Symptoms.—Indigestion is characterized by irregular appetite; refusing all feed at times, and at others eating ravenously; the appetite is not only irregular, but is often depraved; there is a disposition on the part of the horse to eat unusual substances, such as wood, soiled bedding, or even his own feces; the bowels are irregular to-day, loose and bad smelling, to-morrow bound; whole grain is often passed in the feces, and the hay passed in balls or impacted masses, undergoing but little change; the horse frequently passes considerable quantities of sour-smelling wind. The animal loses flesh, the skin presents a hard, dry appearance and seems very tight (hidebound). If the stomach is very seriously involved, the horse may yawn by stretching the head forward and upward and by turning the upper lip outward. There may be more or less colicky pain. In the chronic cases there is mental depression; the horse is sluggish and dull. The abdomen gradually becomes small, giving a "tucked up" appearance, or, on the other hand, it becomes flaccid and pendulous.

Treatment.—One should commence with the feed—its quality, quantity, and time of feeding; examine the water supply, and see, besides, that it is given before feeding; then carefully observe the condition of the mouth and teeth; and, continuing the observations as best we may, endeavor to find the seat of the trouble. If the teeth are sharp or irregular they must be rasped down; if any are decayed they must be extracted; if indigestion is due to ravenous eating or bolting, the feed must then be given from a large manger where the grain can be spread and the horse thus compelled to eat slowly.

Any irritation, such as worms, undigested feed, etc., that is operating as a cause is to be removed by appropriate treatment, as advised elsewhere. If there is a tendency to distention of the stomach and bowels, with gas, during indigestion, the following may be used: Baking soda, powdered ginger, and powdered gentian, equal parts. These are to be thoroughly mixed and given in heaping tablespoonful doses, twice a day, before feeding. This powder is best given by dissolving the above-named quantity in a half pint of water and given as a drench.

As a digestive tonic the following is good: Glauber's salt, 2 pounds; common salt, 1 pound; baking soda, one-half pound. Of this a heaping tablespoonful may be given in each feed. If diarrhea exists, the treatment advised below may be used.

DIARRHEA.

Diarrhea is due to indigestion or intestinal catarrh or to irritation of the bowels from eating moldy or musty feed, drinking stagnant water, diseased condition of the teeth, eating irritating substances, to being kept on low, marshy pastures, and to exposure during cold nights, or in low, damp stables. Some horses are predisposed to scour and are called "washy" by horsemen; they are those with long bodies, long legs, and narrow, flat sides. Horses of this build are almost sure to scour if fed or watered immediately before being put to work. Fast or road work, of course, aggravates this trouble. Diarrhea may exist as a complication of other diseases, as pneumonia and influenza, for instance, and again during the diseases of the liver.

The symptoms are the frequent evacuations of liquid stools, with or without pronounced abdominal pain, loss of appetite, emaciation, etc.

Treatment is at times very simple, but requires the utmost care and judgment. If due to faulty feed or water it is sufficient to change these. If it results from some irritant in the intestines this is best gotten rid of by the administration of an oleaginous purge, for which nothing is better than castor oil, although raw linseed oil may be used if the case is not severe. The diarrhea often disappears with the cessation of the operation of the medicine. If, however, purging continues it may be checked by giving wheat flour in water, starch water, white-oak bark tea, chalk, opium, or half-dram doses of sulphuric acid in one-half pint of water twice or thrice daily. Good results follow the use of powdered opium 2 drams and subnitrate of bismuth 1 ounce, repeated three times a day. In all cases it should be remembered to look to the water and feed the horse is receiving. If either of these is at fault it is at once to be discontinued. We should feed sparingly of good, easily digested feeds. With that peculiar build of nervous horses that scour on the road but little can be done as a rule. They should be watered and fed as long as possible before going on a drive. If there is much flatulency accompanying diarrhea baking soda or other alkaline medicines may effect a cure, while if the discharges have a very disagreeable odor it may be corrected by 1 ounce of sulphite of soda or dram doses of creolin in water, repeated twice a day. Be slow to resort to either the vegetable or mineral astringents, since the majority of cases will yield to change of feed and water or the administration of oils. Afterwards feed upon wheat-flour gruel or other light feeds. The body should be warmly clothed.

SUPERPURGATION.—This is the designation of that diarrhea, or flux from the bowels, that, at times, is induced by and follows the action of a physic. It is accompanied with much irritation or even inflammation of the bowels and is always of a serious character. Although in rare instances it follows from a usual dose of physic and where every precaution has been taken, it is most likely to result under the following circumstances: Too large a dose of physic; giving physics to horses suffering from pneumonia, influenza, or other debilitating diseases; riding or driving a horse when purging; exposure or drafts of cold air; or giving large quantities of cold water while the physic is operating. There is always danger of superpurgation if a physic is given to a horse suffering from diseases of the respiratory organs. Small and often-repeated physics are also to be avoided, as they produce debility and great depression of the system and predispose to this disorder. When a physic is to be given one should rest the horse and give him sloppy feed until the medicine begins to operate; clothe the body with a warm blanket; keep out of drafts; give only warm water in small quantities. After a horse has purged from twelve to twenty-four hours it can mostly be stopped, or "set," as horsemen say, by feeding on dry oats and hay. Should the purging continue, however, it is best treated by giving demulcent drinks—linseed tea and oatmeal or wheat-flour gruel. After this the astringents spoken of for diarrhea may be given. Besides this the horse is to receive brandy in doses of from 2 to 4 ounces, with milk and eggs, four or five times a day.

Laminitis ("founder") is a frequent sequel of superpurgation and is to be guarded against by removing the shoes and standing the horse on moist sawdust or some similar bedding.

DYSENTERY.

This disease, sometimes called "bloody flux," is an intestinal disease attended with fever, occasional abdominal pains, and fluid discharges mingled with blood. Discharges in dysentery are coffee colored or bloody, liquid, and very offensive in odor, and passed with much straining. It is rare in the horse, but is sometimes quite prevalent among foals.

Causes.—Probably the most common cause is keeping young horses in particular for a long time on low, wet, marshy pastures, without other feed (a diarrhea of long standing sometimes terminates in dysentery); exposure during cold, wet weather; decomposed feeds; stagnant water that contains large quantities of decomposing vegetable matter; low, damp, and dark stables, particularly if crowded; the existence of some disease, as tuberculosis of the abdominal form. In suckling foals it may come from feeding the dam on irritant feeds or from disease of the udder. In other foals it may be produced by exposure to cold and damp, to irritant feed, or to worms.

Symptoms.—The initial symptom is a chill, which probably escapes notice in the majority of instances. The discharges are offensive and for the most part liquid, although it is common to find lumps of solid fecal matter floating in this liquid portion; shreds of mucous membrane and blood may be passed or the evacuations may be mucopurulent; there is much straining, and, rarely, symptoms of abdominal pain; the subject lies down a great deal; the pulse is quickened and the temperature elevated. Thirst is a prominent symptom. In the adult, death rarely follows under two to three weeks, but in foals the disease may end in death after a few days.

Treatment.—This is most unsatisfactory, and I am inclined to place more dependence upon the care and feed than any medication that may be adopted. First of all the horse must be placed in a dry, warm, yet well-ventilated stable; the skin is to receive attention by frequent rubbings of the surface of the body, with blankets, and bandages to the legs. The water must be pure and given in small quantities; the feed, that which is light and easily digested. Medicinally, give at first a light dose of castor oil, about one-half pint, to which has been added 2 ounces of laudanum. The vegetable or mineral astringents are also to be given. Starch injections containing laudanum often afford great relief. The strength must be kept up by milk punches, eggs, beef tea, oatmeal gruel, etc. In spite of the best care and treatment, however, dysentery is likely to prove fatal. In the case of nurslings, the dam should be placed in a healthy condition or, failing in this, milk should be had from another mare or from a cow.

GASTROENTERITIS.

This condition consists in an inflammation of the stomach and intestines. Instead of being confined to the mucous, or lining, membrane, as in gastrointestinal catarrh, the inflammatory process extends deeper and may even involve the entire thickness of the wall of the organ.

This disease may be caused by irritant feed, hot drinks, sudden chilling, moldy or decayed feeds, foul water, parasites, or by chemical poisons. It may also complicate some general diseases, especially infectious diseases, as anthrax, influenza, rabies, or petechial fever. Long-continued obstruction of the bowels or displacement resulting in death are preceded by enteritis.

Symptoms.—The symptoms differ somewhat with the cause and depend also, to some extent, upon the chief location of the inflammation. In general the animal stops eating or eats but little; it shows colicky pain; fever develops; the pulse and respiration become rapid; the mucous membrane becomes red; the mouth is hot and dry. Pressure upon the abdomen may cause pain. Intestinal sounds can not be heard at the flank. There is constipation in the earlier stages that is, followed later by diarrhea. The extremities become cold. Sometimes the feces are coated with or contain shreds of fibrin, looking like scraps of dead membrane, and they have an evil, putrid odor. If the disease is caused by moldy or damaged feed there may be great muscular weakness, with partial paralysis of the throat, as shown by inability to swallow. If chemical poisons are the cause, this fact may be shown by the sudden onset of the disease, the history of the administration of a poison or the entire absence of known cause, the rapid development of threatening symptoms, the involvement of a series of animals in the absence of a contagious disease, and the special symptoms and alterations known to be produced by certain poisons. To make this chain of evidence complete, the poison may be discovered in the organs of the horse by chemical analysis. In nearly all cases of gastro-enteritis there is nervous depression.

