POST-OFFICE DEPARTMENT.

Postmaster-General............. $ 8,000 Chief Clerk.................... 2,200 3 Ass't Postmaster-Generals.... 4,000 Supt. of Foreign Mails......... 3,000 Supt. of Money Order System.... 3,500 Asst. Attorney-General for Post-Office Department....... 4,000

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR.

Secretary of the Interior...... $ 8,000 First Assistant Secretary...... 4,500 Assistant Secretary............ 4,000 Chief Clerk & Superintendent... 2,750 Assistant Attorney-General..... 5,000 Com'r General Land Office...... 4,000 Com'r Pension Office........... 5,000 Com'r of Indian Affairs........ 4,000 Commissioner Patent Office..... 5,000 Assistant Commissioner......... 3,000 3 Examiners-in-Chief........... 3,000 30 Principal Examiners, each... 2,400 Commissioner of Education...... 3,000 Director Geological Survey..... 6,000 Commissioner of Labor.......... 3,000 Commissioner of Railroads...... 4,500 3 Civil Service Com'rs, each... 3,500

DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE.

Attorney-General............... $ 8,000 Solicitor-General.............. 7,000 Two Asst. Attorney-Generals.... 5,000

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Secretary of Agriculture....... $ 8,000 Entomologist................... 2,500 Botanist....................... 2,000 Chemist........................ 2,500 Microscopist................... 2,000

NOTE.—For appointees consult any political almanac of this year.

UNITED STATES JUDICIAL DEPARTMENT.

SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES.

The court holds annual sessions at Washington, commencing on the second Monday in October.

Appointed Date of Salary from Commission —————————————————————————————————— Chief Justice Melville W. Illinois July 20, 1888 $10,500 Fuller Justice Stephen J. Field California Mar 10, 1863 10,000 Justice John M. Harlan Kentucky Nov 29, 1877 10,000 Justice Horace Gray Massachusetts Dec 20, 1881 10,000 Justice David J. Brewer Kansas Dec 18, 1889 10,000 Justice Henry B. Brown Michigan Dec 30, 1890 10,000 Justice George Shiras Pennsylvania Oct —, 1892 10,000 Justice Edward D. White Louisiana Feb —, 1894 10,000 Justice Rufus W. Peckham New York Dec —, 1893 10,000 Clerk of the Supreme Dist. of Columbia 1880 6,000 Court: James H. McKenny Marshal: John M. Wright Kentucky Jan 4, 1888 3,000 Reporter: J.C. Bancroft New York 1883 5,700 Davis

CIRCUIT COURTS OF THE UNITED STATES

(Salary of Circuit Judges $6,000 a year)

First Judicial Circuit—Mr Justice Gray, Boston, Mass Districts of Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, and Rhode Island. Circuit Judges—Le Baron B. Colt, R.I. 1884 Wm. L. Putnam, Me. 1892

Second Judicial Circuit—Mr Justice Peckham, New York City. Districts of Vermont, Connecticut and New York Circuit Judges—Wm. J. Wallace, N.Y. 1882 E. Henry Lacombe, N.Y. 1888 Nathaniel Shipman, Ct. 1892

Third Judicial Circuit—Mr Justice Shiras, Pittsburgh, Pa. Districts of New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware Circuit Judges—Marcus W. Acheson, Pa. 1891 Geo. M. Dallas, Pa. 1892

Fourth Judicial Circuit—Mr Chief Justice Fuller, Washington, D.C. Districts of Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia, North and South Carolina Circuit Judges—Nathan Goff, W. Va. 1892 Charles H. Simonton, S.C. 1893

Fifth Judicial Circuit—Mr Justice White, New Orleans, La. Districts of Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas. Circuit Judges—Don A. Pardee, La. 1881 A.P. McCormick, Tex. 1892

Sixth Judicial Circuit—Mr Justice Harlan, Nashville, Tenn. Districts of Ohio, Michigan, Kentucky, and Tennessee Circuit Judges—William H. Taft, Ohio 1892 Horace H. Lurton, Tenn. 1893

Seventh Judicial Circuit—Mr Justice Brown, Chicago, I11. Districts of Indiana, Illinois and Wisconsin Circuit Judges—William A. Woods, Ind. 1892 James G. Jenkins, Wis. 1893

Eighth Judicial Circuit—Mr Justice Brewer, Leavenworth, Kan. Districts of Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, Kansas, Arkansas, Nebraska, Colorado, North and South Dakota, Wyoming Circuit Judges—Henry C. Caldwell, Ark. 1890 Walter H. Sanborn, Minn. 1892 Amos M. Thayer, Mo. 1892

Ninth Judicial Circuit—Mr Justice Field, San Francisco, Cal. Districts of California, Oregon, Washington, Idaho, Nevada, and Montana. Circuit Judges—Joseph McKenna, Cal. 1892 William B. Gilbert, Ore. 1892

JUDGES OF THE UNITED STATES DISTRICT COURTS. (Salary, $5,000 a year.)

DISTRICTS. NAME. RESIDENCE. DATE OF COMMISSION Alabama: N. Mobile District John Bruce Montgomery Feb. 27, 1875 Southern " Harry T. Toulmin Mobile Dec. 14, 1886 Arkansas: Eastern District John A. Williams Pine Bluff ———— 1890 Western " John H. Rodgers Fort Smith California: Northern District W.W. Morrow San Francisco Southern " Olin Wellborn Los Angeles Colorado Moses Hallett Denver Jan. 20, 1877 Connecticut W.K. Townsend New Haven ———— 1892 Delaware Leonard E. Wales Wilmington Mar. 20, 1884 Florida: Northern District Charles Swayne Jacksonville Southern " James W. Locke Key West Feb. 1, 1872 Georgia: Northern District William T. Newman Atlanta Aug. 13, 1886 Southern " Emory Speer Savannah Feb. 18, 1885 Idaho J.H. Beatty Hailey ———— 1890 Illinois: Northern District P.S. Grosscup Chicago. Southern " William J. Allen Springfield April 18, 1887 Indiana John H. Baker Goshen ———— 1892 Iowa: Northern District Oliver P. Shiras Dubuque Aug. 14, 1882 Southern " John S. Woolson Keokuk Kansas Cassius G. Foster Topeka Mar. 10, 1874 Kentucky John W. Barr Louisville April 15, 1880 Louisiana: Eastern District Charles Parlange New Orleans Western " Aleck Boarman Shreveport May 18, 1881 Maine Nathan Webb Portland Jan. 24, 1882 Maryland Thomas J. Morris Baltimore July 1, 1879 Massachusetts Thomas L. Nelson Worcester Jan. 10, 1879 Michigan: Eastern District Henry H. Swan Detroit ———— 1890 Western " Henry F. Severens Kalamazoo May 25, 1886 Minnesota William Lochren Minneapolis ———— 1896 Mississippi (Two Districts) Henry C. Niles Jackson Missouri: Eastern District Elmer E. Adams St. Louis ———— 1896 Western " John F. Phillips ———— 1888 Montana Henry Knowles Helena ———— 1889 Nebraska W.D.M. Hugh Omaha Nevada T.P. Hawley Carson City New Hampshire Edgar Aldrich Littleton New Jersey A. Kirkpatrick Trenton New York Northern District Alfred C. Coxe Utica May 4, 1882 Southern " Addison Brown New York June 2, 1881 City Eastern " Charles L. Brooklyn Mar. 9, 1865 Benedict North Carolina: Eastern District Western " Robert P. Dick. Greensboro June 7, 1872 North Dakota C.F. Amidon Fargo ———— 1896 Ohio: Northern District A.J. Ricks Cleveland Southern " George R. Sage Cincinnati Mar. 20, 1883 Oregon C.B. Bellinger Portland Pennsylvania: Eastern District William Butler Philadelphia Feb. 19, 1879 Western " J. Buffington Pittsburgh ———— 1891 Rhode Island Arthur L. Brown Providence South Carolina W.H. Brawley Charleston ———— 1893 South Dakota John E. Carland Sioux Falls Tennessee: East & Mid. Dist. C.D. Clark Chattanooga Western District S. Hammond Memphis June 17, 1878 Texas: Eastern District D.E. Bryant Sherman Western " Thos S. Maxey Austin ———— 1888 Northern " John B. Rector Dallas Utah John A. Marshall Salt Lake City Vermont Hoyt H. Wheeler Jamaica Mar. 16, 1877 Virginia: Eastern District Robert W. Hughes Norfolk Jan. 14, 1874 Western " John Paul Harrisonburg Mar. 3, 1883 Washington C.H. Hanford Seattle ———— 1889 West Virginia John J.Jackson, Jr Parkersburg Aug. 3, 1861 Wisconsin: Eastern District W.H. Seaman Sheboygan ———— 1898 Western " Romanzo E. Bunn Madison Oct. 30, 1877 Wyoming John A. Riner Cheyenne ———— 1890

CORRESPONDING OFFICERS OF U.S. ARMY AND NAVY.

