The latter is sometimes known as the French spawn, while the former, being largely manufactured in England, is sometimes spoken of as the English spawn.



Brick spawn.—The brick spawn is so called because the material in which the mycelium is present is in the form of bricks. These bricks are about 5 by 8 inches by 1-1/2 inches in thickness, and weigh about 1-1/4 pounds each when dried. The proportions of different kinds of material used in the manufacture of brick spawn probably vary with different manufacturers, since there is a difference in the size and texture of bricks from different sources. One method of making the brick spawn is as follows: Equal parts of horse dung, and cow dung, and loam soil are thoroughly mixed together to a consistency of mortar. This is pressed into the form of bricks and stood on edge to dry. When partly dry, a piece of spawn about an inch in diameter is pressed into one side of each brick. The bricks are then stood up again until thoroughly dried. They are then piled upon a layer of fresh horse manure about 8 inches deep, the pile of bricks being about 3 feet high. This pile is then covered over loosely with fresh horse manure, a sufficient amount to produce, when heating, a temperature of about 100 deg. F. They are left in this condition until the mycelium or "fiber" has thoroughly permeated the bricks. The spawn is now completed, and the bricks are allowed to dry. In this condition they are put upon the market. The bricks made with a very high percentage of soil often have the appearance of dried soil, with a slight admixture of vegetable matter.

Brick spawn from other sources presents a very different texture and contains probably a much larger percentage of horse manure, or, at least, a much smaller percentage of soil. The appearance of the brick is not that of soil with a slight admixture of vegetable materials, but has much the appearance of a dried and compressed mixture of horse dung and cow dung, with an abundance of the "fiber" or mycelium, "the greyish moldy, or thready matter," which constitutes the vital part of the spawn. In the selection of spawn this is an important item, that is, the presence of an abundance of "fiber" or mycelium. It can be seen on the surface, usually showing an abundance of these whitish threads or sheets, or a distinct moldy appearance is presented. On breaking the brick the great abundance of the "fiber" or whitish mycelium is seen all through it. This indicates that the brick possesses a high percentage of the "fiber," an important part of the spawn.

One not accustomed to the quality of spawn can therefore judge to a certain extent by the appearance of the bricks as to the quality, at least they can judge as to the presence of an abundance or a scanty quantity of the "fiber." Since the spawn remains in good condition for several years, there is usually no danger in the use of spawn which may be one or two years old. But it does deteriorate to some extent with age, and young spawn is therefore to be preferred to old spawn, provided the other desirable qualities are equal. Those who attempt to cultivate mushrooms, and depend on commercial or manufactured spawn, should see to it that the spawn purchased possesses these desirable qualities of texture, and the presence of an abundance of the mycelium. That which appears devoid of an abundance of mycelium should be rejected, and good spawn should be called for. There is no more reason why a grower should accept a worthless spawn from his seedsman than that he should accept "addled" eggs from his grocer. In this business, that is, the manufacture and sale of spawn, poor material is apt to be thrown on the market just as in the case of seeds, poor material may find its way upon the market. Sometimes this occurs through unscrupulous dealers, at other times through their ignorance, or through their failure to know the quality of the product they are handling.

There are some brands of spawn, that is, those manufactured by certain houses, which rank very high among those who know the qualities and the value of good spawn. Some large growers send direct to the manufacturer for their spawn, and where it is to be obtained in large quantities this is a desirable thing to do, since the cost is much less. Where obtained from seedsmen in large quantities, the prices are much lower than where small quantities are purchased. One of these brands of spawn, the Barter spawn, is for sale by several different dealers, by Mr. H. E. Hicks, Kennett Square, Pa., by Henry F. Michell, 1018 Market street, Philadelphia, and by Henry Dreer, 724 Chestnut street, Philadelphia. Another brick spawn, known as "Watson Prolific," is for sale by George C. Watson, Juniper and Walnut streets, Philadelphia. James Vicks Sons, Rochester, N. Y., and Peter Henderson & Co., New York City, have their spawn manufactured expressly for their trade.

The Barter spawn is said to be made fresh every year, or every other year. Instead of the "continued culture" of spawn, that is, inoculating the bricks each succeeding year from the same line of spawn, which is, as it were, used over and over again, a return is made each year, or in the alternate years, to the natural or virgin spawn, which is obtained from old manure heaps. In this way, the Barter spawn[D] is within two to three, or four, generations of the natural spawn. The number of generations distant the brick is from the natural spawn, depends upon the number of times it may have been multiplied before it is inoculated into the bricks. That is, the natural spawn is probably first grown in large beds in order to multiply, to produce a sufficiently large quantity for the inoculation of the immense number of bricks to be manufactured. For it is likely that a sufficient amount of natural spawn could not be obtained to inoculate all the bricks manufactured in one year. If a sufficient amount of the natural or virgin spawn could be obtained to inoculate all the bricks of one year's manufacture, this would produce a spawn removed only one generation from that of natural spawn.

If the natural spawn were first grown in beds, and from here inoculated into bricks, this particular brick spawn would be removed two generations from the natural spawn. So the number of times that successive inoculations are made to multiply the spawn, the manufactured products are removed that many generations from the natural spawn. Where recourse is had to the natural, or virgin spawn only once in two years, the second year's product would then be further removed from the natural spawn than the first year's product. Where we know that it is removed but one or a few generations from the natural spawn, it is a more desirable kind. For the nearer it is to the natural spawn, other things being equal, the more vigorous the mycelium, and the finer will be the mushrooms produced.

The brick spawn is sometimes manufactured in this country by growers for their own use, but at present it is manufactured on such a large scale in England that little or no saving is effected by an attempt to manufacture one's own brick spawn in this country.

Flake Spawn.—The flake spawn, or "flakes," is commonly known as the French spawn, because it is so extensively manufactured in France. It is made by breaking down beds through which the mycelium has run, and before the crop of mushrooms appears. That is, the bed is spawned in the ordinary way. When the mycelium has thoroughly permeated the bed, it is taken down and broken into irregular pieces, six to eight inches in diameter. Thus, the French spawn, where the beds are made entirely of horse manure, with no admixture of soil, consist merely of the fermented and cured manure, through which the mycelium has run, the material, of course, being thoroughly dried. This spawn may be removed one or several generations from the natural spawn.



The French growers depend on natural spawn much more than American growers do. The natural spawn is collected from old manure heaps. Beds made up in the ordinary way for the cultivation of mushrooms are planted with this. The mycelium is allowed to run until it has thoroughly permeated the manure. These beds are broken down and used to spawn the beds for the crop. In this case the crop would be grown from spawn only one generation removed from the virgin spawn. If a sufficient amount of natural spawn could not be obtained, to provide the amount required one generation old, it might be run through the second generation before being used. From the appearance of any spawn, of course, the purchaser cannot tell how many generations it is removed from the natural spawn. For this quality of the spawn one must depend upon the knowledge which we may have of the methods practiced by the different producers of spawn, if it is possible even to determine this.

SPAWNING THE BEDS.

The beds for growing the mushrooms having been made up, the spawn having been selected, the beds are ready for planting whenever the temperature has been sufficiently reduced and the material is properly cured. It is quite easy to determine the temperature of the beds, but it is a more difficult problem for the inexperienced to determine the best stage in the curing of the material for the reception of the spawn. Some growers rely more on the state of curing of the manure than they do upon the temperature. They would prefer to spawn it at quite a low temperature, rather than to spawn at what is usually considered an optimum temperature, if the material is not properly cured. The temperature at which different treatises and growers recommend that the bed should be spawned varies from 70 deg. to 90 deg. F. Ninety degrees F. is considered by many rather high, while 70 deg. F. is considered by others to be rather low; 80 deg. to 85 deg. is considered by many to be the most favorable temperature, provided of course the other conditions of the bed are congenial. But some, so far as temperature is concerned, would prefer to spawn the bed at 75 deg. F. rather than at 90 deg., while many recommend spawning at 70 deg. to 75 deg. In some cases, I have known the growers to allow the temperature of the beds to fall as low as 60 deg. before spawning, because the material was not, until that time, at the proper state of curing. Yet an experienced grower, who understands the kind of spawn to plant in such a bed, can allow the temperature to go down to 60 deg. without any very great risk. Fresh spawn in an active state, that is, spawn which is in a growing condition, as may be obtained by tearing up a bed, or a portion of one, through which the spawn has run, is better to plant in a bed of such low temperature. Or, a bed of such low temperature, after spawning, might be "warmed up," by piling fresh horse manure over it loosely for a week or ten days, sufficient to raise the temperature to 80 deg. or 90 deg.