The poisons that are most irritant to the digestive tract are arsenic, corrosive sublimate, sugar of lead, sulphate of copper, sulphate or chlorid of zinc, lye, or other strong alkalies, mineral acids, and, among the vegetable poisons, tobacco, lobelia, and water hemlock.

Treatment.—The treatment will depend upon the cause, but if this can not be detected, certain general indications may be observed. In all cases feed should be given in small amounts and should be of the most soothing description, as oatmeal gruel, flaxseed tea, hay tea, fresh grass, or rice water. The skin should be well rubbed with alcohol and wisps of straw, to equalize the distribution of the blood; the legs, after being rubbed until warm, should be bandaged in raw cotton or with woolen bandages. The horse should be warmly blanketed. It is well to apply to the abdomen blankets wrung out of hot water and frequently changed; or mustard paste may be rubbed on the skin of the belly. Internally, opium is of service to allay pain, check secretion, and soothe the inflamed membrane. The dose is from 1 to 2 drams, given every three of four hours. If there is constipation, the opium should be mixed with 30 grains of calomel. Subnitrate of bismuth may be given with the opium or separately in 2-dram doses. Stimulants, such as alcohol, aromatic spirits of ammonia, or camphor may be given in 2-ounce doses, mixed with warm water to make a drench.

If putrid feed has been consumed, creolin may be administered in doses of 2 drams, mixed with 1 pint of warm water or milk. If there is obstinate constipation and if a laxative must be employed, it should be sweet or castor oil, from 1 pint to 1 quart.

Antidotes for poisons.—For the various poisons the remedies are as follows:

Arsenic: Oxyhydrate of iron solution, 1 pint to 1 quart; or calcined magnesia, one-half ounce in 1 pint of water.

Corrosive sublimate (bichlorid of mercury): The whites of a dozen eggs, or 2 ounces of flowers of sulphur.

Sugar of lead: Glauber's salt, 1 pound in 1 quart of warm water; to be followed with iodid of potash, 3 drams at a dose, in water, three times daily for five days.

Sulphate of copper: Milk, the whites of eggs, or reduced iron.

Sulphate or chlorid of zinc: Milk, the whites of eggs, or calcined magnesia.

Lye or alkalies, as caustic potash or soda: Vinegar, dilute sulphuric acid, and linseed tea, with opium, 3 drams.

Mineral acids: Chalk, or calcined magnesia, or baking soda; later give linseed tea and opium.

HEMORRHOIDS, OR PILES.

These are rare, comparatively, in horses. They are diagnosed by the appearance of bright-red irregular tumors after defecation, which may remain visible at all times or be seen only when the horse is down or after passing his manure. They are mostly due to constipation, irritation, or injuries, or follow from the severe straining during dysentery. I have observed them to follow from severe labor pains in the mare.

Treatment.—Attention must be paid to the condition of the bowels; they should be soft, but purging is to be avoided. The tumors should be washed in warm water and thoroughly cleansed, after which scarify them and gently but firmly squeeze out the liquid that will be seen to follow the shallow incisions. After thus squeezing these tumors and before replacing through the anus, bathe the parts with some anodyn wash. For this purpose the glycerite of tannin and laudanum in equal parts is good. Mucilaginous injections into the rectum may be of service for a few days.

HERNIA, OR RUPTURE.

There are several kinds or hernias that require notice, not all of which, however, produce serious symptoms or results. Abdominal hernias, or ruptures, are divided into reducible, irreducible, and strangulated, according to condition; and into inguinal, scrotal, ventral, umbilical, and diaphragmatic, according to their situation. A hernia is reducible when the displaced organ can be returned to its natural location. It consists of a soft swelling, without heat, pain, or any uneasiness, generally larger on full feed, and decreases in size as the bowels become empty. An irreducible hernia is one that can not be returned into the abdomen, and yet does not cause any pain or uneasiness. Strangulated hernia is one in which the contents of the sac are greatly distended, or when from pressure upon the blood vessels of the imprisoned portion the venous circulation is checked or stopped, thereby causing congestion, swelling, inflammation, and, if not relieved, gangrene of the part and death of the animal. According to the time or mode of origin, hernias may be congenital or acquired.

CONGENITAL SCROTAL HERNIA.—Not a few foals are noticed from birth to have an enlarged scrotum, which gradually increases in size until about the sixth month, sometimes longer. Sometimes the scrotum of a six-months-old colt is as large as that of an adult stallion, and operative treatment is considered. This is unnecessary in the great majority of cases, as the enlargement often disappears by the time the colt has reached his second year. Any interference, medicinal or surgical, is worse than useless. If the intestine contained within the scrotum should at any time become strangulated, it must then be treated the same as in an adult horse.

SCROTAL HERNIA is caused by dilatation of the sheath of the testicle, combined with relaxation of the fibrous tissues surrounding the inguinal ring, thus allowing the intestine to descend to the scrotum. At first this is intermittent, appearing during work and returning when the horse is at rest. For a long time this form of hernia may not cause the least uneasiness or distress. In course of time, however, the imprisoned gut becomes filled with feces, its return into the abdominal cavity is prevented, and it becomes strangulated. While the gut is thus filling the horse often appears dull, is disinclined to move, appetite is impaired, and there is rumbling and obstruction of the bowels. Colicky symptoms now supervene. Strangulation and its consequent train of symptoms do not always follow in scrotal hernia, for often horses have this condition for years without suffering inconvenience.

INGUINAL HERNIA is but an incomplete scrotal hernia, and, like the latter, may exist and cause no signs of distress, or, again, it may become strangulated and cause death. Inguinal hernia is seen mostly in stallions, next in geldings, and very rarely in the mare. Bearing in mind that scrotal hernia is seen only in entire horses, we may proceed to detail the symptoms of strangulated, inguinal, and scrotal hernia at the same time. When, during the existence of colicky symptoms, we find a horse kicking with his hind feet while standing or lying upon his back, we should look to the inguinal region and scrotum. If scrotal hernia exists, the scrotum will be enlarged and lobulated; by pressure we may force a portion of the contents of the gut back into the abdomen, eliciting a gurgling sound. If we take a gentle but firm hold upon the enlarged scrotum and then have an assistant cause the horse to cough, the swelling will be felt to expand and as quickly contract again.

The history of these cases will materially aid us, as the owner can often assure us of preceding attacks of "colic," more or less severe, that have been instantaneously relieved in some (to him) unaccountable manner. The colicky symptoms of these hernias are not diagnostic, but, probably, more closely resemble those of enteritis than any other bowel diseases. In many cases the diagnosis can be made only by a veterinarian, when he has recourse to a rectal examination; the bowels can here be felt entering the internal abdominal ring.

Treatment of inguinal hernia.—If the reader is sure of the existence of hernia, he should secure the horse upon its back, and, with a hand in the rectum, endeavor to catch hold of the wandering bowel and pull it gently back into the cavity of the abdomen. Pressure should be made upon the scrotum during this time. If this fails, a veterinarian must be called to reduce the hernia by means of incising the inguinal ring, replacing the intestines, and to castrate, using clamps and performing the "covered operation."

VENTRAL HERNIA.—In this form of hernia the protrusion is through some accidental opening or rupture of the abdominal wall. It may occur at any part of the belly except at the umbilicus, and is caused by kicks, blows, hooks, severe jumping or pulling, etc. Ventral hernia is most common in pregnant mares, and is here due to the weight of the fetus or to some degenerative changes taking place in the abdominal coats. It is recognized by the appearance of a swelling, at the base of which can be felt the opening or rent in the abdominal tunics, and from the fact that the swelling containing the intestines can be made to disappear when the animal is placed in a favorable position.

Treatment of ventral hernia.—In many instances there is no occasion for treatment, and again, where the hernial sac is extensive, treatment is of no avail. If the hernia is small, a cure may be attempted by the methods to be described in treating of umbilical hernia. If one is fortunate enough to be present when the hernia occurs, and particularly if it is not too large, he may, by the proper application of a pad and broad bandage, effect a perfect cure.

UMBILICAL HERNIA is the passing of any portion of the bowel or omentum ("caul") through the navel, forming a "tumor" at this point. This is often congenital in our animals, and is due to the imperfect closure of the umbilicus and to the position of the body. Many cases of umbilical hernia, like inguinal and scrotal of the congenital kind, disappear entirely by the time the animal reaches its second or third year. Advancing age favors cure in these cases from the fact that the omentum (swinging support of the bowels) is proportionally shorter in adults than in foals, thus lifting the intestines out of the hernial sac and allowing the opening in the walls to close. Probably one of the most frequent causes of umbilical hernia in foals is the practice of keeping them too long from their dams, causing them to fret and worry, and to neigh, or cry, by the hour. The contraction of the abdominal muscles and pressure of the intestines during neighing seem to open the umbilicus and induce hernia. Accidents may cause umbilical hernia in adults in the same manner as ventral hernia is produced, though this is very rare.