FIELD OFFICERS:

1 General, $13,500. 2 Lieutenant General, $11,000. 3 Major Generals, $7,500. 4 Brigadier Generals, $5,500.

REGIMENTAL OFFICERS:

5 Colonels, $3,500 to $4,500. 6 Lieutenant Colonels, $3,000 to $4,000. 7 Majors, $2,500 to $3,500.

COMPANY OFFICERS:

8 Captains, $1,800 to $2,800. 9 First Lieutenants, $1,500 to $2,240. 10 Second Lieutenants, $1,400 to $2,100

FLEET OFFICERS:

1 Admiral, $13,000. 2 Vice-Admiral, $9,000. 3 Rear Admirals, $6,000. 4 Commodores, $5,000.

SHIP OFFICERS:

5 Captains, $4,500 6 Commanders, $3,500. 7 Lieutenant Commanders, $2,800.

SUBORDINATE SHIP OFFICERS:

8 Lieutenants, $2,400 to $2,600. 9 Masters, $1,800 to $2,000. 10 Ensigns, $1,200 to $1,400.

For names of officers, see Political Almanac.

JUSTICES OF THE UNITED STATES SUPREME COURT. (Names of the Chief Justices in italics)

SERVICE NAME TERM YEARS BORN DIED John Jay, N Y 1789 1795 6 1745 1829 John Rutledge, S C 1789 1791 2 1739 1800 William Cushing, Mass 1789 1800 21 1733 1810 James Wilson, Pa 1789 1798 9 1742 1798 John Blair, Va 1789 1796 7 1732 1800 Robert H Harrison, Md 1789 1790 1 1745 1790 James Iredell, N C 1790 1799 9 1751 1799 Thomas Johnson, Md 1791 1793 2 1732 1819 William Paterson, N J 1793 1806 13 1745 1806 John Rutledge, S C 1795 1739 1800 Samuel Chase, Md 1796 1811 15 1741 1811 Oliver Ellsworth, Ct 1796 1800 5 1745 1807 Bushrod Washington, Va 1798 1829 31 1762 1829 Alfred Moore, N C 1799 1804 5 1755 1835 John Marshall, Va 1801 1835 34 1771 1834 William Johnson, S C 1804 1834 30 1757 1823 Brock Livingston, N Y 1806 1823 17 1765 1826 Thomas Todd, Ky 1807 1826 19 1765 1826 Joseph Story, Mass 1811 1845 34 1770 1846 Gabriel Duval, Md 1811 1836 25 1732 1844 Smith Thompson, N Y 1823 1843 20 1767 1843 Robert Trimble, Ky 1826 1828 2 1777 1828 John McLean, Ohio 1829 1861 32 1785 1861 Henry Baldwin, Pa 1830 1844 16 1779 1844 James M Wayne, Ga 1835 1867 32 1790 1867 Roger B Taney, Md 1836 1864 28 1777 1864 Philip P Barbour, Va 1836 1841 5 1783 1841 John Catron, Tenn 1837 1865 28 1786 1865 John McKinley, Ala 1837 1852 15 1780 1852 Peter V Daniel, Va 1841 1860 19 1785 1860 Samuel Nelson, N Y 1845 1872 27 1792 1873 Levi Woodbury, N H 1845 1851 6 1789 1851 Robert C Grier, Pa 1846 1870 23 1794 1870 Benj R Curtis, Mass 1851 1857 6 1800 1874 John A Campbell, Ala 1853 1861 8 1811 1889 Nathan Clifford, Maine 1858 1881 23 1803 1881 Noah H Swayne, Ohio 1861 1881 20 1804 1884 Samuel F Miller, Iowa 1862 1890 28 1816 1890 David Davis, Ill 1862 1877 15 1815 1885 Stephen J Field, Cal 1863 1816 Salmon P Chase, Ohio 1864 1873 9 1808 1873 William Strong, Pa 1870 1880 10 1808 Joseph P Bradley, N J 1870 1892 22 1818 1892 Ward Hunt, N Y 1872 1882 10 1811 1886 Morrison R Waite, Ohio 1874 1888 14 1816 1888 John M Harlan, Ky 1877 1877 William B Woods, Ga 1880 1887 7 1824 1887 Stanley Matthews, Ohio 1881 1889 8 1824 1889 Horace Gray, Mass 1881 1828 Samuel Blatchford, N Y 1882 1893 11 1820 1893 Lucius Q C Lamar, Miss 1888 1993 5 1825 1893 Melville W Fuller, Ill 1888 1833 David J Brewer, Kan 1889 1837 Henry B Brown, Mich 1890 1836 George Shiras Jr, Pa 1892 1832 Howell D Jackson, Tenn 1893 1895 2 1832 1895 Edward D White, La 1893 1845 Rufus W Peckham 1895 1837

UNITED STATES MILITARY ACADEMY AT WEST POINT.

Each Congressional District and Territory—also the District of Columbia— is entitled to have one cadet at the Academy. There are also ten appointments at large, specially conferred by the President of the United States. The number of students is thus limited to three hundred and seventy-one.

Appointments are usually made one year in advance of date of admission, by the Secretary of War, upon the nomination of the Representative. These nominations may either be made after competitive examinations or given direct, at the option of the Representative. Appointees to the Military Academy must be between seventeen and twenty-two years of age, free from any infirmity which may render them unfit for military service, and able to pass a careful examination in reading, writing, orthography, arithmetic, grammar, geography, and history of the United States.

The course of instruction, which is quite thorough, requires four years, and is largely mathematical and professional. About one-fourth of those appointed usually fail to pass the preliminary examination, and but little over one-half the remainder are finally graduated. The discipline is very strict—even more so than in the army—and the enforcement of penalties for offences is inflexible rather than severe. Academic duties begin September 1 and continue until June 1. Examinations are held in each January and June.

From about the middle of June to the end of August cadets live in camp, engaged only in military duties and receiving practical military instruction. Cadets are allowed but one leave of absence during the four years' course, and this is granted at the expiration of the first two years. The pay of a cadet is five hundred and forty dollars per year. Upon graduating, cadets are commissioned as second lieutenants in the United States Army.

The Academy was established by act of Congress in 1802. An annual Board of Visitors is appointed, seven being appointed by the President of the United States, two by the President of the Senate, and three by the Speaker of the House of Representatives. They visit the Academy in June, and are present at the concluding exercises of the graduating class of that year.

UNITED STATES NAVAL ACADEMY AT ANNAPOLIS.

There are allowed at the Academy one naval cadet for each Member or Delegate of the United States House of Representatives, one for the District of Columbia, and ten at large. The appointment of cadets at large and for the District of Columbia is made by the President. The Secretary of the Navy, as soon after March 5 in each year as possible, must notify in writing each Member and Delegate of the House of Representatives of any vacancy that may exist in his district. The nomination of a candidate to fill the vacancy is made, on the recommendation of the Member or Delegate, by the Secretary. Candidates must be actual residents of the districts from which they are nominated.

The course of naval cadets is six years, the last two of which are spent at sea. Candidates at the time of their examination for admission must be not under fifteen nor over twenty years of age, and physically sound, well formed, and of robust condition. They enter the Academy immediately after passing the prescribed examinations, and are required to sign articles binding themselves to serve in the United States Navy eight years (including the time of probation at the Naval Academy), unless sooner discharged. The pay of a naval cadet is five hundred dollars a year, beginning at the date of admission.

At least ten appointments from among the graduates are made each year. Surplus graduates who do not receive appointments are given a certificate of graduation, an honorable discharge, and one year's sea pay.

The Academy was founded in 1845 by the Hon. George Bancroft, Secretary of the Navy in the administration of President Polk. It was formally opened October 10 of that year, with Commander Franklin Buchanan as Superintendent. During the Civil War it was removed from Annapolis, Md., to Newport, R.I., but was returned to the former place in 1865. It is under the direct supervision of the Bureau of Navigation, Navy Department.

REPRESENTATION IN CONGRESS FOR EACH DECADE WITH RATIOS.

[Transcriber's Note: This table went horizontally across two pages, so it's given in pieces, with line numbers, as some of the others were.]