When the brick spawn is used, the method of planting varies, of course, with the methods of different operators. Some break the bricks into the desired size and plant the pieces directly in the bed, without any special preparation. The brick is broken into pieces about two or three inches in diameter. Some recommend breaking the brick of the ordinary size into about twelve pieces, some into nine pieces, so the custom varies with different operators. These pieces are planted from seven to nine inches apart in the bed. For example, if they are to be planted nine inches apart in the bed, holes are made, either with the hand or with some instrument, by pressing the material to one side sufficiently to admit of the piece of spawn being pressed in tightly. These openings are made, say, the first row on one side of the bed, about four and one-half inches from the side, and nine inches apart in the row. The second row is made nine inches from the first row, and so on. The pieces of spawn are inserted in the opening in the bed, and at a slight distance, two to three inches, below the surface. Some, however, insert the piece of spawn just at the level of the bed, the opening being such that the piece of spawn pressed into the opening is crowded below in place, and the surrounding material fits snugly on the sides. Thus, when the bed is spawned, the pieces may be a slight distance below the top of the bed when they can be covered by some material, or in other cases, where the operator varies the method, they would lie just at the surface of the bed.

The bed is now firmed down according to the custom of the operator, either tamped down with some instrument very firmly, or by others, with the back of the fork or other similar instrument, the bed is made firm, but not quite so hard. The object in firming it down after spawning is to make the surface of the bed level, and also to bring the material in the bed very closely in touch on all sides with the spawn with which it is impregnated.



Some growers follow the method of giving the spawn some little preparation before putting it into the bed. This preparation varies with different operators. Its object, however, is to slightly moisten the dry spawn, and perhaps, also, to very slightly start the growth. To accomplish this, some will cover the bricks, before breaking them, with fresh horse manure, and allow this to remain several days, so that the warmth and moisture generated here penetrate the material and soften somewhat the brick. Some pile it in a room or compartment where there is little moisture, until the bricks are permeated to some extent with the moisture, so that they are a little easier broken. They should not, under any circumstances, be wet or soft in the sense of having absorbed an excess of water, nor should they be stored for any length of time where they will be damp. Still others break the bricks into the desired pieces and place these directly on the top of the bed, at the place where they wish to plant the piece of spawn. They are left here for two or three days on the surface of the beds. These pieces absorb some moisture and take up some warmth from the bed. Then they are planted in the ordinary way.

Spawning with Flake Spawn, or Natural Spawn.—In the use of the flake or natural spawn, the planting is accomplished in a similar way, but larger pieces of the spawn are used, two or three times the size of the pieces of brick employed. Some use a large handful. In some few cases, the growers use a flake spawn from their own crop. That is, each year a few beds are spawned from material which has been kept over from the previous season. This is often kept in boxes, in cool places, where it does not thoroughly dry out. In this way, the spawn is used over and over again, until it becomes much less vigorous than natural spawn, or a spawn which is only one or only a few generations distant from the natural spawn. This is seen in the less certainty with which the spawn runs through the bed, in the smaller crop of mushrooms, and their gradual deterioration in size. Some few practice the method of breaking down the bed after the crop has been nearly gathered, using this weak spawn to inoculate fresh beds. This practice is objectionable for the same reason that long cultivated spawn is objectionable.

Soiling the Beds.—After the beds have been planted with the spawn, the next thing is to soil them. That is, the manure in the bed is covered with a layer of loam soil, or garden soil, to the depth of two inches, then spread evenly over the bed, leveled off, and tamped down, though not packed too hard, and the surface is smoothed off. The time at which the soiling is done, varies also with different operators. Some soil immediately after planting the spawn. Others believe that the spawn will most certainly fail to run if the beds are soiled immediately after planting. These operators wait two or three weeks after the spawn has been planted to soil it. Others wait until the temperature of the bed has fallen from 80 deg. or 85 deg. at the time of spawning, to 70 deg. or 60 deg. F. Soiling at this temperature, that is, at 60 deg. or 70 deg. F., probably prevents the rapid cooling down of the bed, and it is desirable to soil, at least at this temperature, for that purpose. When the beds are soiled, they are then left until the crop is ready to gather. Some operators give no further attention to the beds after soiling, other than to water the beds, if that becomes necessary. It is desirable to avoid watering, if the bed can be kept at the right state of moisture without. In watering the beds while the spawn is running, there is danger of killing the young spawn with the water. Wherever it is necessary, however, if the material in the bed becomes too dry, lukewarm water should be used, and it should be applied through a fine rose of a watering pot.

While some operators after soiling the bed give no further care to it until the bed is bearing, others cover the beds with some litter, in the form of straw or excelsior. This is done for the purpose of conserving the moisture in the bed, and especially the moisture on the surface of the bed. Sometimes where there is a tendency for the material in the bed to become too dry, this litter on the surface retards the loss of moisture. Also, the litter itself may be moistened and the bed can absorb some moisture in this way, if it is desirable to increase the moisture content of the bed slightly.

When the spawn has once run well through the bed, watering can be accomplished with less danger of injury, yet great care must be used even now. The spawn will run through a bed with a somewhat less moisture content in the material than is necessary for drawing off the crop of mushrooms, though, of course, the spawn will not run if the bed is too dry. The only way to see if the spawn has run satisfactorily is to open up the bed at one or two points to examine the material, opening it up slightly. If the spawn has run well, a very delicate white "fiber," the mycelium, can be seen penetrating all through the material. This handful can be replaced in the bed, packed down, and the soil covered over and firmed again at this point.

When the mushrooms begin to appear, if the bed is a little dry, it should be watered from time to time through the fine rose of a watering pot. Lukewarm water should be used. Nearly all growers water the beds during the picking of the crop, or during the period of gathering the crop. At the first few waterings, water should not be sprinkled on the beds to wet them entirely through. Enough water is applied to diffuse a short distance only through the upper surface of the bed. At the next watering, several days later, the moisture is carried further down in the bed, and so on, through the several weeks, or months, over which the harvesting season extends. The object of thus gradually moistening the bed from above, is to draw the crop from the spawn at the surface of the bed first, and then, as the moisture extends downward, to gradually bring on the crop from the "fiber" below.

Gathering the Mushrooms.—In artificial cultivation, the mushrooms usually formed are very near, or on, the surface of the bed. In the case of the meadow or pasture mushrooms, they are formed further below the surface. This is probably due to the fact that the conditions under which the mushrooms grow in cultivation are such that the surface of the bed is more moist, and is less subject to variations in the content of moisture, than is the surface of the ground in pastures. Although there may be abundant rains in the fields, the currents of air over the surface of the ground, at other times, quickly dries out the upper layers of the soil. But indoors the mycelium often runs to the surface of the bed, and there forms the numerous pinheads which are the beginnings of the mushrooms. The beds at this stage often present numerous clusters of the mycelium and these minute pinheads crowded very closely together. Hundreds or perhaps thousands of these minute beginnings of mushrooms occur within a small space. There are very few of these, however, that reach the point of the mature mushroom. Few only of the pinheads grow to form the button, and the others abort, or cease to grow. Others are torn out while the larger ones are being picked.

The time at which the mushrooms are picked varies within certain limits, with the different growers. Most cultivators, especially those who grow the mushrooms in houses, consider 60 deg. F. the desirable temperature for the growth of mushrooms, that is, at a room temperature of 60 deg. (while some recommend 57 deg.). The temperature of the beds themselves will be slightly above this. Under these conditions, that is, where the mushrooms are grown at a room temperature of about 60 deg., they open very quickly. It is necessary here to gather the mushrooms before they open, that is, before the veil on the under surface breaks to expose the gill surface. This practice is followed, of course, within certain limits. It is not possible in all cases, to pick every mushroom before the veil breaks. They are collected once a day usually. At the time of collection all are taken which are of suitable size. Many of them may not yet have opened. But in the case of some of the older or more rapidly growing ones, the veil may have broken, although they have not expanded very much.