Treatment of umbilical hernia.—In the treatment of umbilical hernia it should be remembered that congenital hernias are often removed with age, but probably congenital umbilical hernias less frequently than others. Among the many plans of treatment are to be mentioned the application of a pad over the tumor, the pad being held in place by a broad, tight bandage placed around the animal's body. The chief objection to this is the difficulty in keeping the pad in its place. Blisters are often applied over the swelling, and, as the skin hardens and contracts by the formation of scabs, an artificial bandage or pressure is produced that at times is successful. Another treatment that has gained considerable repute of late years consists in first clipping off the hair over the swelling. Nitric acid is then applied with a small brush, using only enough to moisten the skin. This sets up a deep-seated, adhesive inflammation, which, in very many cases, closes the opening in the navel. Still another plan is to inject a solution of common salt by means of the hypodermic syringe at three or four points about the base of the swelling. This acts in the same manner as the preceding, but may cause serious injury if the syringe or solution is not sterile.

Others, again, after keeping the animal fasting for a few hours, cast and secure it upon its back; the bowel is then carefully returned into the abdomen. The skin over the opening is pinched up and one or two skewers are run through the skin from side to side as close as possible to the umbilical opening. These skewers are kept in place by passing a cord around the skin between them and the abdomen and securely tying it. Great care must be taken not to draw these cords too tight, as this would cause a speedy slough of the skin, the intestines would extrude, and death result. If properly applied, an adhesion is established between the skin and the umbilicus, which effectually closes the orifice. Special clamps are provided for taking up the fold of the skin covering the hernial sac and holding it until the adhesion is formed.

DIAPHRAGMATIC HERNIA.—This consists of the passage of any of the abdominal viscera through a rent in the diaphragm (midriff) into the cavity of the thorax. It is a rather rare accident, and one often impossible to diagnose during life. Colicky symptoms, accompanied with great difficulty in breathing, and the peculiar position so often assumed (that of sitting upon the haunches), are somewhat characteristic of this trouble, though these symptoms, as we have already seen, may be present during diseases of the stomach or anterior portion of the bowels. Even could we diagnose with certainty this form of hernia, there is little or nothing that can be done. Leading the horse up a very steep gangway or causing him to rear up may possibly cause the hernial portion to return to its natural position. This is not enough, however; it must be kept there.

PERITONITIS.

Peritonitis is an inflammation of the serous membrane lining the cavity of and covering the viscera contained within the abdomen. It is very rare to see a case of primary peritonitis. It is, however, somewhat common as a secondary disease from extension of the inflammatory action involving organs covered by the peritoneum. Peritonitis is often caused by injuries, as punctured wounds of the abdomen, severe blows or kicks, or, as is still more common, following the operation of castration. It follows strangulated hernia, invagination, or rupture of the stomach, intestines, liver, or womb.

Symptoms.—Peritonitis is mostly preceded by a chill; the horse is not disposed to move, and, if compelled to do so, moves with a stiff or sore gait; he paws with the front feet and may strike at his belly with the hind ones; lies down very carefully; as the pain is increased while down, he maintains the standing position during most of the time; he walks uneasily about the stall. Constipation is usually present. Pressure on the belly causes acute pain, and the horse will bite, strike, or kick if so disturbed; the abdomen is tucked up; the extremities are fine and cold. The temperature is higher than normal, reaching from 102 deg. to 104 deg. F. The pulse in peritonitis is rather characteristic; it is quickened, beating from 70 to 90 beats a minute, and is hard and wiry. This peculiarity of the pulse occurs in inflammation of the serous membrane, and if accompanied with colicky symptoms, and, in particular, if following any injuries, accidental or surgical, of the peritoneum, there is reason to think that peritonitis is present. Peritonitis in the horse is mostly fatal when it is at all extensive. If death does not occur in a short time, the inflammation assumes a chronic form, in which there is an extensive effusion of water in the cavity of the belly, constituting what is known as ascites, and which, as a rule, results in death.

Treatment.—The treatment of peritonitis is somewhat like that of enteritis. Opium in powder, 1 to 2 drams, with calomel, one-half dram, is to be given every two, three, or four hours, and constitutes the main dependence in this disease. Extensive counterirritants over the belly, consisting of mustard plasters, applications of mercurial ointment, turpentine stupes, or even mild blisters, are recommended. Purgatives must never be given during this complaint. Should we desire to move the bowels, it can be done by gentle enemas, though it is seldom necessary to resort even to this.

ASCITES, OR DROPSY OF THE ABDOMEN.

This is seen as a result of subacute or chronic peritonitis, but may be due to diseases of the liver, kidneys, heart, or lungs. There will be found, on opening the cavity of the belly, a large collection of yellowish or reddish liquid; from a few quarts to several gallons may be present. It may be clear in color, though generally it is yellowish or of a red tint, and contains numerous loose flakes of coagulable lymph.

Symptoms.—There is slight tenderness on pressure; awkward gait of the hind legs; the horse is dull, and may have occasional very slight colicky pains, shown by looking back and striking at the belly with the hind feet. Oftener, however, these colicky symptoms are absent. Diarrhea often precedes death, but during the progress of the disease the bowels are alternately constipated and loose. On percussing the abdominal walls we find that dullness exists to the same height on both sides of the belly; by suddenly pushing or striking the abdomen we can hear the rushing or flooding of water. If the case is an advanced one, the horse is potbellied in the extreme, and dropsical swellings are seen under the belly and upon the legs.

Treatment is, as a rule, unsatisfactory. Saline cathartics, as Epsom or Glauber's salt, and diuretics, ounce doses of saltpeter, may be given. If a veterinarian is at hand he will withdraw the accumulation of water by tapping and then endeavor to prevent its recurrence (though this is almost sure to follow) by giving three times a day saltpeter 1 ounce and iodid of potash 1 dram, and by the application of mustard or blisters over the abdominal walls. Tonics, mineral and vegetable, are also indicated. Probably the best tonic is one consisting of powdered sulphate of iron, gentian, and ginger in equal parts; a heaping tablespoonful of the mixture is given as a drench or mixed with the feed, twice a day. Good nutritious feeds and gentle exercise complete the treatment.

DISEASES OF THE LIVER.

In the United States the liver of the horse is but rarely the seat of disease, and when we consider how frequently the liver of man is affected this can not but appear strange. The absence of the gall bladder may account to a certain extent for his freedom from liver diseases, as overdistention of this and the presence in it of calculi (stones) in man is a frequent source of trouble. In domestic animals, as in man, hot climates tend to produce diseases of the liver, just as in cold climates lung diseases prevail. Not only are diseases of the liver rare in horses in temperate climates, but they are also very obscure, and in many cases pass totally unobserved until after death. There are some symptoms, however, which, when present, should make us examine the liver as carefully as possible. These are jaundice (yellowness of the mucous membranes of the mouth, nose, and eyes) and the condition of the dung, it being light in color and pasty in appearance.

HEPATITIS, OR INFLAMMATION OF THE LIVER.

This disease may be general or local, and may assume an acute or chronic form.

Symptoms.—The symptoms of acute hepatitis are: Dullness; the horse is suffering from some internal pain, but not of a severe type; constipated and clay-colored dung balls; scanty and high-colored urine; and general febrile symptoms. If lying down, he is mostly found on the left side; looks occasionally toward the right side, which, upon close inspection, may be found to be slightly enlarged over the posterior ribs, where pain upon pressure is also evinced. Obscure lameness in front, of the right leg mostly, may be a symptom of hepatitis. The horse, toward the last, reels or staggers in his gait and falls backward in a fainting fit, during one of which he finally succumbs. Death is sometimes due to rupture of the enveloping coat of the liver or of some of its blood vessels.

Causes.—Among the causes that lead to this disease we must mention first the stimulating effect of overfeeding, particularly during hot weather. Horses that are well fed and receive but little exercise are the best subjects for diseases of this organ. We must add to these causes the more mechanical ones, as injuries on the right side over the liver, worms in the liver, gallstones in the biliary ducts, foreign bodies—as needles or nails that have been swallowed and in their wanderings have entered the liver—and, lastly, in some instances, the extension of inflammation from neighboring parts, thus involving this organ. Acute hepatitis may terminate in chronic inflammation, abscesses, rupture of the liver, or may disappear, leaving behind no trace of disease whatever.

Treatment.—This should consist, at first, of the administration of 1 ounce of Barbados aloes or other physic. General blood-letting, if had recourse to early, must prove of much benefit in acute inflammation of the liver. The vein in the neck (jugular) must be opened, and from 4 to 6 quarts of blood may be drawn. Saline medicines, as Glauber's salt or the artificial Carlsbad salt, are indicated. These may be given with the feed in tablespoonful doses. The horse is to be fed sparingly on soft feed, bran mashes chiefly. If treatment proves successful and recovery takes place, see to it that the horse afterwards gets regular exercise and that his feed is not of a too highly nutritious character and not excessive.