======================================================+ Ratios Consti- 33,900 33,900 35,000 40,000 47,000 tution +====================================================+ States 1787 1790 1800 1810 1820 1830 +================================================ 1 Alabama .... .... .... 1[1] 8 5 2 Arkansas .... .... .... .... .... 1[1] 3 California .... .... .... .... .... .... 4 Colorado .... .... .... .... .... .... 5 Connecticut 5 7 7 7 6 6 6 Delaware 1 1 1 2 1 1 7 Florida .... .... .... .... .... .... 8 Georgia 3 2 4 6 7 9 9 Idaho .... .... .... .... .... .... 10 Illinois .... .... .... 1[1] 1 8 11 Indiana .... .... .... 1[1] 3 7 12 Iowa .... .... .... .... .... .... 13 Kansas .... .... .... .... .... .... 14 Kentucky .... 2[1] 6 10 12 13 15 Louisiana .... .... .... 1[1] 3 3 16 Maine .... .... .... 7[1] 7 8 17 Maryland 8 8 9 9 9 8 18 Massachusetts 8 14 17 20 13 12 19 Michigan .... .... .... .... .... 1[1] 20 Minnesota .... .... .... .... .... .... 21 Mississippi .... .... .... 1[1] 1 3 22 Missouri .... .... .... .... 1[1] 2 23 Montana .... .... .... .... .... .... 24 Nebraska .... .... .... .... .... .... 25 Nevada .... .... .... .... .... .... 26 New Hampshire 3 4 5 6 6 5 27 New Jersey 4 5 6 6 6 6 28 New York 6 10 17 27 34 40 29 North Carolina 5 10 12 13 13 13 30 North Dakota .... .... .... .... .... .... 31 Ohio .... .... 1[1] 6 14 19 32 Oregon .... .... .... .... .... .... 33 Pennsylvania 8 13 18 23 25 28 34 Rhode Island 1 2 2 2 2 2 35 South Carolina 5 6 8 9 9 9 36 South Dakota .... .... .... .... .... .... 37 Tennessee .... 1[1] 3 6 9 13 38 Texas .... .... .... .... .... .... 39 Utah .... .... .... .... .... .... 40 Vermont .... 2[1] 4 6 5 5 41 Virginia 10 19 22 23 22 12 42 Washington .... .... .... .... .... .... 43 West Virginia .... .... .... .... .... .... 44 Wisconsin .... .... .... .... .... .... 45 Wyoming .... .... .... .... .... .... ======================================================+ 46 Totals 65 106 142 193 213 234 +================================================

REPRESENTATION IN CONGRESS FOR EACH DECADE WITH RATIOS.

[Transcriber's Note: Continued from previous table.]

========================================================+ 70,680 93,420 127,000 131,425 151,912 173,901 47,000 +=====================================================+ 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1830 +======================================================== 1 7 7 6 8 8 9 5 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 1[1] 3 2[1] 2 3 4 6 7 .... 4 .... .... .... 1[1] 1 2 .... 5 4 4 4 4 4 4 6 6 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7 1[1] 1 1 2 2 2 .... 8 8 8 7 9 10 11 9 9 .... .... .... .... .... .... .... 10 7 9 14 19 20 22 8 11 10 11 11 13 13 13 7 12 2[1] 2 6 9 11 11 .... 13 .... .... 1[1] 3 7 8 .... 14 10 10 9 10 11 11 13 15 4 4 5 6 6 6 3 16 7 6 5 5 4 4 8 17 6 6 5 6 6 6 8 18 10 11 10 11 12 13 12 19 3 4 6 9 11 12 1[1] 20 .... 2[1] 2 3 5 7 .... 21 4 5 5 6 7 7 3 22 5 7 9 13 14 15 2 23 .... .... .... .... 1[1] 1 .... 24 .... .... 1[1] 1 3 6 .... 25 .... .... 1[1] 1 1 1 .... 26 4 3 3 3 2 2 5 27 5 5 5 7 7 8 6 28 34 33 31 33 34 34 40 29 9 8 7 8 9 9 13 30 .... .... .... .... 1[1] 1 .... 31 21 21 19 20 21 21 19 32 .... 1[1] 1 1 1 2 .... 33 24 25 24 27 28 30 28 34 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 35 7 6 4 5 7 7 9 36 .... .... .... .... 2[1] 2 .... 37 11 10 8 10 10 10 13 38 2[1] 2 4 6 11 13 .... 39 .... .... .... .... .... 1[1] .... 40 4 3 3 3 2 2 5 41 15 13 11 9 10 10 12 42 .... .... .... .... 1[1] 2 .... 43 .... .... 3[1] 3 4 4 .... 44 2[1] 3 6 8 9 10 .... 45 .... .... .... .... .... 1 .... ========================================================+ 46 232 246 246 293 330 357 234 +========================================================

REPRESENTATION IN CONGRESS FOR EACH DECADE WITH RATIOS.

[Transcriber's Note: The data below is from the same table, but can stand on its own.]

+==============+================================+ States Territory, How Obtained +==============+================================+ Alabama Ceded by S.C. and Ga. Arkansas Part of Louisiana purchase. California Ceded by Mexico. Colorado From France and Mexico. Connecticut One of original thirteen. Delaware One of original thirteen. Florida Part of Florida purchase. Georgia One of original thirteen. Idaho Part of "Oregon Country." Illinois Ceded to U.S. by Virginia. Indiana Ceded to U.S. by Virginia. Iowa Part of Louisiana Purchase. Kansas From France and Texas. Kentucky Ceded to U.S. by Virginia. Louisiana Part of Louisiana Purchase. Maine From Massachusetts. Maryland One of original thirteen. Massachusetts One of original thirteen. Michigan Ceded to U.S. by Virginia. Minnesota From Virginia and France. Mississippi Ceded by Ga. and S. Carolina. Missouri Part of Louisiana purchase. Montana Part of Louisiana purchase. Nebraska Part of Louisiana purchase. Nevada Part of Mexican cession. New Hampshire One of original thirteen. New Jersey One of original thirteen. New York One of original thirteen. North Carolina One of original thirteen. North Dakota Part of Louisiana purchase. Ohio Ceded to U.S. by Virginia. Oregon France, Spain and Great Britain. Pennsylvania One of original thirteen. Rhode Island One of original thirteen. South Carolina One of original thirteen. South Dakota Part of Louisiana purchase. Tennessee Ceded to U.S. by N. Carolina. Texas Independent republic. Utah Part of Mexican cession. Vermont Ceded to U.S. by New York. Virginia One of original thirteen. Washington Exploration and treaty. West Virginia Portion of Virginia. Wisconsin Ceded to U.S. by Virginia. Wyoming Part of "Oregon Country." +==============+================================+

TABULAR VIEW OF THE STATE GOVERNMENT OF MINNESOTA

Senators/Representatives: Created : Constitution. How Chosen: By the People in Senatorial Districts. Duties : Make Laws. Beginning : First Monday in January. Vacancy : New Election. Bonds : None.

Senators: No. : 63 Duties : Try Impeachments, Confirm Appointments. Term : 4 years. Removal : 2/3 of Senate. Salary : $5 a day and Mileage.

Representatives: No. : 119 Duties : Impeach, Originate Revenue Bills. Term : 2 years. Removal : 2/3 of H. of R. Salary : $5 a day and Mileage; Speaker, $10.

Governor/Lieutenant-Governor/State Auditor/State Treasurer/Secretary of State/Attorney General: Created : By the Constitution. No. : 1 How Chosen: By the People of the State on a General Ticket. Beginning : First Monday in January. Removal : Impeachment by House of R. and Conviction by Senate.

Governor: Duties : Execute Laws, Veto, Appointments, Pardons. Term : 2 years. Vacancy : Lieut.-Gov. Bonds : None. Salary : $5,000 a year.

Lieutenant-Governor: Duties : Preside over Senate, Act as Governor in Vacancy. Term : 2 years. Vacancy : Not filled. Bonds : None. Salary : $10 a day during Leg.

State Auditor: Duties : Book-Keeper, Examine Accounts, Warrants, Land Commissioner. Term : 4 years. Vacancy : Appointment by Governor till next Election. Bonds : $20,000 Salary : $3,600 a year.

State Treasurer: Duties : Act as Custodian of State Funds. Term : 2 years. Vacancy : Appointment by Governor till next Election. Bonds : $400,000 Salary : $3,500 a year.

Secretary of State: Duties: Keep State Papers and Great Seal, Manual, Public Printing. Term : 2 years. Vacancy : Appointment by Governor till next Election. Bonds : None. Salary : $3,500 a year.

Attorney General: Duties: Represent State in Suits, Legal Advice to other State Officers. Term : 2 years. Vacancy : Appointment by Governor till next Election. Bonds : None. Salary : $3,500 a year.

State Supt. Pub. Inst./Public Examiner/State Librarian/Insurance Commissioner/State Oil Inspector/Dairy Commissioner/: Created : Except Librarian, by Statute. No. : 1 How Chosen: Appointed by the Governor and Confirmed by the Senate. Term : 2 years. Beginning : First Monday in January. Removal : By Governor after due Examination. Vacancy : New Appointment made by Governor.

State Supt. Pub. Inst.: Duties : Act as Chief Educational Officer, Secretary of Educational Boards. Bonds : None. Salary : $2,500 a year.