Some follow the method of having the fireman, on his round at night, when he looks after the fires in the heating room, gather the mushrooms. He passes through all parts of the house and picks the mushrooms which are of suitable size. These are gathered by grasping a single mushroom by the cap, or where there is a cluster of mushrooms close together, several are taken in the hand. The plant is twisted slightly to free the stem from the soil, without tearing it up to any great extent. They are thrown in this condition into baskets. The collector then takes them to the packing room, and the following morning the plants are trimmed, that is, the part of the stems to which the earth is attached is cut away, the plants are weighed, put in baskets, and prepared for the markets. In other cases, the mushrooms are gathered early in the morning, in the same way, taken to the packing room, where the lower part of the stem is cut away, the plants are weighed, placed into the baskets and shipped to market.



In some of the caves, or abandoned mines, which I have visited, where the mushrooms are grown on a large scale, the practice in picking the mushrooms varies somewhat from that just described. In the first place, the mushrooms are allowed to stand on the bed longer, before they are picked. They are rarely, if ever, picked before they open. Mushrooms may be quite large, but if they have not opened, they are not picked. Very frequently, the plant may open, but, the operator says, it is not open enough. It will grow more yet. The object of the grower, in this case, is to allow the mushrooms to grow as long as it is possible, before picking, for the larger the mushroom, the more water it will take from the bed, and the more it weighs. This may seem an unprofessional thing for a grower to do, and yet it must be remembered that a large water content of the mushroom is necessary. The mushrooms grown in these mines are very firm and solid, qualities which are desired, not only by the consumer, but are desirable for shipment. These mushrooms are much thicker through the center of the cap than those usually grown in houses at a room temperature of 60 deg. F. For this reason, the mushrooms in these caves spread out more, and the edges do not turn up so soon. Since the cap is so thick and firm at the center, it continues to grow and expand for some little time after having opened, without turning up on the edges, and without becoming black and unsightly underneath. These large and firm mushrooms are not only desirable for their shipping qualities, but also, if they are not too large, they are prized because they are of such a nice size for broiling.

It is quite likely that one of the important conditions in producing mushrooms of this character is the low temperature of the mine. The temperature here, in July and August, rises not higher than 58 deg. F., that is, the room temperature of the mines; while in the winter it falls not lower than 52 deg. The growth of mushrooms, under these conditions, may not be quite so rapid as in a house maintaining a room temperature of 60 deg. The operator may not be able to grow so many crops from the same area, during the same length of time; but the very fact that this low temperature condition retards the growth of the mushrooms is perhaps an important item in producing the firm and more marketable product, which can be allowed to grow longer before it is picked. It is possible, also, that another condition has something to do with the firmness and other desirable qualities of these mushrooms. It is, perhaps, to be found in the fact that natural spawn is largely used in planting the beds, so that the spawn is more vigorous than that which is ordinarily used in planting, which is several or many generations distant from the virgin condition.

The methods of picking in this mine differ, also, from those usually employed by growers of mushrooms. The mushrooms are pulled from the bed in the same way, but the operator carries with him two baskets and a knife. As fast as the mushrooms are pulled, and while they are still in hand, before the dirt can sift upon the other mushrooms, or fall in upon the gills of those which are open, the lower part of the stem is cut off. This stem end is then placed in one basket, while the mushrooms which have been trimmed are placed in another basket. In cutting off the stems, just enough is cut to remove the soil, so that the length of the stem of the mushroom varies. The mushrooms are then taken to the packing room in the cleanest possible condition, with no soil scattering therefrom or falling down among the gills, as occurs to a greater or lesser extent where the mushrooms are picked and thrown indiscriminately into baskets.

Packing the Mushrooms.—In the packing room the mushrooms are prepared for shipment to market. The method at present usually employed is to ship them in baskets. The baskets vary in size, according to the market to which the mushrooms are to be shipped. They hold from three, to four, five, six, or ten pounds each. The larger baskets are only used where the mushrooms are shipped directly to the consumers. When the customer requires a large number of mushrooms, they can be shipped in these larger baskets. Where they are shipped to commission merchants, and the final market is not known to the packer, they are usually packed in small baskets, three to four or five pounds. The baskets are sometimes lined with paper; that is, at the time of the packing the paper is placed in the basket, one or two thicknesses of paper. The number of layers of paper depends somewhat upon the conditions of transportation. The greater amount of paper affords some protection from cold, in cold weather, and some protection from the evaporation of the moisture, in dry weather. When the basket is filled with the required quantity of mushrooms, which is usually determined first by weight, the surplus paper is folded over them. This is covered in most cases by thin board strips, which are provided for basket shipment of vegetables of this kind. In some cases, however, where shipped directly to customers so that the baskets soon reach their destination, additional heavy paper, instead of the board, may be placed over and around the larger part of the basket, and then tied down neatly with cord.

Placing the Mushrooms in the Basket.—Some growers do not give any attention to placing the mushrooms in the baskets. The stems are cut off in the packing room, they are thrown into the weighing pan, and when the beam tips at three, or four, or five pounds, as the case may be, the mushrooms are emptied into the baskets, leveled down, and the baskets closed for shipment. Others use more care in the packing of the mushrooms; especially is this the case on the part of those who pick the mushrooms when they are somewhat larger and more open, though the practice of placing the mushrooms in a basket is followed even by those who pick before the mushrooms are open. In placing them, one mushroom is taken at a time and put stem downward into the basket, until the bottom is covered with one layer, and then successive layers are placed on top of these. The upper layers in the basket then present a very neat and attractive appearance. In thus placing the mushrooms in the basket, if there are any mushrooms which are quite large, they are placed in the bottom. The custom of the operator here is different from that of the grower of apples, or of other fruit, where the larger and finer samples are often placed on top, the smaller ones being covered below. It is a curious fact, however, that this practice of placing the largest mushrooms below in the basket is due to the fact that usually the larger mushrooms are not considered so marketable.



There are several reasons why the larger mushrooms are not considered so desirable or marketable as the medium-sized or smaller ones. In the first place, the larger mushrooms, under certain conditions, especially those grown in house culture at a comparatively high temperature, are apt to be very ripe, so that the gills are black from over-ripe spores, and are thus somewhat unsightly. Those grown at a lower temperature, as is the case in some mines, do not blacken so soon, and are therefore apt to be free from this objection. Another objection, however, is on the part of the restaurant owner where mushrooms are served. In serving the mushrooms broiled on toast, the medium-sized one is more desirable from the standpoint of the restaurant owner, in that two medium-sized ones might be sufficient to serve two persons, while one quite large one, weighing perhaps the same as the two medium ones, would only be sufficient to serve one person at the same price, unless the large mushroom was cut in two. If this were done, however, the customer would object to being served with half a mushroom, and the appearance of a half mushroom served in this way is not attractive.

Resoiling.—Once or twice a week during the harvesting period all loose earth, broken bits of spawn, free buttons, etc., should be cleaned out where the mushrooms have been picked. These places should be filled with soil and packed down by hand. All young mushrooms that "fog off" should be gathered up clean. Some persons follow the practice of growing a second crop on the same bed from which the first crop has been gathered. The bed is resoiled by placing about two inches of soil over the old soil. The bed is then watered, sometimes with lukewarm water to which a small quantity of nitrate of soda has been added. The large growers, however, usually do not grow a second crop in this way, but endeavor to exhaust the material in the bed by continuous growth.

Use of manure from beds which have failed.—Manure in which the spawn has failed to run is sometimes removed from the bed and mixed with fresh manure, the latter restoring the heat. If the manure was too wet, the moisture content can now be lessened by the use of dry soil.