JAUNDICE, ICTERUS, OR THE YELLOWS.

This is a condition caused by the retention and absorption of bile into the blood. It was formerly considered to be a disease of itself, but is now regarded as a symptom of disorder of the liver. "The yellows" is observed by looking at the eyes, nose, and mouth, when it will be seen that these parts are yellowish instead of the pale-pink color of health. In white or light-colored horses the skin even may show this yellow tint. The urine is saffron colored, the dung is of a dirty-gray color, and constipation is usually present. Jaundice may be present as a symptom of almost any inflammatory disease. We know that when an animal has fever the secretions are checked, the bile may be retained and absorbed throughout the system, and yellowness of the mucous membranes follows. Jaundice may also exist during the presence of simple constipation, hepatitis, biliary calculi, abscesses, hardening of the liver, etc.

Treatment.—When jaundice exists we must endeavor to rid the system of the excess of bile, and this is best accomplished by giving purgatives that act upon the liver. Calomel, 2 drams, with aloes, 7 drams, should be given. Glauber's salt in handful doses once or twice a day for a week is also effective. May apple, rhubarb, castor oil, and other cathartics that act upon the first or small bowels may be selected. We must be careful to see that the bowels are kept open by avoiding hard, dry, bulky feeds.

RUPTURE OF THE LIVER.

This is known to occur at times in the horse, most frequently in old, fat horses and those that get but little exercise. Horses that have suffered from chronic liver disease for years eventually present symptoms of colic and die quite suddenly. Upon post-mortem examination we discover that the liver has ruptured. The cicatrices, or scars, that are often found upon the liver indicate that this organ may suffer small rupture and yet the horse may recover from it. This can not be the result, however, if the rent or tear is extensive, since in such cases death must quickly follow from hemorrhage, or, later, from peritonitis. Enlarged liver is particularly liable to rupture.

The immediate causes of rupture appear to be excessive muscular exertion, as leaping a fence, a fall, a blow from a collision, a kick from a horse, or sudden distention of the abdomen with gas.

The symptoms of rupture of the liver will depend upon the extent of the laceration. If slight, there will be simply the symptoms of abdominal pain, looking back to the sides, lying down, etc.; if extensive, the horse is dull and dejected, has no appetite, breathing becomes short and catching, he sighs or sobs, visible mucous membranes are pale, extremities cold, pulse fast, small, and weak or running down. Countenance now shows much distress, he sweats profusely, totters in his gait, props his legs wide apart, reels, staggers, and falls. He may get up again, but soon falls dead. The rapid running-down pulse, paleness of the eyes, nose, and mouth, sighing, stertorous breathing, tottering gait, etc., are symptoms by which we know that the animal is dying from internal hemorrhage.

Treatment.—But little can be done in the way of treatment. Opium in powder, in doses of 2 drams every two or three hours, may be given, with the idea of preventing as much as possible all movements of internal organs. If there is reason to suspect internal bleeding, we should give large and frequent doses of white-oak bark tea, dram doses of tannic or gallic acid, or the same quantity of sugar of lead, every half hour or hour. Fluid extract of ergot or tincture of the chlorid of iron, in ounce doses, may be selected. Cold water dashed upon the right side or injected into the rectum is highly spoken of as a means of checking the hemorrhage.

BILIARY CALCULI, OR GALLSTONES.

These are rarely found in the horse, but may occupy the hepatic ducts, giving rise to jaundice and to colicky pains. There are no absolutely diagnostic symptoms, but should one find a horse that suffers from repeated attacks of colic, accompanied with symptoms of violent pain, and that during or following these attacks the animal is jaundiced, it is possible that gallstones are present. There is little or nothing to be done except to give medicines to overcome pain, trusting that these concretions may pass on to the bowels, where, from their small size, they will not occasion any inconvenience.

DISEASES OF THE PANCREAS AND SPLEEN.

Diseases of the pancreas and spleen are so rare, or their symptoms so little understood, that it is impossible to write anything concerning either of these organs and their simple diseases that will convey to the reader information of practical value.

GASTROINTESTINAL PARASITES.

[By Maurice C. Hall, Ph. D., D. V. M.]

Horses are subject to infestation by a number of species of worms, these worms being especially numerous at certain points in the alimentary canal.

The tapeworms of the horse are relatively unimportant and not very common. There are three species, the smallest about two inches long and the largest about eight inches long. These two occur in the small intestine; a form intermediate in size may also be found in the cecum and colon. These are flat, segmented worms with the head at the smaller end.

Flukes occur in horses elsewhere, but have apparently never been reported in the United States.

Roundworms, or nematodes, constitute the most important group of parasitic worms in the horse. The more important of these are as follows:

ROUNDWORM (Ascaris equorum).—This is the common large, yellowish roundworm (Pl. V, fig. 5), about the size of a lead pencil or larger, which may be found in horses almost anywhere in the United States. It occurs in the intestine and probably occasions little damage as a rule, except when present in large numbers, in which case it will probably be found in the droppings. The symptoms occasioned by it are rather obscure and are such as might arise from a number of other causes, namely, colicky pains, depraved appetite, diarrhea or constipation, and general unthriftiness. In a general way, the presence of parasites may be suspected when an animal shows no fever but is unthrifty, debilitated, and shows disordered bowel movements in cases where there is no evident explanation in the way of feed, care, and surroundings.

Treatment for the removal of this worm consists in the use of anthelmintics such as tartar emetic, turpentine, and carbon bisulphid, but as these remedies are essentially poisons intended to kill the worm, and as their use by persons unused to determining conditions unfavorable for their use is dangerous and likely to result in the death of the animal or in permanent injury to the kidneys or other organs, it is advisable to call in a veterinarian in such cases.

PINWORM (Oxyuris equi).—This is a rather large worm (Pl. V, fig. 1), somewhat smaller than the foregoing and readily distinguishable from it by the presence of a long, slender tail. It also occurs generally throughout the United States, and except when present in large numbers probably does very little damage. It inhabits the large intestine and hence is difficult to reach with medicines administered by the mouth. The use of a half ounce of gentian on the feed night and morning for a week has been recommended, but the use of rectal enemas will give more prompt and perhaps more certain results. These enemas may be made up with one or two tablespoonfuls of salt to the pint, or infusions of quassia chips, a half pound to the gallon of water, and injected into the rectum once or twice a day.

STOMACH WORMS OF THE HORSE (Habronema spp.).—These worms (Pl. V, fig. 4) occur in nodules in the mucous lining of the horse's stomach and are credited with doing more or less damage. Their presence is not likely to be diagnosed in the present state of our knowledge, but in case their presence is determined or suspected in connection with the summer sores noted later, tartar emetic is recommended. At least one of these worms has an intermediate stage in the ordinary housefly, the fly becoming infested while it is a larva developing in horse manure. Obviously, therefore, any measures looking toward the eradication of the fly or the proper disposal of manure will aid in the control and eradication of this worm. The United States Bureau of Entomology has shown that fly maggots travel downward through a manure pile as it comes time for the maggot to enter the ground and pupate, and an excellent maggot trap, consisting of an exposed manure platform raised on posts which are set in a concrete basin extending under the platform and filled with three or four inches of water, has been devised. As maggots work down they come to the platform and escape through the spaces between the boards, left open for the purpose, to the water in the concrete basin, where they are drowned. In this way the exposed manure pile serves to attract flies with a deceptive proffer of a breeding place.

Apparently it is the young forms of these stomach worms which develop at times on the skin, causing a cutaneous habronemiasis known as summer sores. This is discussed under diseases of the skin.

STRONGYLES (Strongylus spp. and Cylicostomum spp.).—These worms (Pl. V, figs. 2 and 3) live in the large intestines of the horse as adult worms and are often present in enormous numbers. Many of them are very small, and the largest are less than two inches long. The adult worms do considerable damage, but the immature or larval worms do even more.

The larva of Strongylus vulgaris enters the blood vessels of the intestinal wall and finally attaches in the great mesenteric artery, where it causes aneurisms; here it transforms to an adult without sexual organs, which passes to the walls of the cecum and encysts, giving rise to small cysts or abscesses; these cysts finally discharge to the interior of the cecum, setting the worms, now mature, at liberty in the lumen of the intestines.

The larvae of Strongylus equinus are found principally in the liver, lungs, and pancreas.

The larvae of Strongylus edentatus may be met with almost anywhere, especially under the serous membranes, the pleura and peritoneum.

The embryos and larvae of species of Cylicostomum are found in the mucosa of the large intestine.