Public Examiner: Duties : Inspect Books, &c., of State and County Financial Officers. Bonds : $50,000 Salary : $3,500 a year.

State Librarian: Duties : Take care of State Library. Bonds : $2,000 Salary : $2,000 a year.

R.R. Commissioners: Created : By Statute. No. : 3 Duties : Regulate Railroads and Warehouses, Appoint Grain Inspectors. How Chosen: Appointed by the Governor and Confirmed by the Senate. Term : 2 years. Beginning : First Monday in January. Removal : By Governor after due Examination. Vacancy : New Appointment made by Governor. Bonds : $20,000 each. Salary : $3,000 each.

Insurance Commissioner: Duties : Authorize Operation of Insurance Companies. Bonds : $5,000 Salary : $2,000 of Fees.

State Oil Inspector: Duties : Render the Use of Illuminating Oils Safe. Bonds : $5,000 Salary : Fees.

Dairy Commissioner: Duties : Regulate Sale of Dairy Products. Bonds : None. Salary : $1,800 and Expenses.

Surveyors-General: Created : By Statute. No. : 7 Duties : Scale Logs, Record Marks, Secure Laborers' Liens. How Chosen: Appointed by the Governor and Confirmed by the Senate. Term : 2 years. Beginning : First Monday in January. Removal : By Governor after due Examination. Vacancy : New Appointment made by Governor. Bonds : $5,000 Salary : Fees.

Administrative Boards/Boards of Trustees: Created : By Statute. No. : Varies How Chosen: Appointed as Above. Term : Various. Beginning : Specified in Appointment. Removal : By Governor after due Examination. Vacancy : New Appointment made by Governor. Bonds : None. Salary : None, except Sec.

Administrative Boards: Duties : Immigration, Health, Fisheries, Charities, Taxes.

Boards of Trustees: Duties : State Institutions, Educational, Charitable and Penal.

Justices of Supreme Court: Created : Constitution. No. : 5 Duties : Interpret Laws, Try Appealed Cases. How Chosen: By People of State. Term : 6 years. Beginning : First Monday in January. Removal : Impeachment and Conviction. Vacancy : Same as Auditor, etc. Bonds : None. Salary : $5,000 a year.

Clerk of Supreme Court: Created : Constitution. No. : 1 Duties : Keep Records of Supreme Court. How Chosen: By People of State. Term : 4 years. Beginning : First Monday in January. Removal : Impeachment and Conviction. Vacancy : Same as Auditor, etc. Bonds : $1,000 Salary : $1,500 a year and fees.

Justices of District Courts: Created : Constitution. No. : 21 Duties : Establish Justice in Counties. How Chosen: By People in Judicial Dist. Term : 6 years. Beginning : First Monday in January. Removal : Impeachment and Conviction. Vacancy : Same as Auditor, etc. Bonds : None. Salary : $3,500 a year.



APPENDIX C.—HOW SOME THINGS ARE DONE.

HOW TAXES ARE LEVIED.

Definitions.—Taxes may be defined as the moneys contributed by the people to defray the public expenses. They are spoken of as direct and indirect, the former being paid as taxes, the latter as part of the price of a commodity.

Within the State.—Local and state taxes are all direct. They are meant to be proportioned to a person's ability to pay. In fact, however, a person's tax is based upon the value of his discoverable property. The value of such property is estimated by local officers called assessors. The estimates of these officers are reviewed by the local board, and the reviewed estimates are again examined and equalized by the county board. But assessors, local boards, and county boards are all tempted to make the estimates low, to reduce their share of taxation for the use of the state. So a final review is made by the state board of equalization. The final estimates being reported to the computing officer, and the various sums to be raised having been reported to him, he finds the rate of taxation, computes the taxes, and turns the books over to the collecting officer.

Certain classes of property are exempt from taxation. Among those usually exempt may be mentioned property owned by the United States, the state, or the municipal corporation; church property; educational and charitable institutions; and a certain amount of personal property. United States bonds cannot be taxed.

By the General Government.—The sources of revenue to the general government are: 1, customs; 2, excises; 3, direct taxes; 4, public lands; 5, receipts from post offices, patents, copyrights, fines, escheats, &c. The last two classes cannot be called taxes. As it cannot compel a state to collect taxes for it, the general government is practically barred, on account of expense, from laying direct taxes. So that it is practically true that national taxation is all indirect. The "customs" are duties on imports. The "excises," or internal revenue, consist of taxes on tobacco, fermented and alcoholic liquors, &c.

A Difficult Problem.—Though taxes have been levied for untold centuries, it is still one of the unsolved problems how to levy them so as to be just to all. Much progress has been made, but entirely satisfactory answers have not yet been wrought out to the questions: What are the proper things to tax? For what purposes should taxes be levied?

HOW THE GOVERNMENT BORROWS.

When an individual wishes to borrow money, he looks around for some one who has the money to spare and who has confidence enough in him to let him have it. He gives his note or bond, and gets the money. Similarly the United States borrows. The secretary of the treasury looks for lenders in the money-centers of the world, consults great banking-houses, and sometimes advertises in newspapers.

A private borrower pays for the use of the money, and similarly the debt of the United States is largely interest-bearing. The notes called "greenbacks" bear no interest, because, being legal tender, they circulate as money, as do also the gold and silver certificates of deposit.

HOW NATIONAL BANKS ARE ESTABLISHED.

Organization.—Associations for carrying on the business of banking may be formed by any number of natural persons not less than five. A signed and certified copy of the articles of association is forwarded to the comptroller of the currency; also a certificate giving the name of the association, its place of business, its capital, the number of shares and their owners.

Capital.—The minimum capital required is: in cities of less than 6000 inhabitants, $50,000; less than 50,000 inhabitants, $100,000; others, $200,000.

Powers.—Such associations have the usual corporate and banking powers. In addition, they may issue their notes to circulate as currency on the following conditions: Upon depositing with the U. S. Treasurer registered bonds of the United States, to an amount not less than $30,000 nor less than one-third of its capital, the bank receives from the comptroller of the currency blank notes of face value not to exceed ninety per cent of the par value of the bonds. These notes, after being signed by the president and the cashier of the bank, may circulate as money, but are not legal tender for private debts.

HOW TO OBTAIN A COPYRIGHT.

[By A. R. Spofford, Librarian of Congress]

Every applicant for a copyright must state distinctly the name and residence of the claimant, and whether right is claimed as author, designer, or proprietor. No affidavit or formal application is required.

A printed copy of the title of the book, map, chart, dramatic or musical composition, engraving, cut, print, or photograph, or a description of the painting, drawing, chromo, statue, statuary, or model or design for a work of the fine arts, for which copyright is desired, must be sent by mail or otherwise, prepaid, addressed, "Librarian of Congress, Washington, D.C." This must be done before publication of the book or other article.

A fee of 50 cents, for recording the title of each book or other article, must be inclosed with the title as above, and 50 cents in addition (or one dollar in all) for each certificate of copyright under seal of the Librarian of Congress, which will be transmitted by early mail.

Within ten days after publication of each book or other article, two complete copies must be sent prepaid, or under free labels, furnished by the Librarian, to perfect the copyright, with the address, "Librarian of Congress, Washington, D.C."

No copyright is valid unless notice is given by inserting in every copy published, "Entered according to the act of Congress, in the year ——, by ——, in the office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington," or, at the option of the person entering the copyright, the words "Copyright, 18—, by ——."

The law imposes a penalty of $1*0 [Transcriber's Note: Illegible] upon any person who has not obtained copyright who shall insert the notice "Entered according to act of Congress," or "Copyright," or words of the same import, in or upon any book or other article.

Each copyright secures the exclusive right of publishing the book or article copyrighted for the term of twenty-eight years. Six months before the end of that time, the author or designer, or his widow or children, may secure a renewal for the further term of fourteen years, making forty-two years in all.

Any copyright is assignable in law by any instrument of writing, but such assignment must be recorded in the office of the Librarian of Congress within sixty days from its date. The fee for this record and certificate is one dollar.

A copy of the record (or duplicate certificate) of any copyright entry will be furnished, under seal, at the rate of fifty cents.

Copyrights cannot be granted upon Trade-marks, nor upon Labels intended to be used with any article of manufacture. If protection for such prints or labels is desired, application must be made to the Patent Office, where they are registered at a fee of $6 for labels and $25 for trade-marks.

Up to 1849 the secretary of state had the care of issuing copyrights. It was then assigned to the department of the interior, newly created. In 1870 it was transferred to the librarian of congress.

HOW TO OBTAIN A PATENT.

1. The person desiring a patent must declare upon oath that he believes himself to be the inventor or discoverer of the art, machine, or improvement for which he solicits the patent.