Cleaning house to prepare for successive crops.—When the crop is harvested, all the material is cleaned out to prepare the beds for the next crop. The material is taken out "clean," and the floors, beds, walls, etc., swept off very clean. In addition, some growers whitewash the floors and all wood-work. Some whitewash only the floors, depending on sweeping the beds and walls very clean. Still others whitewash the floors and wash the walls with some material to kill out the vermin. Some trap or poison the cockroaches, wood-lice, etc., when they appear. Some growers who succeed well for several years, and then fail, believe that the house "gets tired," as they express it, and that the place must rest for a few years before mushrooms can be grown there again. Others grow mushrooms successfully year after year, but employ the best sanitary methods.

Number of crops during a year.—In caves or mines, where the temperature is low, the beds are in process of formation and cropping continuously. So soon as a bed has been exhausted the material is cleaned out, and new beds are made as fast as the fresh manure is obtained. In houses where the mushrooms cannot be grown during the summer, the crops are grown at quite regular periods, the first crop during fall and early winter, and the second crop during spring. Some obtain the manure and ferment it during August and September, spawning the beds in September and October. Others begin work on the fermentation of the manure in June or July, make up the beds in July and August, spawn, and begin to draw off the crop somewhat earlier. The second crop is prepared for whenever the first one is drawn off, and this varies even in the experience of the same grower, since the rate of the running of the spawn varies from time to time. Sometimes the crop begins to come four or five weeks from the time of planting the spawn. At other times it may be two or three months before the spawn has run sufficiently for the crop to appear. Usually the crop begins to come on well in six to eight weeks. The crop usually lasts for six weeks to two months, or longer.

Productivity of the beds.—One pound of mushrooms from every two square feet of surface is considered a very good crop. Sometimes it exceeds this, the beds bearing one pound for every square foot, though such a heavy yield is rare. Oftener the yield is less than half a pound for a square foot of surface.

Causes of failure.—The beginner should study very carefully the conditions under which he grows his crops, and if failure results, he should attempt to analyze the results in the light of the directions given for the curing of the manure, its moisture content, "sweetness," character of the spawn, temperature, ventilation, etc. While there should be good ventilation, there should not be drafts of air. A beginner may succeed the first time, the second or third, and then may fail, and not know the cause of the failure. But given a good spawn, the right moisture content of the material at time of planting and running of the spawn, the sweet condition, or proper condition of the curing of the manure, proper sanitary conditions, there should be no failure. These are the most important conditions in mushroom culture. After the spawn has run and the crop has begun to come, the beds have been known to freeze up during the winter, and in the spring begin and continue to bear a good crop. After the spawn has run well, beds have accidentally been flooded with water so that manure water would run out below, and yet come on and bear as good a crop as adjoining beds.

Volunteer mushrooms in greenhouses.—Volunteer mushrooms sometimes appear in greenhouses in considerable quantity. These start from natural spawn in the manure used, or sometimes from the spawn remaining in "spent" mushroom beds which is mixed with the soil in making lettuce beds, etc., under glass. One of the market gardeners at Ithaca used old spawn in this way, and had volunteer mushrooms among lettuce for several years. In making the lettuce beds in the autumn, a layer of fresh horse manure six inches deep is placed in the bottom, and on this is placed the soil mixed with the old, spent mushroom beds. The following year the soil and the manure at the bottom, which is now rotten, is mixed up, and a fresh layer of manure is placed below. In this way the lettuce bed is self-spawned from year to year. About every six years the soil in the bed is entirely changed. This gardener, during the winter of 1900—1, sold $30.00 to $40.00 worth of volunteer mushrooms. Another gardener, in a previous year, sold over $50.00 worth.

Planting mushrooms with other vegetables.—In some cases gardeners follow the practice of inserting a forkful of manure here and there in the soil where other vegetables are grown under glass, and planting in it a bit of spawn.

Mushroom and vegetable house combined.—Some combine a mushroom house and house for vegetables in one, there being a deep pit where several tiers of beds for mushrooms can be built up, and above this the glass house where lettuce, etc., is grown, all at a temperature of about 60 deg. F.

THREE METHODS SUGGESTED FOR GROWING MUSHROOMS IN CELLARS AND SHEDS.

First Method.—Obtain fresh stable horse manure mixed with straw used in bedding the animals. Shake it out, separating the coarse material from the droppings. Put the droppings in a pile two to three feet deep. Pack down firmly. When the heat rises to near 130 deg. F., turn and shake it out, making a new pile. Make the new pile by layers of manure and loam soil, or rotted sod, one part of soil to eight or nine parts of manure. Turn again when the heat rises to near 130 deg. F., and add the same amount of soil. When the temperature is about 100 deg. F., the material is ready for the beds.

Preparing the beds.—Make the beds as described under the paragraph on pages 250—253, or use boxes. Place the coarse litter in the bottom three to four inches deep. On this place three to four inches of the cured material, pack it down, and continue adding material until the bed is ten to fifteen inches deep. Allow the beds to stand, covering them with straw or excelsior if the air in the cellar or shed is such as to dry out the surface.

Test the moisture content according to directions on page 255.

Watch the temperature. Do not let it rise above 130 deg. F. When it is down to 90 deg. F. or 70 deg. F., if the manure has a "sweetish" or "mushroomy" smell it is ready to spawn.

Spawn according to directions on page 263.

Soil according to directions on page 266; cover bed with straw or excelsior.

Second Method.—Use horse droppings freed from the coarser material. Proceed as in first method.

Third Method.—Use horse droppings freed from coarser material. Pile and pack firmly. Do not let temperature rise above 130 deg. F. When it has cooled to 100 deg. F., make up the beds, at the same time mixing in an equal quantity of rich loam or rotted sod. Spawn in a day or two.

In beginning, practice on a small scale and study the conditions thoroughly, as well as the directions given in this chapter.

FOOTNOTES:

[D] I have not learned the history of the other kinds of spawn referred to above.



CHAPTER XXI.

RECIPES FOR COOKING MUSHROOMS.

By MRS. SARAH TYSON RORER.

As varieties of mushrooms differ in analysis, texture and density of flesh, different methods of cooking give best results. For instance, the Coprinus micaceus, being very delicate, is easily destroyed by over-cooking; a dry, quick pan of the "mushroom bells" retains the best flavor; while the more dense Agaricus campestris requires long, slow cooking to bring out the flavor, and to be tender and digestible. Simplicity of seasoning, however, must be observed, or the mushroom flavor will be destroyed. If the mushroom itself has an objectionable flavor, better let it alone than to add mustard or lemon juice to overcome it. Mushrooms, like many of the more succulent vegetables, are largely water, and readily part with their juices on application of salt or heat; hence it becomes necessary to put the mushroom over the fire usually without the addition of water, or the juices will be so diluted that they will lack flavor. They have much better flavor cooked without peeling, with the exception of puff-balls, which should always be pared. As they lose their flavor by soaking, wash them quickly, a few at a time; take the mushroom in the left hand and with the right hand wash the top or pileus, using either a very soft brush or a piece of flannel; shake them well and put them into a colander to dry.

AGARICUS.[E]

The wild or uncultivated Agaricus campestris, which is usually picked in open fields, will cook in less time than those grown in caves and sold in our markets during the winter and spring. Cut the stems close to the gills; these may be put aside and used for flavoring sauces or soups. Wash the mushrooms carefully, keeping the gills down; throw them into a colander until drained.

Stewed.—To each pound, allow two ounces of butter. Put the butter into a saucepan, and when melted, not brown, throw in the mushrooms either whole or cut into slices; sprinkle over a teaspoonful of salt; cover the saucepan closely to keep in the flavor, and cook very slowly for twenty minutes, or until they are tender. Moisten a rounding tablespoonful of flour in a little cold milk; when perfectly smooth, add sufficient milk to make one gill; stir this into the mushrooms, add a saltspoon of white pepper, stir carefully until boiling, and serve at once. This makes a fairly thick sauce. Less flour is required when they are to be served as a sauce over chicken, steak, or made dishes.