Aneurisms impede the circulation of the blood, and may give rise to intermittent lameness. The aneurism may rupture, since it constitutes a weak place in the wall of the blood vessel, and the horse die of the resulting hemorrhage. Particles of blood clots in the aneurisms may break off and plug a blood vessel at the point where they lodge, thereby causing the death of the part from which the blood is shut off and occasioning a type of colic which often terminates fatally. The larvae of Cylicostomum form cysts in the walls of the large intestine, and when these open they give rise to small sores; when they are numerous they cause a thickening and hardening which impair the proper functioning of the intestine. Abscesses sometimes perforate, causing death. The adult worm attacks the intestinal wall, causing bleeding which results in anemia. The numerous small sores thus caused allow bacteria to get into the circulation, sometimes resulting in localized abscesses or in septic arthritis or joint disease.



The disease due to these worms is quite common. The worms enter the body as immature forms in the spring, when the animal is turned out on pasture. The first symptoms show in November or December, the disease being in a latent stage during the development of the worms. The first symptoms are diarrhea, loss of appetite, and emaciation. The animal becomes anemic. Secondary symptoms are edema and such complications as joint infection, colic due to embolism, and accidents from falls, hemorrhage from ruptured aneurisms, or perforation at the site of abscess. The animal may die, recover, or become a chronic sufferer, the internal injuries failing to make a satisfactory recovery even with the removal of the worms in chronic cases.

Treatment calls for the expulsion of the adult worms from the intestine, the development of the body resistance to repair the damage wrought by the developing worms, and the combating of complications. For the expulsion of the worms the use of carbon bisulphid in gelatin capsules, 2 to 5 grams, according to the size of the patient, for five days, followed by magnesium sulphate the sixth day, has been recommended. Owing to the difficulty and danger in the administration of carbon bisulphid in capsule, it is advisable to call in a veterinarian. Tonic treatment consists in the subcutaneous administration of artificial serum and caffein. The various complications of bacterial infection, colic, heart depression, etc., call for the attention of a veterinarian. Preventive measures consist in avoiding reinfection with worms so far as possible by using dry upland pasture in preference to low, wet land, and by rotating pastures or rotation of the stock on a given pasture. Horses may be alternated with cattle, sheep, or hogs to advantage, so far as parasites are concerned. Another feature, always of importance, is the provision of a pure, potable drinking water.

BOTS (Gastrophilus spp.).—Bots (Pl. VI) are quite common in the stomach and upper part of the small intestine of the horse anywhere in the United States, one kind being occasionally found in the rectum. They attach to that portion of the mucous lining of the stomach nearest the esophagus or sometimes around the pyloric opening to the intestine or even in the upper intestine, and undoubtedly interfere with the proper functioning of the stomach and the health of the animal to a certain extent. The symptoms are rather vague as a rule, but the general result is a condition of unthriftiness.

A treatment which has been found effective consists in feeding lightly on the day preceding treatment, withholding food in the evening and giving an ounce of Barbados aloes or a pint of linseed oil. The next day give 3 drams of carbon bisulphid in a gelatin capsule at 6 o'clock, repeat the dose at 7 o'clock, and again at 8 o'clock, making a total of 9 drams altogether for an adult horse; half that amount will be sufficient for a yearling colt. As previously noted, there is some little difficulty and danger of accident in the administration of treatments of this character and it is advisable to call in a veterinarian.

Unless destroyed by treatment, the bots in the stomach of the horse pass out in the manure in the spring and burrow down into the soil an inch or two. Here they undergo a certain amount of development and finally emerge as adult flies. These bot flies mate and during the summer the eggs are deposited by the female on the forelegs and shoulders or around the chin, mouth and nostrils of the horse, the location and appearance of the eggs varying somewhat with different species of bot flies. These eggs or the young maggots escaping from them are ingested by the horse in licking the portions irritated by the movement of the escaping maggots, and when swallowed develop to form bots in the stomach. Careful currying, especially around the forequarters, is an aid in keeping down bot infestation, but this is not commonly feasible with horses on pasture, the ones most liable to become infested.



DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS.

By W. S. HARBAUGH, V. S.

[Revised by Leonard Pearson, B. S., V. M. D.]

The organs pertaining to the respiratory function may be enumerated in natural order as follows: The nasal openings, or nostrils; the nasal chambers, through which the air passes in the head; the sinuses in the head, communicating with the nasal chambers; the pharynx, common to the functions of breathing and swallowing; the larynx, at the top of the windpipe; the trachea, or windpipe; the bronchi (into which the windpipe divides), two tubes leading from the windpipe to the right and left lungs, respectively; the bronchial tubes, which penetrate and convey air to all parts of the lungs; the lungs.

The pleura is a thin membrane that envelops the lung and lines the walls of the thoracic cavity. The diaphragm is a muscular structure, completely separating the contents of the thoracic cavity from those of the abdominal cavity. It is essentially a muscle of inspiration, and the principal one. Other muscles aid in the mechanism of respiration, but the diseases or injuries of them have nothing to do with the diseases under consideration.

Just within the nasal openings the skin becomes gradually but perceptibly finer, until it is succeeded by the mucous membrane. Near the junction of the skin and membrane is a small hole, presenting the appearance of having been made with a punch; this is the opening of the lachrymal duct, a canal that conveys the tears from the eyes. Within and above the nasal openings are the cavities, or fissures, called the false nostrils. The nasal chambers are completely separated, the right from the left, by a cartilaginous partition, the nasal septum. Each nasal chamber is divided into three continuous compartments by two thin, scroll-like turbinated bones.

The mucous membrane lining the nasal chambers, and, in fact, the entire respiratory tract, is much more delicate and more frequently diseased that the mucous membrane of any other part of the body. The sinuses of the head are compartments which communicate with the nasal chambers and are lined with a continuation of the same membrane that lines the nasal chambers; their presence increases the volume and modifies the form of the head without increasing its weight.

The horse, in a normal condition, breathes exclusively through the nostrils. The organs of respiration are quite liable to become diseased, and, as many of the causes which lead to these attacks can be avoided, it is both important and profitable to know and study the causes.

CAUSES OF DISEASES OF RESPIRATORY ORGANS.

The causes of many of the diseases of these organs may be given under a common head, because even a simple cold, if neglected or badly treated, may run into the most complicated lung disease and terminate fatally. In the spring and fall, when the animals are changing their coats, there is a marked predisposition to contract disease, and consequently at those periods care should be taken to prevent other exciting causes.

Badly ventilated stables are a frequent source of disease. It is a mistake to think that country stables necessarily have purer air than city stables. Stables on some farms are so faultily constructed that it is almost impossible for the foul air to gain an exit. All stables should have a sufficient supply of pure air, and be so arranged that strong drafts can not blow directly on the animals. In ventilating a stable, it is best to arrange to remove air from near the floor and admit it through numerous small openings near the ceiling. The reason for this is that the coldest and most impure air in the stable is near the floor, while that which is warmest and purest, and therefore can least be spared, is near the top of the room. In summer, top exits and cross currents should be provided to remove excessive heat. Hot stables are almost always poorly ventilated, and the hot stable is a cause of disease on account of the extreme change of temperature that a horse is liable to when taken out, and extreme changes of temperature are to be avoided as certain causes of disease.

A cold, close stable is invariably damp, and is to be avoided as much as the hot, close, and foul one. Horses changed from a cold to a warm stable are more liable to contract cold than when changed from a warm to a cold one. Pure air is more essential than warmth, and this fact should be especially remembered when the stable is made close and foul to gain the warmth. It is more economical to keep the horse warm with blankets than to prevent the ingress of pure air in order to make the stable warm.

Stables should be well drained and kept clean. Some farmers allow large quantities of manure to accumulate in the stable. This is a pernicious practice, as the decomposing organic matter evolves gases that are predisposing or exciting causes of disease. When a horse is overheated, it is not safe to allow him to dry by evaporation; rubbing him dry and gradually cooling him out is the wisest treatment. When a horse is hot—covered with sweat—it is dangerous to allow him to stand in a draft; it is the best plan to walk him until his temperature moderates. In such cases a light blanket thrown over the animal may prevent a cold. Overwork or overexertion often causes the greater number of fatal cases of congestion of the lungs. Avoid prolonged or fast work when the horse is out of condition or unaccustomed to it. Animals that have been working in cold rains should be dried and cooled out and not left to dry by evaporation. When the temperature of the weather is at the extreme, either of heat or cold, diseases of the organs of respiration are most frequent.

It is not to be supposed that farmers can give their horses the particular attention given to valuable racing and pleasure horses, but they can most assuredly give them common-sense care, and this may often save the life of a valuable animal. If the owner properly considers his interests, he will study the welfare of his horses so that he may be able to instruct the servant in details of stable management.

WOUNDS ABOUT THE NOSTRILS.