2. He must also give in writing a definite and minute description of it, accompanied by drawings to illustrate. If necessary, he must make and deliver to the commissioner of patents a model of his invention.

To be patentable, the invention must be new, unused and unknown before, and useful.

The invention is carefully examined by the appropriate expert at the patent office, and if found to be deserving a patent is issued, signed by the secretary of the interior, countersigned by the commissioner of patents, and sealed with his seal. This gives the patentee the sole right of manufacture and sale and use for seventeen years. The right to make, sell, or use the invention may be sold by the patentee. He may assign the patent entire, an interest in it, or the exclusive right for a certain specified district.

HOW AN ALIEN BECOMES A CITIZEN.

1. Declaration of Intention.—An alien, who has come to the United States after reaching the age of eighteen, may appear before any court of record in the United States having common law jurisdiction, or the clerk thereof, and declare upon oath that it is bona fide his intention to become a citizen of the United States, and to renounce forever "all allegiance to any foreign prince, potentate, state, or sovereignty whatever," and particularly by name the potentate or sovereignty whereof such alien may at any time have been a citizen or subject. This declaration is recorded, and a certified copy of it is furnished by the clerk of the court to the person so declaring his intention. He is then said to have his "first papers." See page 290. 2. The Final Step.—After two years from the time of declaring his intention, provided that he has resided in the United States continuously for five years, and also at least one year within the state or territory wherein the court is held, he may appear in open court and there upon oath renounce all allegiance, as declared in his statement of intention, and swear to support the constitution of the United States. If he has borne any hereditary title, he must renounce it. He must have two witnesses to certify to his residence and to his moral character. These proceedings are recorded, and he is given a certificate of naturalization. See page 201.

An alien arriving in the United States before reaching the age of eighteen and continuously residing therein until making his application for citizenship, provided that he has resided in the United States five years, may on coming of age be admitted to citizenship at once, without the interval between the declaration and the consummation. He must, however, make declaration, must prove his moral character by two witnesses, and must satisfy the court that for three years it has been bona fide his intention to become a citizen of the United States.

Status of Minors.—The naturalization of a man confers citizenship upon his wife and upon such of his children as are minors at the time. A child of his born in this country, either before or after his naturalization, is a "natural-born" citizen. This is also the case if the child is born on the ocean while the parents are coming to this country, provided that they are coming with the intention of seeking citizenship. If an alien dies after declaring his intention, his wife and minor children may become citizens upon taking the oath required.

Losing Citizenship.—By treaties with Austria, Baden, Bavaria, Belgium, Great Britain, Germany, the Grand Duchy of Hesse, Mexico, Norway and Sweden, Denmark, and Wurtemberg, it is provided that "a renewal of domicile in the mother country, with the intent not to return (and two years residence is presumptive evidence of such intent), shall work renewal of the former allegiance."

In some of the treaties it is further provided that when the subject has emigrated to avoid military duty, "the right to exact which was complete before his departure, such service may be enforced on his return in spite of intervening naturalization." (See also U.S. Revised Statutes of 1878, 2165-74.)

HOW CITIZENS ABROAD ARE PROTECTED.

One of the things that makes citizenship desirable is the protection which it secures. This is particularly grateful when one is in a foreign country. What a feeling of strength and security one has when far away from home among strangers to know that his rights must be respected, to realize that behind him is the might of the nation!

Passports.—A United States passport is an instrument in writing, issued by the secretary of state and under his seal, informing the world that the bearer is a citizen of the United States, that he travels under its protection. That passport is a means of identification for the bearer and secures to him all the rights and privileges guaranteed to citizens of the United States by treaties with the country in which he may be traveling.

Passports, as a means of ingress or egress, are now required in only a few countries of Europe. For the convenience of citizens who may have left home without securing passports, arrangements have been made whereby they may be obtained from our representatives in foreign countries.

Another kind of passport is that for American ships. Each ship-master obtains one before leaving for a foreign port. It tells the nationality of the ship, shows that she is under the protection of the United States.

Consuls.—These are the business representatives of the government residing in foreign lands. They are "the guardians of their countrymen against the vexations, injuries, and injustices of the country where they reside; and they exercise certain police powers over all the individuals of their nation" within their respective consulates.

The origin of consulates dates back to the time of the Crusades. They were instituted by the great commercial cities of the Mediterranean. The Pisans, Venetians, and Genoese had trading-places in various parts of Asia, and they secured from the princes of the countries where these trading-posts were located the right to have judges or arbitrators of their own nation located at each of these posts who were privileged to settle disputes between citizens of these cities in accordance with their own laws. At first, then, the consuls were only arbitrators in commercial matters. But their prerogatives have increased until now they are intrusted with the protection of merchants of their country in their relations with the countries to which they come to trade.

In some countries, such as China, Japan, Siam, and Turkey, our consuls are by treaty invested with judicial powers. They try and punish American citizens for crimes committed there.

Incidentally it is the duty of a consul to provide for sick, disabled or destitute American seamen, and to send them home to the United States; to receive and take care of the personal property of any American citizen who dies within his consulate, and to forward to the secretary of state the balance remaining after the necessary funeral expenses, to be held in trust for the heirs. (See also page 350.)

Some of the consular reports contain very valuable information regarding the products and industries of the countries where they are located. These reports can sometimes be obtained in limited numbers through a member of congress.

HOW WE ARE PROTECTED AT HOME.

Life.—Our lives are protected very carefully, not only against crime, but also against accident. Taking human life is made the worst crime and suffers the severest punishment. Death-dealing weapons, such as revolvers and dirks, cannot lawfully be carried concealed. Poisons are cautiously sold, and usually a record is made of the sale. If death results from accident the person to blame is held responsible. But every precaution is taken to prevent accidents. Lamps are provided for streets; fast driving is prohibited; horses are not allowed to be left standing unhitched; business dangerous to life, such as powder-making, must be carried on at a distance from residences; railroads are required to stop trains at crossings, to ring a bell in going through a town, to carry axes and buckets to be used in case of fire; steamboats must be inspected, and must be supplied with life-boats, life-preservers, and other appliances.

Health.—To protect our health precautions are taken against the outbreak of preventable diseases, such as diphtheria, typhoid fever, etc., by requiring cleanliness in yards and alleys; and against small pox by requiring vaccination. The government also supports hospitals for the care of the sick.

Reputation.—To secure to each person as good a reputation as his character will warrant it is made a crime to make false and malicious statements about any one. If spoken, the malicious statement is called slander; if written or printed, it is called libel. The essential elements of these crimes are malice and injury. If a false statement is made without intent to injure, it is not slander. And a true statement injuring another must not be made except for a proper purpose.

Liberty.—This includes all those rights guaranteed in the Bills of Rights of the several constitutions, and the right to come and go without restraint, the right to choose a vocation and to change it, and other rights. To appreciate the protection received in this direction, the student should read up the history of each of the guarantees, and of caste, curfew, passports, etc.

Property.—"The right of private property covers the acquiring, using, and disposing of anything that a person may call his own, including time and labor." A person's property rights may be interfered with in so many ways that many laws are necessary to protect him. A brief outline of commercial law is given elsewhere.

HOW ELECTIONS ARE CONDUCTED.

Electors.—The voters of each state are designated by the constitution thereof. See page 298.

Time.—The time of elections is usually also a matter of constitutional provision. The local (town, village, and city) elections are, in most if not all of the states, held in the spring; probably because the public improvements contemplated are to be made chiefly in the summer. The general elections are held in the fall. This may be partly at least, in order that the official year may begin with the calendar year.

Place.—Towns, villages, and city wards are the usual election precincts, but any of these may be divided if necessary. The location of the polling-place is determined by the convenience of the voters.

Supervision.—Each polling-place is in charge of supervisors of election, usually three. In towns and villages, the regular trustees supervise the elections. In cities, three persons for each precinct are appointed to act by the council or by the mayor. The supervisors are assisted by one or two clerks.

Registration.—To prevent fraud, it is required that a person shall have been a resident of the precinct in which he offers to vote for at least ten days. In the cities, where population fluctuates greatly, it has been found necessary to require voters to register before the day of election; that is, to enroll their names and places of residence with the officers of election.

Notices.—Due notice of the times and places of registration and election is given, at least ten days in advance.

Voting.—This is by ballot, the two chief reasons being, (a) to permit the voter to express his choice uninfluenced by any one else; (b) to facilitate the voting.

The voter hands to the chairman of the supervisors his ballot, folded so as to conceal the names. After ascertaining from the other supervisors that the name of the person offering the vote is registered, or being satisfied in some other way that he is entitled to vote, the chairman, in the presence of the voter, deposits the ballot in the box. The voter's name is then checked on the register, and enrolled by the clerks on the "list of persons who have voted."