Broiled.—Cut the stems close to the gills; wash the mushrooms and dry them with a soft piece of cheesecloth; put them on the broiler gills up. Put a piece of butter, the size of a marrowfat pea, in the center of each; sprinkle lightly with salt and pepper. Put the broiler over the fire skin side down; in this way, the butter will melt and sort of baste the mushrooms. Have ready squares of neatly toasted bread; and, as soon as the mushrooms are hot on the skin side, turn them quickly and broil about two minutes on the gill side. Five minutes will be sufficient for the entire cooking. Dish on toast and serve at once.

Panned on Cream Toast.—Cut the stem close to the gills; wash and dry as directed for broiling. Put them into a pan, and pour over a very little melted butter, having gill sides up; dust with salt and pepper, run into a hot oven for twenty minutes. While these are panning, toast sufficient bread to hold them nicely; put it onto a hot platter, and just as the mushrooms are done, cover the bread with hot milk, being careful not to have too much or the bread will be pasty and soft. Dish the mushrooms on the toast, putting the skin side up, pour over the juices from the pan, and serve at once.

These are exceedingly good served on buttered toast without the milk, and will always take the place of broiled mushrooms.

In the Chafing Dish.—Wash, dry the mushrooms, and cut them into slices. To each pound allow two ounces of butter. Put the butter in the chafing dish, when hot put in the mushrooms, sprinkle over a teaspoonful of salt, cover the dish, and cook slowly for five minutes, stirring the mushrooms frequently; then add one gill of milk. Cover the dish again, cook for three minutes longer, add the beaten yolks of two eggs, a dash of pepper, and serve at once. These must not be boiled after the eggs are added; but the yolk of egg is by far the most convenient form of thickening when mushrooms are cooked in the chafing dish.

Under the Glass Cover or "Bell" with Cream.—With a small biscuit cutter, cut rounds from slices of bread; they should be about two and a half inches in diameter, and about a half inch in thickness. Cut the stems close to the gills from fresh mushrooms; wash and wipe the mushrooms. Put a tablespoonful of butter in a saucepan; when hot, throw in the mushrooms, skin side down; cook just a moment, and sprinkle them with salt and pepper. Arrange the rounds of bread, which have been slightly toasted, in the bottom of your "bell" dish; heap the mushrooms on these; put a little piece of butter in the center; cover over the bell, which is either of glass, china, or silver; stand them in a baking pan, and then in the oven for twenty minutes. While these are cooking, mix a tablespoonful of butter and one of flour in a saucepan, add a half pint of milk, or you may add a gill of milk and a gill of chicken stock; stir until boiling, add a half teaspoonful of salt and a dash of pepper. When the mushrooms have been in the oven the allotted time, bring them out; lift the cover, pour over quickly a little of this sauce, cover again, and send them at once to the table.

Another Method.—Wash and dry the mushrooms; arrange them at once on the "bell plate." The usual plates will hold six good sized ones. Dust with pepper and salt; put in the center of the pile a teaspoonful of butter; pour over six tablespoonfuls of cream or milk; cover with the bell; stand the dish in a baking pan, and then in a hot oven for twenty minutes.

These are arranged for individual bells. Where one large bell is used, the mushrooms must be dished on toast before they are served. The object in covering with the bell is to retain every particle of the flavor. The bell is then lifted at the table, that the eater may get full aroma and flavor from the mushroom.

Puree.—Wash carefully a half pound of mushrooms; chop them fine, put them into a saucepan with a tablespoonful of butter, and if you have it, a cup of chicken stock; if not, a cup of water. Cover the vessel and cook slowly for thirty minutes. In a double boiler, put one pint of milk. Rub together one tablespoonful of butter and two tablespoonfuls of flour; add it to the milk; stir and cook until thick; add the mushrooms, and press the whole through a sieve; season to taste with salt and pepper only.

Cream of Mushroom Soup.—This will be made precisely the same as in the preceding recipe, save that one quart of milk will be used instead of a pint with the same amount of thickening, and the mushrooms will not be pressed through a sieve.

COPRINUS COMATUS and COPRINUS ATRAMENTARIUS.

As these varieties usually grow together and are sort of companion mushrooms, recipes given for one will answer for the cooking of the other. Being soft and juicy, they must be handled with care, and are much better cooked with dry heat. Remove the stems, and wash them carefully; throw them into a colander until dry; arrange them in a baking pan; dot here and there with bits of butter, allowing a tablespoonful to each half pound of mushrooms; dust with salt and pepper, run them into a very hot oven, and bake for thirty minutes; dish in a heated vegetable dish, pouring over the sauce from the pan.

The C. micaceus may also be cooked after the same fashion—after dishing the mushrooms boil down the liquor.

Stewed.—Wash and dry them; put them into a large, flat pan, allowing a tablespoonful of butter to each half pound of mushrooms; sprinkle at once with salt and pepper; cover the pan, and stew for fifteen minutes. Moisten a tablespoonful of flour in a little cold milk; when smooth, add a half cup of cream, if you have it; if not, a half cup of milk. Push the mushrooms to one side; turn in this mixture, and stir until boiling. Do not stir the mushrooms or they will fall apart and become unsightly. Dish them; pour over the sauce, and serve at once. Or they may be served on toast, the dish garnished with triangular pieces of toast.

COPRINUS MICACEUS.

Wash and dry the mushrooms; put them into a deep saucepan with a tablespoonful of butter to each quart; stand over a quick fire, sort of tossing the saucepan. Do not stir, or you will break the mushrooms. As soon as they have reached the boiling point, push them to the back part of the stove for five minutes; serve on toast. These will be exceedingly dark, are very palatable, and perhaps are the most easily digested of all the varieties.

LEPIOTA.

These mushrooms, having very thin flesh and deep gills, must be quickly cooked to be good. Remove the stem, take the mushrooms in your hand, gill side down, and with a soft rag wash carefully the top, removing all the little brown scales. Put them into a baking pan, or on a broiler. Melt a little butter, allow it to settle, take the clear, oily part from the top and baste lightly the mushrooms, gill sides up; dust with salt and pepper. Place the serving dish to heat. Put the mushrooms over a quick fire, skin side down, for just a moment; then turn and boil an instant on the gill side, and serve at once on the heated plate.

In this way Lepiota procera is most delicious of all mushrooms; but if cooked in moist heat, it becomes soft, but tough and unpalatable; if baked too long, it becomes dry and leathery. It must be cooked quickly and eaten at once. All the edible forms may be cooked after this recipe.

These are perhaps the best of all mushrooms for drying. In this condition they are easily kept, and add so much to an ordinary meat sauce.

OYSTER MUSHROOMS (Pleurotus).

Wash and dry the mushrooms; cut them into strips crosswise of the gills, trimming off all the woody portion near the stem side. Throw the mushrooms into a saucepan, allowing a tablespoonful of butter to each pint; sprinkle over a half teaspoonful of salt; cover, and cook slowly for twenty minutes. Moisten a tablespoonful of flour in a half cup of milk; when perfectly smooth, add another half cup; turn this into the mushroom mixture; bring to boiling point, add just a grating of nutmeg, a few drops of onion juice, and a dash of pepper. Serve as you would stewed oysters.

To make this into a la poulette, add the yolks of two eggs just as you take the mixture from the fire, and serve on toast.

Mock Oysters.—Trim the soft gill portion of the Pleurotus ostreatus into the shape of an oyster; dust with salt and pepper; dip in beaten egg, then in bread crumbs, and fry in smoking hot fat as you would an oyster, and serve at once. This is, perhaps, the best method of cooking this variety.

RUSSULA.

While in this group we have a number of varieties, they may all be cooked after one recipe. The stems will be removed, the mushrooms carefully washed, always holding the gill side down in the water, drained in a colander; and while they apparently do not contain less water than other mushrooms, the flesh is rather dense, and they do not so quickly melt upon being exposed to heat. They are nice broiled or baked, or may be chopped fine and served with mayonnaise dressing, stuffed into peeled tomatoes, or with mayonnaise dressing on lettuce leaves, or mixed with cress and served with French dressing, as salads.

The "green" or Russula virescens may be peeled, cut into thin slices, mixed with the leaves of water-cress which have been picked carefully from the stems, covered with French dressing, and served on slices of tomato. It is well to peel all mushrooms if they are to be served raw. To bake, follow recipes given for baking campestris. In this way they are exceedingly nice over the ordinary broiled steak.