Wounds in this neighborhood are common, and are generally caused by snagging on a nail or splinter or by the bite of another horse; or by getting "run into," or by running against something. Occasionally the nostril is so badly torn and lacerated that it is impossible to effect a cure without leaving the animal blemished for life, but in the majority of instances the blemish, or scar, is the result of want of conservative treatment. As soon as possible after the accident the parts should be brought together and held there by stitches. If too much time is allowed to elapse, the swelling of the parts will considerably interfere. Never cut away any skin that may be loose and hanging, or else a scar will certainly remain. Bring the parts in direct apposition and place the stitches from a quarter to a half-inch apart, as circumstances may demand. It is not necessary to have special surgeons' silk and needles for this operation; good linen thread or ordinary silk thread will answer. The wound afterwards only requires to be kept clean. For this purpose it should be cleansed and discharges washed away daily with a solution made of carbolic acid 1 part in 40 parts of water. If on account of the irritability the horse is inclined to rub the wound against some object, his head should be tied by means of two halter ropes attached to the opposite sides of the stall to prevent him from opening the wound. Except when at work or eating, the head should be so tied about 10 days.

TUMORS WITHIN THE NOSTRILS.

A small, globular tumor is sometimes found within the false nostril, under that part of the skin that is seen to puff or rise and fall when a horse is exerted and breathing hard. These tumors contain matter of a cheesy consistency.

Treatment.—If the tumor is well opened and the matter squeezed out, nature will perform a cure. If the opening is made from the outside through the skin, it should be at the most dependent part, but much the best way to open the tumor is from the inside. Quiet the animal, gently insert your finger up in the direction of the tumor, and you will soon discover that it is much larger inside than it appears to be on the outside. If necessary put a twitch on the ear of the horse to quiet him; run the index finger of your left hand against the tumor; now, with the right hand, carefully insert the knife by running the back of the blade along the index finger of the left hand until the tumor is reached; with the left index finger guide the point of the blade quickly and surely into the tumor; make the opening large. A little blood may flow for a while, but it is of no consequence. Squeeze out the matter and keep the part clean.

COLD IN THE HEAD, OR NASAL CATARRH.

Catarrh is an inflammation of a mucous membrane. It is accompanied with excessive secretion. In nasal catarrh the inflammation may extend from the membrane lining the nose to the throat, the inside of the sinuses, and to the eyes. The causes are the general causes of respiratory disease enumerated above. It is especially common in young horses and in horses not acclimated.

Symptoms.—The membrane at the beginning of the attack is dry, congested, and irritable; it is of a deeper hue than natural, pinkish red or red. Soon a watery discharge from the nostrils makes its appearance; the eyes may also be more or less affected and tears flow over the cheeks. The animal has some fever, which may be easily detected by means of a clinical thermometer inserted in the rectum or, roughly, by placing the finger in the mouth, as the feeling of heat conveyed to the finger will be greater than natural.

To become somewhat expert in ascertaining the changes of temperature in the horse it is only necessary to place the finger often in the mouths of horses known to be healthy. After you have become accustomed to the warmth of the mouth of the healthy animal you will have no difficulty in detecting a marked increase of the temperature. The animal may be dull; he sneezes or snorts, but does not cough unless the throat is affected; he expels the air forcibly through his nostrils, very often in a manner that may be aptly called "blowing his nose." A few days after the attack begins the discharge from the nostrils changes from a watery to that of a thick, mucilaginous state, of a yellowish-white color, and may be more or less profuse. Often the appetite is lost and the animal becomes debilitated.

Treatment.—This disease is not serious, but inasmuch as neglect or bad treatment may cause it to lead to something worse or become chronic it should receive proper attention. The animal should not be worked for a time. A few days of rest, with pure air and good feed, will be of greater benefit than most medication. The value of pure air can not be overestimated, but drafts must be avoided. The benefit derived from the inhalation of steam is considerable. This is effected by holding the horse's head over a bucketful of boiling water, so that the animal will be compelled to inhale steam with every inhalation of air. Stirring the hot water with a wisp of hay causes the steam to arise in greater abundance. One may cause the horse to put his nose in a bag containing cut hay upon which hot water has been poured, the bottom of the bag being stood in a bucket, but the bag must be of loose texture, as gunny sack, or, if of canvas, holes must be cut in the side to admit fresh air.

The horse may be made to inhale steam four or five times a day, about 15 or 20 minutes each time.

Particular attention should be paid to the diet. Give bran mashes, scalded oats, linseed gruel, and grass, if in season. If the horse evinces no desire for this soft diet, it is better to allow any kind of feed he will eat, such as hay, oats, corn, etc., than to keep him on short rations.

If the animal is constipated, relieve this symptom by injections (enemas) of warm water into the rectum three or four times a day, but do not administer purgative medicines, except of a mild character.

For simple cases the foregoing is all that is required, but if the appetite is lost and the animal appears debilitated and dull, give 3 ounces of the solution of acetate of ammonia and 2 drams of powdered chlorate of potassium diluted with a pint of water three times a day as a drench. Be careful when giving the drench; do not pound the horse on the gullet to make him swallow; be patient, and take time, and do it right.

If the weather is cold, blanket the animal and keep him in a comfortable stall. If the throat is sore, treat as advised for that ailment, to be described hereafter.

If, after 10 days or 2 weeks, the discharge from the nostrils continues, give one-half dram of reduced iron three times a day. This may be mixed with damp feed. Common cold should be thoroughly understood and intelligently treated in order to prevent more dangerous diseases.

CHRONIC CATARRH (OR NASAL GLEET, OR COLLECTION IN THE SINUSES).

This is a subacute or chronic inflammation of some part of the membrane affected in common cold, the disease just described. It is manifested by a persistent discharge of a thick white or yellowish-white matter from one or both nostrils. The commonest cause is a neglected or badly treated cold, and it usually follows those cases where the horse has suffered exposure, been overworked, or has not received proper feed, and, as a consequence, has become debilitated. It may occur as a sequel to influenza.

Other but less frequent causes for this affection are: Fractures of the bones that involve the membrane of the sinuses, and even blows on the head over the sinuses. Diseased teeth often involve a sinus and cause a fetid discharge from the nostril. Violent coughing is said to have forced particles of feed into the sinus, which acted as a cause of the disease. Tumors growing in the sinuses are known to have caused it. It is also attributed to disease of the turbinated bones. Absorption of the bones forming the walls of the sinuses has been caused by the pressure of pus collecting in them and by tumors filling up the cavity.

Symptoms.—Great caution must be exercised when examining these cases, for the horse may have glanders, while, on the other hand, horses have been condemned as glandered when really there was nothing ailing them but nasal gleet. This is not contagious, but may stubbornly resist treatment and last for a long time. In most cases the discharge is from one nostril only, which may signify that the sinuses on that side of the head are affected. The discharge may be intermittent; that is, quantities may be discharged at times and again little or none for a day or so. Such an intermittent discharge usually signifies disease of the sinuses. The glands under and between the bones of the lower jaw may be enlarged. The peculiar ragged-edged ulcer of glanders is not to be found on the membrane within the nostrils, but occasionally sores are to be seen there. If there is any doubt about it, the symptoms of glanders should be well studied in order that one may be competent to form a safe opinion.

The eye on the side of the discharging nostril may have a peculiar appearance and look smaller than its fellow. There may be an enlargement, having the appearance of a bulging out of the bone over the part affected, between or below the eyes. The breath may be offensive, which indicates decomposition of the matter or bones or disease of the teeth. A diseased tooth is further indicated by the horse holding his head to one side when eating, or by dropping the feed from the mouth after partly chewing it. When the bones between the eyes, below the eyes, and above the back teeth of the upper jaw are tapped on, a hollow, drumlike sound is emitted, but if the sinus is filled with pus or contains a large tumor the sound emitted will be the same as if a solid substance were struck; by this means the sinus affected may be located in some instances. The hair may be rough over the affected part, or even the bone may be soft to the touch and the part give somewhat to pressure or leave an impression where it is pressed upon with the finger.

Treatment.—The cause of the trouble must be ascertained before treatment is commenced. In the many cases in which the animal is in poor condition (in fact, in all cases) he should have the most nutritive feed and regular exercise. The feed, or box containing it, should be placed on the ground, as the dependent position of the head favors the discharge.

The cases that do not require a surgical operation must, as a rule, have persistent medical treatment. Mineral tonics and local medication are of the most value. For eight days give the following mixture: Reduced iron, 3 ounces; powdered nux vomica, 1 ounce. Mix and make into 16 powders; one powder should be mixed with the feed twice a day. Arsenious acid (white arsenic) in doses of from 3 to 6 grains three times daily is a good tonic for such cases. Sulphur burnt in the stable while the animal is there to inhale its fumes is also a valuable adjunct. Care should be taken that the fumes of the burning sulphur are sufficiently diluted with air so as not to suffocate the horse. Chlorid of lime sprinkled around the stall is good. Also keep a quantity of it under the hay in the manger so that the gases will be inhaled as the horse holds his head over the hay while eating. Keep the nostrils washed and the discharge cleaned away from the manger and stall. The horse may be caused to inhale the vapor of compound tincture of benzoin by pouring 2 ounces of this drug into hot water and fumigating in the usual way.

If the nasal gleet is the result of a diseased tooth, the latter must be removed. Trephining is the best possible way to remove it in such cases, as the operation immediately opens the cavity, which can be attended to direct. In all those cases of nasal gleet in which sinuses contain either tumors or collections of pus the only relief is by the trephine; and, no matter how thoroughly described, this is an operation that will be seldom attempted by the nonprofessional. It would therefore be a waste of time to give the modus operandi.