Counting.—Each name as it is written by the clerks is numbered, and the supervisors in checking the register do so by writing the number of the vote. At the close of the polls, therefore, the number of persons who have voted is known. The ballots are then turned out of the box upon a table, and, without being unfolded, are carefully counted, to see whether they correspond in number with the records. If, as once in a while happens, it is found that there are too many ballots, those in excess are drawn hap-hazard from the pile by the supervisors and destroyed. The ballots are then unfolded, and the count of the persons voted for is carefully made and recorded. These proceedings are all open to the public.

Reporting.—In local elections, the result of the vote is read by a clerk to those present. An abstract of the vote is filed in the office of the clerk of the corporation, and a list of the persons elected is sent to the auditor (clerk) of the county. The names of the justices of the peace and the constables are reported to the clerk of the court.

In general elections, the abstract of the vote is sent to the county auditor. He makes a general abstract of the vote of the county on state officers, members of congress, and presidential electors, and sends it to the state auditor. He also sends to the same officer a list of the persons elected to county offices. An abstract of the vote is published in one or more of the county papers.

Canvassing Boards.—The persons composing these boards are designated by statute. The secretary of the organization is always a member. He is usually assisted by two or more judicial officers.

Certificates of Election.—These are furnished to officers-elect by the secretary of the organization. Certificates of members of congress and presidential electors are signed by the governor and the secretary of state, and are authenticated by the state seal.

Defects.—With all the thought that has been given to the subject, it is still an unsolved problem how to secure "a free vote and a fair count." Of the two purposes given above to be subserved by the use of the ballot rather than by viva voce voting, the first is too commonly not realized. Perhaps the greatest danger to our government is bribery or overawing of the voter.

A remedy suggested.—The main reliance for the purity of the ballot must of course be the intelligence and uprightness of the people, and he who enlightens and uplifts one or more individuals is to that extent truly a patriot.

The second reliance is the removal of temptation. There may be "honor among thieves," but wrong doing makes a person suspicious, and if the briber cannot see the bribed deposit his ballot he has no good reason for believing that he did as directed.

In Australia they have a plan which seems to obviate bribery, and to have certain other incidental advantages. The plan includes two main features: 1. The printing of ballots at state expense, the ballots to contain all the nominees of all the parties and appropriate blank spaces for the insertion of other names; 2. The secret preparation of the ballot by the voter and his casting it in the presence of the officers only. The operation of the plan slightly modified, as now proposed in Massachusetts, is briefly this: In the polling room as now, is the ballot-box; this none but those in the act of voting and the officers are allowed to approach. As the voters enter the enclosed area a stile numbers them, and an officer hands each a ballot, containing the names of all nominees. The voter takes this into a booth, and makes a cross in ink opposite the name of each person that he wishes to vote for. Having thus prepared his ballot alone, he deposits it in the usual way.

The advantages promised by this plan are obvious. The printing of the ballots at state expense would do away with one of the pretexts for bleeding a candidate for "legitimate expenses." It would take their occupation from the ticket-peddlers, and do away with the deceiving "pasters." The electors would be freed from the nuisance of personal solicitation or dictation. The polling-places would be quieter and more orderly. Best of all, it would greatly minify the evils of bribery for reasons given above.

The principle is certainly a good one, and the machinery is worthy of the careful consideration of our legislators.

Later: This system is now used in several states.

WHY AND HOW NOMINATIONS ARE MADE.

A political party may be defined as a number of persons holding similar views in relation to one or more questions of public policy, and who through unity of action seek to have these views prevail.

The great instrument for securing unity is the convention. It may be a mass meeting, or, as is more usual among the large and well-organized parties, a convention of delegates. In either case it is, be it remembered, not a part of the elective machinery designed by the legislature, but a political device to increase the chances of victory through unity of purpose and action.

Party organization consists of "committees"—town, village, city-ward, county, state, and national. The local committees are chosen by the resident partisans; the county committees by the county conventions; the state committees by state conventions; and the national committee, consisting usually of one member from each state, by the delegates of the respective states to the national convention. Each committee chooses its own chairman and secretary. Besides those mentioned, there are district committees, such as congressional-district committees, senate-district committees, etc., whose members are appointed in a manner similar to that given above. The term of a member is, as might be expected, from the close of one regular convention to the close of the succeeding one. Thus a town committeeman's term is one year, while that of a national committeeman is four years.

The mode of nominating a candidate for the presidency of the United States will illustrate the way of making nominations in general.

1. By long-established practice, each state is entitled to twice as many delegates to the national convention as the number of its presidential electors, and each territory to two delegates. Thus, Minnesota being entitled to nine electors, may send eighteen delegates: and New York, having thirty-six electors, is entitled to seventy-two delegates. Each delegate has an alternate, who acts in the delegate's absence.

2. Though the popular election does not take place until November, the national conventions are usually held in June or July. This is probably to allow plenty of time for the campaign.

3. To allow the machinery time to grind out the delegates, the national committee, having early determined upon the time and place for holding the convention, issues its "call" some months in advance, say in February or March. This is published in the newspapers throughout the country.

4. The next step in the process is the issuance of calls by the several state committees. These are issued as soon as practicable after that of the national committee, and usually appoint the state convention for the latter part of May.

5. In some states all of the delegates to the national convention are chosen by the state convention. But the number of states is increasing, and properly so, in which each congressional district chooses its own two delegates, leaving only the four "delegates at large" to be chosen by the state convention. In these states, the next step is the call of the district committee for a convention slightly antedating that of the state.

6. As soon as practicable after the district call is announced, the several county committees issue their call for county conventions, to be held shortly before the district convention.

7. Lastly, the local committees issue their calls, usually giving a week or ten days' notice. The local convention is called a "caucus."

8. Then in succession the local, county, district, state, and national conventions are held. The caucuses send representatives to the county conventions, which in turn choose the deputations to the district and state conventions, and these finally select the delegates to the national convention. An equal number of "alternates" are chosen at the same time. The state convention also names the presidential electors to be supported by the party.

Thus the national convention is the first to be called and the last to be held, while the caucuses are the last to be called and the first to be held. The caucuses are the real battling-place for the people.

The delegates from each convention receive certificates of election signed by the chairman and secretary thereof. These "credentials" are given to prevent fraud, and constitute the delegates' title to seats in the convention to which they are sent.

The first step taken in the national convention, after securing a "temporary organization," is the appointment of a committee on credentials and another on permanent organization, by the temporary chairman. When the former committee reports, it is known who are entitled to participate in the proceedings; and when the latter committee reports, the convention almost invariably adopts the report and thereby perfects its organization. A committee on rules and one on platform are then appointed.

The states are then called in alphabetical order, and each one that cares to, presents to the convention the name of her "favorite son." Thus in the republican convention of 1860, when Illinois was called, the name of Abraham Lincoln was presented; and when New York was called, the name of William H. Seward was presented, and so on.

When the "roll of the states" is completed, the balloting begins. In the republican convention, nomination is by majority vote; in the democratic, it takes a two-thirds vote to nominate.

The vice-president is then nominated in a similar manner.

After adopting a platform the convention adjourns.

HOW CONGRESS IS ORGANIZED. [Footnote: See also Among the Lawmakers, chapter III. ]

Though the senate is quite a permanent body, two-thirds of its members holding over from one congress to another, its committees are reorganized at the beginning of each congress.

The terms of all members of the house of representatives expire March 4 of the odd-numbered years, and, though many of the old members are re-elected, the house must be reorganized at the beginning of each congress. The mode of organizing the house is briefly as follows:

1. At the first session, the house is called to order by the clerk of the preceding house, who then calls the roll of members-elect [Footnote: The members-elect have previously sent him their certificates of election, received from the state canvassing board.] by states. If a quorum is found to be present, the clerk declares it to be in order to proceed to the election of a speaker. The vote is viva voce on the call of the roll, each member when his name is called pronouncing the name of his choice for speaker. Election is by majority of the votes given. The result is declared by the clerk, who "then designates two members (usually of different politics, and from the number of those voted for as speaker) to conduct the speaker-elect to the chair; and also one member (usually that one who has been longest in continuous service a member of the house) to administer to him the oath required by the constitution." [Footnote: Manual of the House of Representatives.]

The speaker then administers the oath to the members, in groups of about forty, all standing in line before the speaker's desk.

3. The organization is completed by the election of a clerk, a sergeant-at-arms; a doorkeeper, a postmaster, and a chaplain. The vote is viva voce, and the term is "until their successors are chosen and qualified"—usually about two years, though all are subject to removal at the will of the house.

The delegates from the territories are then sworn in.

"At this stage it is usual for the house to adopt an order that a message be sent to the senate to inform that body that a quorum of the house of representatives has assembled, and that ————, one of the representatives from the state of ——, has been elected speaker, and ——- —-, a citizen of the state of —-, has been chosen clerk, and that the house is now ready to proceed to business." [Footnote: Manual of the House of Representatives.]