One of the nicest ways, however, of preparing them for steak is to wash, dry and put them, gills up, in a baking pan, having a goodly quantity; pour over just a little melted butter; dust with salt and pepper, and put them into the oven for fifteen minutes. While you are broiling the steak, put the plate upon which it is to be served over hot water to heat; put on it a tablespoonful of butter, a little salt, pepper, and some finely chopped parsley. Take the mushrooms from the oven, put some in the bottom of the plate, dish the steak on top, covering the remaining quantity over the steak. Add two tablespoonfuls of stock or water to the pan in which they were baked; allow this to boil, scraping all the material from the pan; baste this over the steak, and serve at once.

Agaricus campestris and many other varieties may also be used in this same way.

LACTARII.

Remove the stems, and wash the mushrooms. Put them into a saucepan, allowing a tablespoonful of butter and a half teaspoonful of salt to each pint. Add four tablespoonfuls of stock to the given quantity; cover the saucepan, and cook slowly three-quarters of an hour. At the end of this time you will have a rich, brown sauce to which you may add a teaspoonful of Worcestershire sauce, and, if you like, a tablespoonful of sherry. Serve in a vegetable dish.

Lactarius deliciosus Stewed.—Wash the mushrooms; cut them into slices; put them into a saucepan, allowing a half pint of stock to each pint of mushrooms; add a half teaspoonful of salt; cover and stew slowly for three-quarters of an hour. Put a tablespoonful of butter in another saucepan, mix with it a tablespoonful of flour; add the mushrooms, stir until they have reached the boiling point; add a teaspoonful of kitchen bouquet, a dash of pepper, and serve it at once in a heated vegetable dish.

A nice combination for a steak sauce is made by using a dozen good sized Lactarius deliciosus with four "beefsteak" mushrooms, using then the first recipe.

BEEFSTEAK SMOTHERED WITH MUSHROOMS.

Wash a dozen good sized mushrooms, either Lactarii or Agarici, also wash and remove the spores from half a dozen good sized "beefsteak" mushrooms, cutting them into slices. Put all these into a baking pan, sprinkle over a half teaspoonful of salt, add a tablespoonful of butter, and bake in a moderate oven three-quarters of an hour. Broil the steak until it is nearly done; then put it into the pan with the mushrooms, allowing some of the mushrooms to remain under the steak, and cover with the remaining portion; return it to the oven for ten minutes; dish and serve at once.

BOLETI.

These are more palatable baked or fried. Wash the caps and remove the pores. Dip the caps in beaten egg, then in bread crumbs, and fry them in smoking hot fat; oil is preferable to butter; even suet would make a drier fry than butter or lard. Serve at once as you would egg plant.

Baked.—Wash and remove the pores; put the mushrooms into a baking pan; baste them with melted butler, dust with salt and pepper, and bake in a moderately hot oven three-quarters of an hour; dish in a vegetable dish. Put into the pan in which they were baked, a tablespoonful of butter. Mix carefully with a tablespoonful of flour and add a half pint of stock, a half teaspoonful of kitchen bouquet or browning, the same of salt, and a dash of pepper; pour this over the mushrooms, and serve.

In Fritter Batter.—Beat the yolk of one egg slightly, and add a half cup of milk; stir into this two-thirds of a cup of flour; stir in the well beaten white of the egg and a teaspoonful of olive oil. Wash and remove the pores from the boleti. Have ready a good sized shallow pan, the bottom covered with smoking hot oil; dip the mushrooms, one at a time, into this batter, drain for a moment, and drop them into the hot fat. When brown on one side, turn and brown on the other. Drain on soft paper and serve at once.

Boleti in Brown Sauce.—Wash and dry the boleti; remove the pores; cut them into small pieces. To each pound allow a tablespoonful of butter. Put the butter into a saucepan with the mushrooms; add a half teaspoonful of salt; cover the pan, and stew slowly for twenty minutes; then dust over a tablespoonful of flour; add a half cup of good beef stock; cook slowly for ten minutes longer, and serve.

HYDNUM.

As these mushrooms are slightly bitter, they must be washed, dried, and thrown into a little boiling water, to boil for just a moment; drain, and throw away this water, add a tablespoonful of butter, a teaspoonful of salt, a dash of pepper, and a half cup of milk or stock; cover the pan, and cook slowly for twenty minutes. As the milk scorches easily, cook over a very slow fire, or in a double boiler. Pour the mixture over slices of toast, and serve at once. A tablespoonful or two of sherry may be added just as they are removed from the fire.

CLAVARIA.

Wash, separating the bunches, and chop or cut them rather fine, measure, and to each quart allow a half pint of Supreme sauce. Throw the clavaria into a saucepan, cover, and allow it to stew gently for fifteen minutes while you make the sauce. Put a tablespoonful of butter and one of flour in the saucepan; mix, and add a half pint of milk or chicken stock; or you may add half of one and half of the other; stir until boiling; take from the fire, add a half teaspoonful of salt, a saltspoonful of pepper, and the yolks of two eggs. Take the clavaria from the fire, and when cool stir it into the sauce. Turn into a baking dish, sprinkle the top with crumbs, and brown in a quick oven. Do not cook too long, as it will become watery.

Pickled Clavaria.—Wash the clavaria thoroughly without breaking it apart; put into a steamer; stand the steamer over a kettle of boiling water, and steam rapidly, that is, keep the water boiling hard for fifteen minutes. Take from the fire, and cool. Put over the fire sufficient vinegar to cover the given quantity; to each quart, allow two bay leaves, six cloves, a teaspoonful of whole mustard, and a dozen pepper corns, that is, whole peppers. Put the clavaria into glass jars. Bring the vinegar to boiling point, and pour it over; seal and put aside.

This may be served alone as any other pickle, or on lettuce leaves with French dressing as a salad.

Escalloped Clavaria.—Wash, separate and cut the clavaria as in first recipe. To each quart allow a half pint of chicken stock, a teaspoonful of salt, a tablespoonful of chopped parsley. Put a layer of bread crumbs in the bottom of the dish, then a layer of chopped clavaria, and so continue until you have the dish filled. Pour over the stock, which you have seasoned with salt and pepper; dot bits of butter here and there over the top, and bake in a moderate oven thirty minutes.

This recipe is excellent for the young or button Hypholoma, except that the time of baking must be forty-five minutes.

PUFF-BALLS.

To be eatable, the puff-balls must be perfectly white to the very center. Pare off the skin; cut them into slices; dust with salt and pepper. Have ready in a large, shallow pan a sufficient quantity of hot oil to cover the bottom. Throw in the slices and, when brown on one side, turn and brown on the other; serve at once on a heated dish.

A la Poulette.—Pare the puff-balls; cut them into slices and then into dice; put them into a saucepan, allowing a tablespoonful of butter to each pint of blocks. Cover the saucepan; stew gently for fifteen minutes; lift the lid; sprinkle over a teaspoonful of salt and a dash of pepper. Beat the yolks of three eggs until light; add a half cup of cream and a half cup of milk; pour this into the hot mixture, and shake until smoking hot. Do not allow them to boil. Serve in a heated vegetable dish, with blocks of toast over the top.

Puff-Ball Omelet.—Pare and cut into blocks sufficient puff-balls to make a pint. Put a tablespoonful of butter into a saucepan; add the puff-balls, cover and cook for ten minutes. Beat six eggs without separating, until thoroughly mixed, but not too light; add the cooked puff-balls, a level teaspoonful of salt and a dash of pepper. Put a tablespoonful of butter into your omelet pan; when hot, turn in the egg mixture; shake over the hot fire until the bottom has thoroughly set, then with a limber knife lift the edge, allowing the soft portion to run underneath; continue this operation until the omelet is cooked through; fold and turn onto a heated dish. Serve at once.

Other delicate mushrooms may be used in this same manner.