An abscess involving the turbinated bones is similar to the collection of pus in the sinuses and must be relieved by trephining.

THICKENING OF THE NASAL MEMBRANE.

This is sometimes denoted by a chronic discharge, a snuffling in the breathing, and a contraction of the nostril. It is a result of common cold and requires the same treatment as prescribed for nasal gleet, namely, the sulphate of iron, sulphate of copper, iodid of potassium, etc. The membranes of both sides may be affected, but one side only is the rule; the affected side may be easily detected by holding the hand tightly over one nostril at a time. When the healthy side is closed in this manner the breathing through the affected side will demonstrate a decreased caliber or an obstruction.

NASAL POLYPUS.

Tumors with narrow bases (somewhat pear-shaped) are occasionally found attached to the membrane of the nasal chambers, and are obstructions to breathing through the side in which they are located. They vary much in size; some are so small that their presence is not manifested, while others almost completely fill the chamber, thereby causing a serious obstruction to the passage of air. The stem, or base, of the tumor is generally attached high in the chamber, and usually the tumor can not be seen, but occasionally it increases in size until it can be observed within the nostril. Sometimes, instead of hanging down toward the nasal opening, it falls back into the pharynx. It causes a discharge from the nostril, a more or less noisy snuffling sound in breathing, according to its size, a discharge of blood (if it is injured), and sneezing. The side that it occupies can be detected in the same way as described for the detection of the affected side when the breathing is obstructed by a thickened membrane.

The only relief is removal of the polypus, which, like all other operations, should be done by an expert when it is possible to obtain one. The operation is performed by grasping the base of the tumor with suitable forceps and twisting it round and round until it is torn from its attachment, or by cutting it off with a noose of wire. The resulting hemorrhage is checked by the use of an astringent lotion, such as a solution of the tincture of iron, or by packing the nostrils with surgeon's gauze.

PHARYNGEAL POLYPUS.

This is exactly the same kind of tumor described as nasal polypus, the only difference being in the situation. Indeed, the stem of the tumor may be attached to the membrane of the nasal chamber, as before explained, or it may be attached in the fauces (opening of the back part of the mouth), and the body of the tumor then falls into the pharynx. In this situation it may seriously interfere with breathing. Sometimes it drops into the larynx, causing the most alarming symptoms. The animal coughs, or tries to cough, saliva flows from the mouth, the breathing is performed with the greatest difficulty and accompanied with a loud noise; the animal appears as if strangled and often falls exhausted. When the tumor is coughed out of the larynx the animal regains quickly and soon appears as if nothing were ailing. These sudden attacks and quick recoveries point to the nature of the trouble. The examination must be made by holding the animal's mouth open with a balling iron or speculum and running the hand back into the mouth. If the tumor is within reach, it must be removed in the same manner as though it were in the nose.

BLEEDING FROM THE NOSE.

This often occurs during the course of certain diseases, namely, influenza, bronchitis, purpura hemorrhagica, glanders, etc. But it also occurs independently of other affections and, as before mentioned, is a symptom of polypus, or tumor, in the nose.

Injuries to the head, exertion, violent sneezing—causing a rupture of a small blood vessel—also induce it. The bleeding is almost invariably from one nostril only, and is never very serious. The blood escapes in drops (seldom in a stream) and is not frothy, as when the hemorrhage is from the lungs. (See Bleeding from the lungs, p. 127.) In most cases bathing the head and washing out the nostril with cold water are all that is necessary. If the cause is known, you will be guided according to circumstances. If the bleeding continues, pour ice-cold water over the face, between the eyes and down over the nasal chambers. A bag containing ice in small pieces applied to the head is often efficient. If in spite of these measures the hemorrhage continues, plugging the nostrils with cotton, tow, or oakum, should be tried. A string should be tied around the plug before it is pushed up into the nostril, so that it can be safely withdrawn after 4 or 5 hours. If both nostrils are bleeding, only one nostril at a time should be plugged. If the hemorrhage is profuse and persistent, a drench composed of 1 dram of acetate of lead dissolved in 1 pint of water, or ergot, 1 ounce, should be given.

INFLAMMATION OF THE PHARYNX.

As already stated, the pharynx is common to the functions of both respiration and alimentation. From this organ the air passes into the larynx and thence onward to the lungs. In the posterior part of the pharynx is the superior extremity of the gullet, the canal through which the feed and water pass to the stomach. Inflammation of the pharynx is a complication of other diseases—namely, influenza, strangles, etc.—and is probably always more or less complicated with inflammation of the larynx. That it may exist as an independent affection there is no reason to doubt, and it is discussed as such with the diseases of the digestive tract.

SORE THROAT, OR LARYNGITIS.

The larynx is situated in the space between the lower jawbones just back of the root of the tongue. It may be considered as a box (somewhat depressed on each side), composed principally of cartilages and small muscles, and lined on the inside with a continuation of the respiratory mucous membrane. Posteriorly it opens into and is continuous with the windpipe. It is the organ of the voice, the vocal cords being situated within it; but in the horse this function is of little consequence. It dilates and contracts to a certain extent, thus regulating the volume of air passing through it. The mucous membrane lining it internally is so highly sensitive that if the smallest particle of feed happens to drop into it from the pharynx violent coughing ensues instantly and is continued until the source of irritation is ejected. This is a provision of nature to prevent foreign substances gaining access to the lungs. That projection called Adam's apple in the neck of man is the prominent part of one of the cartilages forming the larynx.

Inflammation of the larynx is a serious and sometimes fatal disease, and, as before stated, is usually complicated with inflammation of the pharynx, constituting what is popularly known as "sore throat." The chief causes are chilling and exposure.

Symptoms.—About the first symptom noticed is cough, followed by difficulty in swallowing, which may be due to soreness of the membrane of the pharynx, over which the feed or water must pass, or from the pain caused by the contraction of the muscles necessary to impel the feed or water onward to the gullet; or this same contraction of the muscles may cause a pressure on the larynx and produce pain. In many instances the difficulty in swallowing is so great that water, and in some cases feed, is returned through the nose. This, however, does not occur in laryngitis alone, but only when the pharynx is involved in the inflammation. The glands between the lower jawbones and below the ears may be swollen. Pressure on the larynx induces coughing. The head is more or less "poked out," and has the appearance of being stiffly carried. The membrane in the nose becomes red. A discharge from the nostrils soon appears. As the disease advances, the breathing may assume a more or less noisy character; sometimes a harsh, rasping snore is emitted with every respiration, the breathing becomes hurried, and occasionally the animal seems threatened with suffocation.

Treatment.—In all cases steam the nostrils, as has been advised for cold in the head. In bad cases cause the steam to be inhaled continuously for hours—until relief is afforded. Have a bucketful of fresh boiling water every fifteen or twenty minutes. In each bucketful of water put a tablespoonful of oil of turpentine, or compound tincture of benzoin, the vapor of which will be carried along with the steam to the affected parts and have a beneficial effect. In mild cases steaming the nostrils five, six, or seven times a day will suffice.

The animal should be placed in a comfortable, dry stall (a box stall preferred), and should have pure air to breathe. The body should be blanketed, and bandages applied to the legs. The diet should consist of soft feed—bran mashes, scalded oats, linseed gruel, and, best of all, fresh grass, if in season. The manger, or trough, should neither be too high nor too low, but a temporary one should be constructed at about the height he carries his head. Having to reach too high or too low may cause so much pain that the animal would rather forego satisfying what little appetite he may have than inflict pain by craning his head for feed or water. A supply of fresh water should be before him all the time; he will not drink too much, nor will the cold water hurt him. Constipation (if present) must be relieved by enemas of warm water, administered three or four times during the twenty-four hours.

A liniment composed of 2 ounces of olive oil and 1 each of solution of ammonia and tincture of cantharides, well shaken together, may be thoroughly rubbed in about the throat from ear to ear, and about 6 inches down over the windpipe, and in the space between the lower jaws. This liniment should be applied once a day for two or three days.

If the animal is breathing with great difficulty, persevere in steaming the nostrils, and dissolve 2 drams of chlorate of potassium in every gallon of water he will drink; even if he can not swallow much of it, and even if it is returned through the nostrils, it will be of some benefit to the pharynx as a gargle.

An electuary of acetate of potash, 2 drams, honey, and licorice powder may be spread on the teeth with a paddle every few hours. If the pain of coughing is great, 2 or 3 grains of morphin may be added to the electuary.

When the breathing begins to be loud, relief is afforded in some cases by giving a drench composed of 2 drams of fluid extract of jaborandi in half a pint of water. If benefit is derived, this drench may be repeated four or five hours after the first dose is given. It will cause a free flow of saliva from the mouth.

In urgent cases, when suffocation seems inevitable, the operation of tracheotomy must be performed. To describe this operation in words that would make it comprehensible to the general reader is a more difficult task than performing the operation, which, in the hands of the expert, is simple and attended with little danger.