Each house then orders a committee of three members to be appointed, the joint committee "to wait upon the president of the United States and inform him that a quorum of the two houses has assembled, and that congress is ready to receive any communication he may be pleased to make." [Footnote: Manual of the House of Representatives.] It is in order then for the president to forward his message to congress.

The above are the usual proceedings, and they generally occur on the first day of the session.

The seating of the members is by lot, except in the case of certain members privileged by very long experience or otherwise, who are by courtesy permitted to make the first selection. Each member is numbered, and corresponding numbers are placed in a box "and thoroughly intermingled." Then the numbers are drawn from the box successively by a page, the member whose number is drawn first having first choice of seat, and so on. This may be done while the committees are waiting on the president, as above described.

HOW CONTESTED ELECTIONS ARE SETTLED.

"Each house shall be the judge of the elections, returns, and qualifications of its own members."—Constitution, I., 5, 5.

A contested election resembles very much in its mode of settlement the trial of a civil suit.

1. Within thirty days after the result of the election is made known, the contestant must serve upon the person declared elected by the canvassing board a notice of intention to contest his seat, and the grounds therefor.

2. Within thirty days of receiving said notice, the member-elect must answer it, stating specifically the grounds of his defense, and must serve a copy of this answer upon the contestant.

3. Ninety days are then allowed for the taking of testimony—the first forty to the contestant, the second forty to the member-elect, and the remaining ten to the contestant for testimony in rebuttal.

Testimony may be taken before any United States, state or municipal judge, notary public, or by two justices of the peace. The opposite party must have due notice of the times and places of taking the evidence; but testimony may be taken at several places at the same time. The witnesses are summoned by subpoena served in the usual way. The examination of the witnesses is by the officer issuing the subpoena, but either party may propose questions. The questions and answers are committed to writing, and authenticated.

All the papers in each case, certified, carefully sealed, and the envelopes indorsed with name of the case, are sent by mail to Washington, addressed to the clerk of the house in which is the contested seat.

The matter is referred to the committee on elections. [Footnote: This is the oldest of all the committees, having been established at the beginning of the first congress.] This committee having carefully considered the matter may bring in its report at any time, this being what is known as a "privileged question." The decision is by majority vote of the house interested.

In the meantime the person who has obtained the certificate of election from the state canvassing board is presumed to have been elected, and is treated accordingly.

In order that lack of means may not compel a man to submit to a wrong, and that the real will of the congressional district as expressed in the election may be ascertained, the contestant may be allowed not to exceed two thousand dollars for expenses.

HOW AN IMPEACHMENT CASE IS CONDUCTED.

"The house of representatives ... shall have the sole power of impeachment."—Constitution I. 2: 9.

"The senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments.'—Ib., I. 3: 6.

"The president, vice-president, and all civil officers of the United States, shall be removed from office on impeachment for, and conviction of, treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors."—Ib., II. 4: 17.

The house, having resolved that a certain civil officer be impeached, orders that a committee be appointed to notify the senate of the fact; and to state that "the house of representatives will, in due time, exhibit particular articles of impeachment against him, and make good the same;" and to demand that the senate prepare to try the impeachment.

The house then, on motion, appoints a committee (usually of five members) to prepare carefully the articles of impeachment. [Footnote: This corresponds to the indictment of a grand jury.] The report of this committee, having been considered in committee of the whole, is reported to the house, with such amendments as seem necessary. If the report is agreed to by the house, a committee of five "managers" is appointed to conduct the impeachment on the part of the house.

The senate is then notified by the clerk of the house, that the managers, naming them, have been appointed, and that the articles of impeachment are ready to be exhibited.

The senate having appointed the time when it would resolve itself into a court of impeachment notifies the house. At the appointed time the managers carry the articles to the senate, and on their return report to the house.

The senate then issues a summons to the defendant, ordering him to file his answer with the secretary of the senate by a certain day.

On the day appointed, the house, having resolved itself into committee of the whole, attends the trial in the senate chamber. The next day the house attends similarly, if a reply is to be made to the defendant's answer. During the taking of the testimony only the managers attend, the house devoting itself to its regular business. When the case is ready for argument, the house attends daily, as committee of the whole.

The report of the final action of the senate is made to the house by the chairman of the committee of the whole.

In an impeachment trial the senate is both judge and jury. But, for convenience, the functions of judge are usually performed by the president of the court of impeachment; and a senator may be called upon to testify.

The secretary of the senate corresponds to the clerk of the court, and the sergeant-at-arms corresponds to the sheriff in an ordinary court.

"On the final question whether the impeachment is sustained, the yeas and nays shall be taken on each article of impeachment separately; and if the impeachment shall not, upon any of the articles presented, be sustained by the votes of two-thirds of the members present, a judgment of acquittal shall be entered; but if the person accused in such articles of impeachment shall be convicted upon any of said articles by the votes of two-thirds of the members present, the senate shall proceed to pronounce judgment, and a certified copy of such judgment shall be deposited in the office of the secretary of state." [Footnote: Manual of the United States Senate.] Only seven cases of impeachment before the U.S. senate have occurred. To save space they are shown in tabular form:

Time Name. Office. Charge. Result. 1798 William Blount. U.S. Senator Intrigues with Case dismissed; from Tennessee. Indians. not an "officer"

1803 John Pickering. U.S. district Intemperance Removed from judge, N.H. and malfeasance office.[1] in office.

1804 Samuel Chase. Associate Just. Partiality and Acquitted.[1] U.S. Sup. Ct. injustice.

1830 James Peck. U.S. district Abuse of power. Acquitted. judge, Mo.

1860 West W. U.S. district Treason in Removed and Humphreys judge, Tenn. advocating and disqualified. aiding secession.

1868 Andrew Johnson. President of the Violation of Acquitted by United States. Tenure of one vote. Office act and other crimes.

1876 William W. Sec'y of war. Malfeasance in Acquitted. Belknap. office and accepting bribes.

[Footnote 1: See Thomas Jefferson, American Statesmen Series, pp. 259-63.]

HOW UNITED STATES SENATORS ARE ELECTED.

"The senate of the United States shall be composed of two senators from each state, chosen by the legislature thereof."—Constitution, I. 3: 1.

The time of this election is the second Tuesday after the meeting and organization of the legislature. If a vacancy occurs in the senate during the session of the legislature, the election occurs on the second Tuesday after notice of the vacancy is received by the legislature.

On the day appointed, the roll of each house being called, each member responds by naming one person for the senatorship. The result of the vote is entered on the journal of each house by the clerk thereof.

The next day at noon, the members of both houses convene in joint assembly, and the journal of each house is read. If the same person has received a majority of all the votes in each house, he is declared elected.

But if no person has received such majority, the joint assembly proceeds to choose, by viva voce vote of each member present, a person for senator. A quorum consists of a majority of each house, and a majority of those present and voting is necessary to a choice.

If no one receives such majority on the first day, the joint assembly meets daily at noon, and takes at least one vote, until a senator is elected.

A certificate of election is made out by the governor, countersigned and authenticated under seal of the state by the secretary of state, and forwarded to the president of the senate of the United States.

HOW THE ELECTORAL VOTE IS COUNTED.

"The president of the senate shall, in the presence of the senate and house of representatives, open all the certificates, and the vote shall then be counted."—Constitution, Amendment XII.

The constitution gives no directions as to the manner of counting. No trouble was experienced, however, until the Hayes-Tilden election. The result of this election depended upon the votes of three states, each of which sent in two conflicting sets of certificates. There being no legal provision for the settlement of such disputes, the famous electoral commission was created to determine which certificates should be counted. It consisted of five senators, five representatives, and five justices of the supreme court.

The gravity of the danger thus revealed made it obviously necessary that some general plan be devised whereby such disputes might be obviated. Though consideration of the subject began at once, and various measures were from time to time proposed, no satisfactory solution was presented until February 3, 1887, when the Electoral Count Bill was passed and received the signature of the president.

An outline of the bill is here given, the principal provisions being the second and sixth as here numbered.

1. The electors shall meet and vote on the second Monday in January following their election. [Footnote: The time of meeting had been the first Wednesday in December. The change was made to give time for the settlement of any disputes, as provided in the second section.]

2. If there be any disputes as to the choice of the electors, they are to be settled in the respective states in the way that each state shall determine, provided that the laws governing the matter shall have been passed before the election, and that disputes shall have been settled at least six days before the time fixed for the meeting of the electors. A report of the contest and its mode of settlement shall be made by the governor, and forwarded under seal to the secretary of state of the United States.