Puff-Balls with Agaricus campestris.—As the Agaricus campestris has a rather strong flavor and the puff-balls are mild, both are better for being mixed in the cooking. Take equal quantities of Agaricus campestris and puff-balls; pare and cut the puff-balls into blocks; to each half pound allow a tablespoonful of butter. Put the butter in a saucepan, add the mushrooms, sprinkle over the salt (allowing a half teaspoonful always to each pint); cover the saucepan and stew slowly for twenty minutes. Moisten a tablespoonful of flour in a half cup of milk, add it to the mixture, stir and cook for just a moment, add a dash of pepper, and serve in a heated dish.

This recipe may be changed by omitting the flour and adding the yolks of a couple of eggs; milk is preferable to stock, for all the white or light-colored varieties.

MORCHELLA.

Select twelve large-sized morels; cut off the stalks, and throw them into a saucepan of warm water; let them stand for fifteen minutes; then take them on a skimmer one by one, and drain carefully. Chop fine sufficient cold boiled tongue or chicken to make one cupful; mix this with an equal quantity of bread crumbs, and season with just a suspicion of onion juice, not more than ten drops, and a dash of pepper. Fill this into the mushrooms, arrange them neatly in a baking pan, put in a half cup of stock and a tablespoonful of butter, bake in a moderate oven thirty minutes, basting frequently. When done, dish neatly. Boil down the sauce that is in the pan until it is just sufficient to baste them on the dish; serve at once.

A Second Method.—Select large-sized morels; cut off the stalk; wash well through several waters. Put into a frying pan a little butter, allowing about a tablespoonful to each dozen mushrooms. When hot, throw in the mushrooms, and toss until they are thoroughly cooked; then add a half pint of milk or stock; cover the vessel, and cook slowly twenty minutes; dust with salt and pepper, and serve in a vegetable dish. This method gives an exceedingly palatable and very sightly dish if garnished with sweet Spanish peppers that have been boiled until tender.

Another Method.—Remove the stems, and wash the morels as directed in the preceding recipe. Make a stuffing of bread crumbs seasoned with salt, pepper, chopped parsley, and sufficient melted butter to just moisten. Place them in a baking pan; add a little stock and butter; bake for thirty minutes. When done, dish. Into the pan in which they were cooked, turn a cupful of strained tomatoes; boil rapidly for fifteen minutes until slightly thickened; pour this over the mushrooms; garnish the dish with triangular pieces of toasted bread, and serve.

GENERAL RECIPES.

In the following recipes one may use Agaricus campestris, silvicola, arvensis, or Pleurotus ostreatus, or sapidus, or Coprinus comatus, or any kindred mushrooms. The Agaricus campestris, however, are to be preferred.

To Serve with a Boiled Leg of Mutton, wash well the mushrooms and dry them; dip each into flour, being careful not to get too much on the gill side. In a saucepan have a little hot butter or oil; drop these in, skin side down; dust them lightly with salt and pepper. After they have browned on this side, turn them quickly and brown the gills; add a half pint of good stock; let them simmer gently for fifteen minutes. Take them up with a skimmer, and dish them on a platter around the mutton. Boil the sauce down until it is the proper consistency; pour it over, and serve at once. These are also good to serve with roasted beef.

Mushroom Sauce for Game.—Wash well one pound of fresh mushrooms; dry, and chop them very fine. Put them into a saucepan with one and a half tablespoonfuls of butter; cover, and cook slowly for eight minutes; then add a half cup of fresh rubbed bread crumbs, a half teaspoonful of salt, a saltspoon of white pepper; cover and cook again for five minutes; stir, add a tablespoonful of chopped parsley, and, if you like, two tablespoonfuls of sherry; turn into a sauce-boat.

A Nice Way to Serve with Fricassee of Chicken.—Wash and dry the mushrooms; sprinkle them with salt and pepper. Put some oil or butter in a shallow pan; when hot, throw in the mushrooms, skin side down; cover the pan, put in the oven for fifteen minutes; baste them once during the baking. Lift them carefully and put them on a heated dish. Add to the fat in the pan two tablespoonfuls of finely chopped mushrooms, a half cup of good stock; boil carefully for five minutes. Have ready rounds of bread toasted; dish the mushrooms on these; put on top a good sized piece of carefully boiled marrow; season the sauce with salt, and strain it over. Use these as a garnish around the edge of the plate, or you may simply dish and serve them for breakfast, or as second course at lunch.

Oysters and Mushrooms.—Wash and remove the stems from a half pound of fresh mushrooms; chop them fine; put them into a saucepan with a tablespoonful of butter, a half teaspoonful of salt, and a dash of pepper; cover closely, and cook over a slow fire for ten minutes. Have ready, washed and drained, twenty-five good sized fat oysters; throw them perfectly dry into this mushroom mixture. Pull the saucepan over a bright fire; boil, stirring carefully, for about five minutes. Serve on squares of carefully toasted bread.

Tomatoes Stuffed with Mushrooms.—Wash perfectly smooth, solid tomatoes; cut a slice from the stem end, and remove carefully the seeds and core. To each tomato allow three good sized mushrooms; wash, dry, chop them fine, and stuff them into the tomatoes; put a half saltspoon of salt on the top of each and a dusting of pepper. Into a bowl put one cup of soft bread crumbs; season it with a half teaspoonful of salt and a dash of pepper; pour over a tablespoonful of melted butter; heap this over the top of the tomato, forming a sort of pyramid, packing in the mushrooms; stand the tomatoes in a baking pan and bake in a moderate oven one hour. Serve at once, lifting them carefully to prevent breaking.

Or, the mushrooms may be chopped fine, put with a tablespoonful of butter into a saucepan and cooked for five minutes before they are stuffed into the tomatoes; then the bread crumbs packed over the top, and the whole baked for twenty minutes. Each recipe will give you a different flavor.

FOOTNOTES:

[E] The recipes for Agaricus are intended for the several species of this genus (Psalliota).



CHAPTER XXII.

CHEMISTRY AND TOXICOLOGY OF MUSHROOMS.

By J. F. CLARK.

Regarding the chemical composition of mushrooms, we have in the past been limited largely to the work of European chemists. Recently, however, some very careful analyses of American mushrooms have been made. The results of these investigations, while in general accord with the work already done in Europe, have emphasized the fact that mushrooms are of very variable composition. That different species should vary greatly was of course to be expected, but we now know that different specimens of the same species grown under different conditions may be markedly different in chemical composition. The chief factors causing this variation are the composition, the moisture content, and the temperature of the soil in which they grow, together with the maturity of the plant. The temperature, humidity, and movement of the atmosphere and other local conditions have a further influence on the amount of water present.

The following table, showing the amounts of the more important constituents in a number of edible American species, has been compiled chiefly from a paper by L. B. Mendel (Amer. Jour. Phy. 1: 225—238). This article is one of the most recent and most valuable contributions to this important study, and anyone wishing to look into the methods of research, or desiring more detailed information than is here given, is referred to the original paper.

TABLE I.

===================================================================+ FRESH IN WATER-FREE MATERIAL. MATERIAL. - W D M T N P N E E S I P A F A A R A O I R I T X O N E L I S T Y T T T O T H T L R C B H E T A R T R E R U 8 O R R E L O E O R A B 5 C H E R G I G C L E O E D E T E N L N N T - % % % % % % % % Coprinus comatus 92.19 7.81 5.79 1.92 3.3 56.3 7.3 12.5 Morchella esculenta 89.54 0.46 4.66 3.49 4.8 29.3 8.7 10.4 Polyporus sulphureus 70.80 9.20 3.29 2.23 3.2 27.8 3.0 7.3 Pleurotus ostreatus 73.70 6.30 2.40 1.13 1.6 31.5 7.5 6.1 Clitocybe multiceps 89.61 0.39 5.36 1.98 6.0 57.2 9.6 11.5 Hypholoma 88.97 1.03 4.28 2.49 2.5 44.4 12.1 13.9 candolleanum Agaricus campestris 91.8 8.2 4.75 3.57 3.72 11.6 ===================================================================+

Water.—Like all growing plants, the mushroom contains a very large proportion of water. The actual amount present varies greatly in different species. In the above table it will be seen that Polyporus sulphureus, with over 70 per cent. of water, has the least of any species mentioned, while the species of Coprinus and Agaricus have usually fully 90 per cent. water. The amount of water present, however, varies greatly in the same species at different seasons and in different localities, and with variations in the moisture content of soil and atmosphere, also with the age and rapidity of development of the individual plant.