The operator should be provided with a tracheotomy tube (to be purchased from any veterinary instrument maker) and a sharp knife, a sponge, and a bucket of clean cold water. The place to be selected for opening the windpipe is that part which is found, upon examination, to be least covered with muscles, about 5 or 6 inches below the throat. Right here, then, is the place to cut through. Have an assistant hold the animal's head still. Grasp your knife firmly in the right hand, select the spot and make the cut from above to below directly on the median line on the anterior surface of the windpipe. Make the cut about 2 inches long in the windpipe; this necessitates cutting three or four rings. One bold stroke is usually sufficient, but if it is necessary to make several other cuts to finish the operation, do not hesitate. Your purpose is to make a hole in the windpipe sufficiently large to admit the tracheotomy tube. It is quickly manifested when the windpipe is severed; the hot air rushes out, and when air is taken in it is sucked in with a noise. A slight hemorrhage may result (it never amounts to much), which is easily controlled by washing the wound with a sponge and cold water, but use care not to get any water in the windpipe. Do not neglect to instruct your assistant to hold the head down immediately after the operation, so that the neck will be in a horizontal line. This will prevent the blood from getting into the windpipe and will allow it to drop directly on the ground. If you have the self-adjustable tube, it retains its place in the wound without further trouble after it is inserted. The other kind requires to be secured in position by means of two tapes or strings tied around the neck. After the hemorrhage is somewhat abated, sponge the blood away and see that the tube is thoroughly clean, then insert it, directing the tube downward toward the lungs.

The immediate relief this operation affords is gratifying to behold. The animal, a few minutes before on the verge of death from suffocation, emitting a loud wheezing sound with every breath, with haggard countenance, body swaying, pawing, gasping, fighting for breath, now breathes tranquilly, and may be in search of something to eat.

The tube should be removed once a day and cleaned with carbolic-acid solution (1 to 20), and the discharge washed away from the wound with a solution of carbolic acid, 1 part to 40 parts water. Several times a day the hand should be held over the opening in the tube to test the animal's ability to breathe through the nostrils, and as soon as it is demonstrated that breathing can be performed in the natural way the tube should be removed, the wound thoroughly cleansed with carbolic-acid solution (1 to 40), and closed by inserting four or five stitches through the skin and muscle. Do not include the cartilages of the windpipe in the stitches. Apply the solution to the wound three or four times a day until healed. When the tube is removed to clean it the lips of the wound may be pressed together to ascertain whether or not the horse can breathe through the larynx. The use of the tube should be discontinued as soon as possible.

It is true that tracheotomy tubes are seldom to be found on farms, and especially when most urgently required. In such instances there is nothing left to be done but, with a strong needle, pass a waxed end or other strong string through each side of the wound, including the cartilage of the windpipe, and keep the wound open by tying the strings over the neck.

During the time the tube is used the other treatment advised must not be neglected. After a few days the discharge from the nostrils becomes thicker and more profuse. This is a good symptom and signifies that the acute stage has passed. At any time during the attack, if the horse becomes weak, give whisky or aromatic spirits of ammonia, 2 ounces in water. Do not be in a hurry to put the animal back to work, but give plenty of time for a complete recovery. Gentle and gradually increasing exercise may be given as soon as the horse is able to stand it. The feed should be carefully selected and of good quality. Tonics, as iron or arsenic, may be employed.

If abscesses form in connection with the disease they must be opened to allow the escape of pus, but do not rashly plunge a knife into swollen glands; wait until you are certain the swelling contains pus. The formation of pus may be encouraged by the constant application of poultices for hours at a time. The best poultice for the purpose is made of linseed meal, with sufficient hot water to make a thick paste. If the glands remain swollen for some time after the attack, rub well over them an application of the following: Biniodid of mercury, 1 dram; lard, 1 ounce; mix well. This may be applied once every day until the part is blistered.

Sore throat is also a symptom of other diseases, such as influenza, strangles, purpura hemorrhagica, etc., which diseases may be consulted under their proper headings.

After a severe attack of inflammation of the larynx the mucous membrane may be left in a thickened condition, or an ulceration of the part may ensue, either of which is liable to produce a chronic cough. For the ulceration it is useless to prescribe, because it can neither be diagnosed nor topically treated by the nonprofessional.

If a chronic cough remains after all the other symptoms have disappeared, it is advisable to give 1 dram of iodid of potassium dissolved in a bucketful of drinking water, one hour before feeding, three times a day for a month if necessary. Also rub in well the preparation of iodid of mercury (as advised for the swollen glands) about the throat, from ear to ear, and in the space between the lower jawbones. The application may be repeated every third day until the part is blistered.

SPASM OF THE LARYNX.

The symptoms are as follows: Sudden seizure by a violent fit of coughing; the horse may reel and fall, and after a few minutes recover and be as well as ever. The treatment recommended is this: Three drams of bromid of potassium three times a day, dissolved in the drinking water, or give as a drench in about a half pint of water for a week. Then give 1 dram of powdered nux vomica (either on the food or shaken with water as a drench) once a day for a few weeks.

CROUP AND DIPHTHERIA.

Neither of these diseases affects the horse, but these names are sometimes wrongly applied to severe laryngitis or pharyngitis, or to forage poisoning, in which the throat is paralyzed and becomes excessively inflamed and gangrenous.

THICK WIND AND ROARING.

Horses that are affected with chronic disease that causes a loud, unnatural noise in breathing are said to have thick wind, or to be roarers. This class does not include those affected with severe sore throat, as in these cases the breathing is noisy only during the attack of the acute disease.

Thick wind is caused by an obstruction to the free passage of the air in some part of the respiratory tract. Nasal polypi, thickening of the membrane, pharyngeal polypi, deformed bones, paralysis of the wing of the nostril, etc., are occasional causes. The noisy breathing of horses after having been idle and put to sudden exertion is not due to any disease and is only temporary. Very often a nervous, excitable horse will make a noise for a short time when started off, generally caused by the cramped position in which the head and neck are forced in order to hold him back.

Many other causes may occasion temporary, intermittent, or permanent noisy respiration, but chronic roaring is caused by paralysis of the muscles of the larynx; and almost invariably it is the muscles of the left side of the larynx that are affected.

In chronic roaring the noise is made when the air is drawn into the lungs; only when the disease is far advanced is a sound produced when the air is expelled, and even then it is not nearly so loud as during inspiration.

In a normal condition the muscles dilate the aperture of the larynx by moving the cartilage and vocal cord outward, allowing a sufficient volume of air to rush through. But when the muscles are paralyzed the cartilage and vocal cord that are normally controlled by the affected muscles lean into the tube of the larynx, so that when the air rushes in it meets this obstruction and the noise is produced. When the air is expelled from the lungs its very force pushes the cartilage and vocal cords out, and consequently noise is not produced in the expiratory act.

The paralysis of the muscles is due to derangement of the nerve that supplies them with energy. The muscles of both sides are not supplied by the same nerve; there is a right and a left nerve, each supplying its respective side. The reason why the muscles on the left side are the ones usually paralyzed is owing to the difference in the anatomical arrangement of the nerves. The left nerve is much longer and more exposed to interference than the right nerve.

In chronic roaring there is no evidence of any disease of the larynx other than the wasted condition of the muscles in question. The disease of the nerve is generally far from the larynx. Disease of parts contiguous to the nerve along any part of its course may interfere with its proper function. Enlargement of lymphatic glands within the chest through which the nerve passes on its way back to the larynx is the most frequent interruption of nervous supply, and consequently roaring. When roaring becomes confirmed, medical treatment is entirely useless, as it is impossible to restore the wasted muscle and at the same time remove the cause of the interruption of the nervous supply. Before roaring becomes permanent the condition may be benefited by a course of iodid of potassium, if caused by disease of the lymphatic glands. Electricity has been used with indifferent success. Blistering or firing over the larynx is, of course, not worthy of trial if the disease is due to interference of the nerve supply. The administration of strychnia (nux vomica) on the ground that it is a nerve tonic with the view of stimulating the affected muscles is treating only the result of the disease without considering the cause, and is therefore useless. The operation of extirpating the collapsed cartilage and vocal cord is believed to be the only relief, and, as this operation is critical and can be performed only by the skillful veterinarian, it will not be described here.

From the foregoing description of the disease it will be seen that the name "roaring," by which the disease is generally known, is only a symptom and not the disease. Chronic roaring is also in many cases accompanied with a cough. The best way to test whether a horse is a "roarer" is either to make him pull a load rapidly up a hill or over a sandy road or soft ground; or, if he is a saddle horse, gallop him up a hill or over soft ground. The object is to make him exert himself. Some horses require a great deal more exertion than others before the characteristic sound is emitted. The greater the distance he is forced, the more he will appear exhausted if he is a roarer; in bad cases the animal becomes utterly exhausted, the breathing is rapid and difficult, the nostrils dilate to the fullest extent, and the animal appears as if suffocation was imminent.

An animal that is a roarer should not be used for breeding purposes. The taint is transmissible in many instances.