3. As soon as practicable after it shall have been ascertained who have been chosen electors, the executive of the state shall transmit under the seal of the state to the secretary of state of the United States the names of the electors, with an abstract of the popular vote for each candidate for elector. The executive shall also deliver to the electors, on or before the day of meeting, three copies of said certificate, one of which the electors shall enclose with each "list of persons voted for as president and vice-president."

4. As soon as practicable after receiving the certificates as aforesaid, the secretary of state shall publish them in full in such newspaper as he shall designate; and at the first meeting of congress thereafter he shall transmit to each house a copy in full of each certificate received.

5. The counting of the vote will take place, as heretofore, on the second Wednesday in February following the meeting of the electors. At one o'clock in the afternoon the senate and house of representatives meet in the hall of the house of representatives, and the president of the senate takes the chair.

"Two tellers shall be previously appointed on the part of the senate and two on the part of the house of representatives, to whom shall be handed, as they are opened by the president of the senate, all the certificates and papers purporting to be certificates of the electoral votes, which certificates and papers shall be opened, presented, and acted upon in the alphabetical order of the states, beginning with the letter A; and said tellers, having then read the same in the presence and hearing of the two houses, shall make a list of the votes as they shall appear from the said certificates; and the votes having been ascertained and counted in the manner and according to the rules in this act provided the result of the same shall be delivered to the president of the senate, who shall thereupon announce the state of the vote, which announcement shall be deemed a sufficient declaration of the persons, if any, elected president and vice-president of the United States, and, together with a list of the votes, be entered on the journals of the two houses."

6. Upon the reading of each certificate the president of the senate asks whether there be any objections to it. Objection must be made in writing, and must "state clearly and concisely, and without argument, the ground thereof." To entitle it to consideration, the objection must be signed by at least one senator and one representative.

When all the objections to any paper have been received and read, the senate withdraws, and the two houses proceed separately to consider them.

If from any state but one set of electors are certified, and the certification has been done as prescribed in section three, the certificate cannot be rejected. But if not properly certified, the two houses acting concurrently "may reject the vote or votes when they agree that such vote or votes have not been so regularly given by those whose appointment has been so certified."

If more than one return has been received from any state, those votes only shall be counted which have been determined as provided in section two.

If two or more returns appear, each certified by authorities claiming to be the lawful tribunal of the state, the vote shall be counted which the two houses, acting separately, "concurrently decide is supported by the decision of such state so authorized by its laws."

If more than one return comes in from any state, no determination such as is prescribed in section two having been made, the two houses concurrently decide which, if any, of the votes shall be counted. If in such a case the houses disagree, the votes of those electors shall be counted whose appointment shall have been certified by the executive of the state.

When the case in question has been disposed of, the joint session is resumed and the counting continued.

7. In the joint meeting, the president of the senate has authority to preserve order. No debate is allowed, and no question can be put, "except to either house on a motion to withdraw."

8. When discussing an objection, in separate session, no member can speak more than once, and then for not longer than five minutes. The entire time for discussion is limited to two hours.

9. Provision is made for the seating of every one entitled to a seat on the floor of the house; and the act declares that "such joint meeting shall not be dissolved until the count of electoral votes shall be completed and the result declared."

Some time after the passage of the law, it was discovered that a strange omission had been made. By the old law, the electors in each state were required to appoint a messenger to take one of the certificates of votes cast, and deliver it to the president of the senate on or before the first Wednesday in January. By the new law the electors do not meet until the second Monday in January. The inconsitency was remedied, however, by a supplementary act, providing that certificates shall be forwarded "as soon as possible," and authorizing the president of the senate to send for missing certificates on the fourth Monday in January.

HOW FUGITIVES FROM JUSTICE ARE EXTRADITED.

Extradition is "the delivering up to justice of fugitive criminals by the authorities of one state or country to those of another." [Footnote: Lalor's Cyclopedia of Political Science.]

The duty of extradition between the states of this republic is imposed by the federal constitution, IV. 2; and the mode of procedure is prescribed by an act of congress passed in 1793. The term "other crimes" used in the constitution is generally interpreted "so as to include any offense against the laws of the state or territory making the demand." On the question whether the executive upon whom demand is made is bound to comply, the federal courts have decided that his duty in the matter is imperative; that he must deliver up the fugitive, unless the accused shall also be under prosecution for breach of the laws of the state to which he has fled.

The procedure is this: "The accused must be indicted in the state in which the crime was committed, or a charge must be brought against him before a magistrate, who, if satisfied that the charge is true, issues a warrant for the arrest of the criminal. A copy of the indictment or affidavit is forwarded to the executive of the state, and he issues to the executive of the state to which the fugitive has gone, a requisition for his surrender. If the executive upon whom the requisition is made is satisfied that the papers are regular and the proof of the crime sufficient," he issues a warrant "for the arrest and delivery of the accused to the agent of the state making the demand."

The expense of these proceedings is borne by the state making the demand.

Between nations extradition is regarded as a matter of comity, and is based upon special treaty. "In this country, power to make such a surrender is conferred upon the executive [Footnote: This of course means the president, as states cannot treat with foreign powers.] only where the United States are bound by treaty, and have a reciprocal right to claim similar surrender from the other power." In relation to the crimes for which extradition may be demanded, it may be said in general that they are specified in the treaty, and are such offenses as are recognized as crimes by both countries. Consequently no two treaties are exactly alike. Generally only things wrong in themselves, not things wrong by local prohibition, are included. Offenses merely political are not included; and "as opinions differ in different countries on what constitutes a political crime, the surrendering nation is very properly made the judge of this question."

As a corollary to the preceding, it is a well-established rule of international law, that the surrendered party can be tried only on the allegations for which extradition has been accorded. This principle is also generally recognized among the states.

HOW A COURT MARTIAL IS CONDUCTED.

A court martial is "a court consisting of military or naval officers, for the trial of offenses against military or naval laws."

Courts martial are of three classes, general, garrison, and regimental. General courts martial consists of from five to thirteen officers, appointed by a general or by the president. Garrison and regimental courts martial consist of three officers appointed respectively by the garrison and the regimental commanders. Only general courts martial have jurisdiction of capital offenses.

There are two marked characteristics of courts martial. First, the accused is tried, not as in a civil court by his peers, but by his superiors. Second, there is no distinction between judge and jury; the officers comprising the court act in both capacities—they determine the fact and apply the law. Sentence is by majority vote, except that to pronounce sentence of death a two-thirds vote is necessary.

For convenience, one of the officers is designated to act as president by the order convening the court. As prosecutor in the case, and also as the responsible adviser of the court, a judge-advocate is appointed, usually by the same order. The accused is entitled to counsel; but if he is unable to obtain any, the judge-advocate "must insist upon all rights belonging to the accused under the law and the evidence."

The "findings" of a court martial must in each case be transmitted to the convening authority and by it be approved, before being carried into execution. "In time of peace, no sentence of a court martial involving loss of life or the dismissal of a commissioned officer, and either in time of peace or war no sentence against a general officer, can be carried into effect without approval by the president of the United States."

The jurisdiction of courts martial extend only over offenses committed by persons enlisted in the military or the naval service of the country.

WHY AND HOW TERRITORIES ARE ORGANIZED.

The organization of territories in the United States is for two purposes: to provide good government while population is sparse, and to encourage their development into self-governing commonwealths, and their incorporation into the federal system as rapidly as possible. (See page 217.)

Territories are organized by congress. In the organic act the boundaries of the territory are defined, and a system of government is established. "The governor and the administrative and judicial officers are appointed by the president, but a territorial legislature is entrusted with limited powers, subject to the approval of congress."

Each of the several territories may elect one delegate to a seat in the United States Congress. The delegate may speak on subjects in which his territory is interested, but he cannot vote.

WHY AND HOW THE PUBLIC LANDS ARE SURVEYED.

The public lands are not meant to be held forever by the general government. They are designed to be owned and occupied by American citizens. To divide the land into pieces and thus to facilitate the description and the location of any piece, is the principal purpose of the survey. Incidentally the portions six miles square serve as bases for the political divisions called towns, and this was part of the original plan.

The "old thirteen" and Maine, Vermont, Kentucky, Tennessee, and West Virginia were surveyed in a very irregular way. Lands were described as bounded by lines running from stumps to stones, thence to a creek and down the main channel thereof. In 1785, a committee of the continental congress was appointed, with Thomas Jefferson as chairman, to devise a simple and uniform mode of surveying the public lands in what was about to be organized as the Northwest Territory.

The most noticeable peculiarity of the system is that it is rectangular. A prime meridian is first determined, then a baseline crossing it at right angles. Then from points on the baseline six miles and multiples thereof from the meridian, lines are run due north. And parallels to the base-line are run at distances of six miles. The approximate squares thus formed are called townships. The rows of townships running north and south are called ranges. Townships are numbered north and south from the base-line; ranges east and west from the meridian. The diagram on page 341 illustrates the system.