Total Nitrogen.—The proportion of nitrogen in the dry matter of different species varies from 2 per cent. to 6 per cent. This comparatively high nitrogen content was formerly taken to indicate an unusual richness in proteid substances, which in turn led to very erroneous ideas regarding the nutritive value of these plants. The nitrogenous substances will be more fully discussed later, when we consider their nutritive value.

Ether Extract.—This consists of a variety of fatty substances soluble in ether. It varies greatly in quality and quantity in different species. The amount is usually from 4 per cent. to 8 per cent. of the total dry matter. It includes, besides various other substances, several free fatty acids and their glycerides, the acids of low melting point being most abundant. These fatty substances occur in the stem, but are much more abundant in the cap, especially in the fruiting portion. Just what nutritive value these fatty matters may have has never been determined.

Carbohydrates.—The largest part of the dry matter of the mushrooms is made up of various carbohydrates, including cellulose or fungocellulose, glycogen, mycoinuline, trehalose, mannite, glucose, and other related substances. The cellulose is present in larger proportion in the stem than in the cap, and in the upper part of the cap than in the fruiting surface. This is doubtless related to the sustaining and protective functions of the stem and the upper part of the cap. Starch, so common as a reserve food in the higher plants, does not occur in the mushrooms. As is the case with the fats, no determination of the nutritive value of these substances has been made, but it may be assumed that the soluble carbohydrates of the mushrooms do not differ greatly from similar compounds in other plants.

Ash.—The ash of mushrooms varies greatly. Polyporus officinalis gives but 1.08 per cent. of ash in dry matter, Pleurotus ulmarius gives 12.6 per cent., and Clitopilus prunulus gives 15 per cent. The average of twelve edible species gave 7 per cent. ash in the stem and 8.96 per cent. in the cap.

In regard to the constituents of the ash, potassium is by far the most abundant—the oxide averaging about 50 per cent. of the total ash. Phosphoric acid stands next to potassium in abundance and importance, constituting, on an average, about one-third of the entire ash. Oxides of manganese and iron are always present; the former averaging about 3 per cent. and the latter 5 per cent. to 2 per cent. of the ash. Sodium, calcium, and chlorine are usually present in small and varying quantities. Sulphuric acid occurs in the ash of all fungi, and is remarkable for the great variation in quantity present in different species; e. g., ash of Helvella esculenta contains 1.58 per cent. H2SO4 while that of Agaricus campestris contains the relatively enormous amount of 24.29 per cent.

Any discussion of the bare composition of a food is necessarily incomplete without a consideration of the nutritive value of the various constituents. This is especially desirable in the case of the mushrooms, for while they are frequently overestimated and occasionally ridiculously overpraised by their friends, they are quite generally distrusted and sometimes held in veritable abhorrence by those who are ignorant of their many excellent qualities. On the one hand, we are told that "gastronomically and chemically considered the flesh of the mushroom has been proven to be almost identical with meat, and possesses the same nourishing properties." We frequently hear them referred to as "vegetable beefsteak," "manna of the poor," and other equally extravagant and misleading terms. On the other hand, we see vast quantities of the most delicious food rotting in the fields and woods because they are regarded by the vast majority of the people as "toadstools" and as such particularly repulsive and poisonous.

Foods may be divided into three classes according to the functions they perform:

(a) To form the material of the body and repair its wastes.

(b) To supply energy for muscular exertion and for the maintenance of the body heat.

(c) Relishes.

The formation of the body material and the repair of its wastes is the function of the proteids of foods. It has been found by careful experiment that a man at moderately hard muscular exertion requires .28 lb. of digestible proteids daily. The chief sources of our proteid foods are meats, fish, beans, etc. It has been as a proteid food that mushrooms have been most strongly recommended. Referring to Table I, it will be seen that nitrogen constituted 5.79 per cent. of the total dry substance of Coprinus comatus. This high nitrogen content, which is common to the mushrooms in general, was formerly taken to indicate a very unusual richness in proteid materials. It is now known, however, that there were several sources of error in this assumption.

Much of the nitrogen is present in the form of non-proteid substances of a very low food value. Another and very considerable portion enters into the composition of a substance closely related to cellulose. A third source of error was the assumption that all the proteid material was digestible. It is now known that a very considerable portion is not digestible and hence not available as food. Thus, notwithstanding the 5.79 per cent. of nitrogen in Coprinus comatus, we find but .82 per cent. in the form of actually available (i. e., digestible) proteids, or approximately one-seventh of what was formerly supposed to be present.

The digestibility of the proteids varies very greatly with the species. Moerner found the common field mushroom, Agaricus campestris, to have a larger amount of proteids available than any other species studied by him. Unfortunately, the digestibility of the American plant has not been tested. There is great need for further work along this line. Enough has been done, however, to demonstrate that mushrooms are no longer to be regarded as a food of the proteid class.

The energy for the muscular exertion and heat is most economically derived from the foods in which the carbohydrates and fats predominate.

The common way of comparing foods of the first two classes scientifically is to compare their heat-giving powers. The unit of measurement is termed a calorie. It represents the amount of heat required to raise a kilogram of water 1 deg. Centigrade. (This is approximately the heat required to raise one pound of water 4 deg. Fahrenheit.) A man at moderately hard muscular labor requires daily enough food to give about 3500 calories of heat-units. The major part of this food may be most economically derived from the foods of the second class, any deficiency in the .28 lb. of digestible protein being made up by the addition of some food rich in this substance.

In the following table the value of ten pounds of several food substances of the three classes has been worked out. Especial attention is called to the column headed "proteids" and to the last column where the number of heat-units which may be purchased for one cent at current market rates has been worked out.

TABLE II.

NUTRITIVE VALUE OF TEN POUNDS OF SEVERAL FOODS.

========================================================================+ PROTEIDS. FATS. CARBO- CALORIES. COST. CALORIES HYDRATES. FOR ONE CENT. a. {Beef (round) 1.87 .88 7200 $1.50 48. {Beans (dried) 2.23 .18 5.91 15900 .30 530. b. {Cabbage .18 .03 .49 1400 .15 93. {Potatoes .18 .01 1.53 3250 .10 325. {Flour (roller 1.13 .11 7.46 16450 .25 658. process) c. {Coprinus comatus .04 .025 .434 987 2.50 3.9 {Pleurotus .051 .042 .828 1811 2.50 7.2 ostreatus {Morchella .094 .05 .306 955 2.50 3.8 esculenta {Agaricus .18 .03 .46 1316 2.50 5.3 campestris {Oysters .61 .14 .33 2350 2.00 11.7 ========================================================================+

The mushrooms have been valued at 25 cents per pound, which is probably considerably below the average market price for a good article. It should also be remarked that the amounts given in this table are the digestible and hence available constituents of the foods. The only exception to this is in the case of the fats and carbohydrates of the mushrooms, no digestion experiments having been reported on these constituents. In the absence of data we have assumed that they were entirely digested.

The beef and beans are typical animal and vegetable foods of the proteid class. A glance at the table will show how markedly they differ from the mushrooms. The latter are nearest the cabbage in composition and nutritive value. The similarity between the cabbage and the Agaricus campestris here analyzed is very striking. The potato is somewhat poorer in fat, but very much richer than the mushroom in carbohydrates.

The figures in the last column will vary of course with fluctuations in the market price, but such variation will not interfere at any time with the demonstration that purchased mushrooms are not a poor man's food. Here we find that one cent invested in cabbage at 1-1/2 cents per pound, gives 93 calories of nutrition, while the same amount invested in Agaricus campestris—the common mushroom of our markets—would give but 5.3 calories, although they are almost identical so far as nutritive value is concerned.

The same sum invested in wheat flour, with its high carbohydrate and good proteid content, would yield 658 calories or one-sixth the amount necessary to sustain a man at work for one day. The amount of mushrooms necessary for the same result is a matter of simple computation.