352. International Law and Peace.—This principle of recognizing one another's rights and interests is the foundation of international law, which has been modified from time to time, but which from the publication of Hugo Grotius's Law of War and Peace in the seventeenth century slowly has bound more closely together the civilized nations. There has come into existence a body of law for the conduct of nations that is less complete, but commands as great respect as the civil law of a single state. This law may be violated by a nation in the stress of conflict, as civil law may be derided by an individual lawbreaker or by an excited mob, but eventually it reasserts itself and slowly extends its scope and power. Without international legislative organization, without a tribunal or a military force to carry out its provisions, by sheer force of international opinion and a growing regard for social justice it demands attention from the proudest nations. Text-books have been written and university chairs founded to present its claims, international associations and conventions have met to define more accurately its code, and tentative steps have been taken to strengthen its position by two Hague Conferences that met in 1899 and 1907. Large contributions of money have been made to stimulate the cause of peace, and as many as two hundred and fifty peace societies have been organized.

353. Arbitration and an International Court.—Experiments have been tried at settling international disputes without resort to war. Great Britain and the United States have led the way in showing to the world during the last one hundred years that all kinds of vexatious differences can be settled peacefully by submitting them to arbitration. These successes have led the United States to propose general treaties of arbitration to other nations, and advance has been made in that direction. It was possible to establish at The Hague a permanent court of arbitration, and to refer to it really important cases. Such a calamity as the European war, of course, interrupts the progress of all such peaceful methods, but makes all the plainer the dire need of a better machinery for settling international differences. There is reasonable expectation that before many years there may be established a permanent international court of justice, an international parliament, and a sufficient international police force to restrain any one nation from breaking the peace. Only in this way can the dread of war be allayed and disarmament be undertaken; even then the success of such an experiment in government will depend on an increase of international understanding, respect, and consideration.

354. Intercommunication and Its Rewards.—The gain in social solidarity that has been achieved already is due first of all to improved communication between nations. In the days of slow sailing vessels it took several weeks to cross the Atlantic, and there was no quicker way to convey news. The news that peace had been arranged at Ghent in 1814 between Great Britain and the United States did not reach the armies on this side in time to prevent the battle of New Orleans. Even the results of the battle of Waterloo were not known in England for several days after Napoleon's overthrow. Now ocean leviathans keep pace with the storms that move across the waters, and the cable and the wireless flash their messages with the speed of the lightning. Power to put a girdle around the earth in a few minutes has made modern news agencies possible, and they have made the modern newspaper essential. The newspaper requires the railroad and the steamship for its distribution, and business men depend upon them all to carry out their plans. These physical agencies have made possible a commerce that is world-wide. There are ports that receive ships from every nation east and west. Great freight terminal yards hold cars that belong to all the great transportation lines of the country. Lombard Street and Wall Street feel the pulse of the world's trade as it beats through the channels of finance.

Improved communication has made possible the unification of a great political system like the British Empire. In the Parliament House and government offices of Westminster centre the political interests of Canada, Australia, South Africa, Egypt, and India, as well as of islands in every sea. Better communication has brought into closer relations the Pan-American states, so that they have met more than once for their mutual benefit.

Helpful social results have come from the travel that has grown enormously in volume since ease and cheapness of transportation have increased. The impulse to travel for pleasure keeps persons of wealth on the move, and the desire for knowledge sends the intellectually minded professional man or woman of small means globe-trotting. In this way the people of different nations learn from one another; they become able to converse in different languages and to get one another's point of view; they gain new wants while they lose some of their professional interests; they return home poorer in pocket but richer in experience, more interested in others, more tolerant. These are social values, certain to make their influence felt in days to come, and by no means unappreciable already.

355. International Institutions.—These values are conserved by international institutions. Societies are formed by like-minded persons for better acquaintance and for the advancement of knowledge. The sciences are cherished internationally, interparliamentary unions and other agencies for the preservation of peace hold their conferences, working men meet to air their grievances or plan programmes, religious denominations consult for pushing their campaigns. The organizations that grow out of these relations and conferences develop into institutions that have standing. The international associations of scholars are as much a part of the world's institutional assets as the educational system is a recognized asset of any country. They are clearing-houses of information, as necessary as an international clearing-house of finance. The World's Woman's Christian Temperance Union and the International Young Men's Christian Association are moral agencies that bring together those who have at heart the same interests, and when they have once made good they must be reckoned among the established organizations that help to move the world forward. Not least among such institutions are the religious organizations. The closely knit Roman Catholic Church, that has held together millions of faithful adherents in many lands for centuries, and whose canon law receives an unquestioning obedience as the law of a nation, is an illustration of what an international religious institution may be. Protestant Churches, naturally more independent, have moved more slowly, but their world alliances and federations are increasing to the point where they, too, are likely to become true institutions.

356. Missions as a Social Institution.—Those institutions and movements are most useful that aim definitely to stimulate the highest interests of all mankind. It is comparatively simple to provide local stimulus for a better community life, but to help move the world on to higher levels requires clear vision, patient hope, and a definite plan on a large scale. Christian missionaries are conspicuous for their lofty ideals, their personal devotion to an unselfish task, their persistent optimism, and their unswerving adherence to the programme marked out by the pioneers of the movement. It is no argument against them that they have not accomplished all that a few enthusiasts expected of them in a few years. To socialize and Christianize half the people of the world is the task of centuries. With broad statesmanship missionary leaders have undertaken to do both of these. Mistakes in method or detail of operation do not invalidate the whole enterprise, and all criticism must keep in mind the noble purpose to lift to a higher level the social, moral, and religious ideas and practices of the most backward peoples. The purpose is certainly no less laudable than that of a Chinese mission to England to persuade Great Britain to end the opium traffic, or a diplomatic mission from the United States to stop civil strife in Mexico.

357. Education as a Means to Internationalism.—Internationalism rests on the broad basis of the social nature of mankind, a nature that cannot be unsocialized, but can be developed to a higher and more purposeful socialization. As there are degrees of perfection in the excellence of social relations, so there are degrees of obligation resting upon the nations of the world to give of their best to a general levelling up. The dependable means of international socialization is education, whether it comes through the press, the pulpit, or the school. Every commission that visits one country from another to learn of its industries, its institutions, and its ideals, is a means to that important end. Every exchange professor between European and American universities helps to interpret one country to the other. Every Chinese, Mexican, or Filipino youth who attends an American school is borrowing stimulus for his own people. Every visitor who does not waste or abuse his opportunities is a unit in the process of improving the acquaintance of East and West, of North and South. Internationalism is not a social Utopia to be invented in a day; it is rather an attitude of mind and a mode of living that come gradually but with gathering momentum as mutual understanding and sympathy increase.

READING REFERENCES

STRONG: Our World, pages 3-202.

FOSTER: Arbitration and the Hague Court.

FAUNCE: Social Aspects of Foreign Missions.

MAURENBRECKER: "The Moral and Social Tasks of World Politics," art. in American Journal of Sociology, 6: 307-315.

TRUEBLOOD: Federation of the World, pages 7-20, 91-149.



PART VI—SOCIAL ANALYSIS

CHAPTER XLV

PHYSICAL AND PERSONAL FACTORS IN THE LIFE OF SOCIETY

358. Constant Factors in Social Phenomena.—Our study of social life has made it plain that it is a complex affair, but it has been possible to classify society in certain groups, to follow the gradual extension of relations from small groups to large, and to take note of the numerous activities and interests that enter into contemporary group life. It is now desirable to search for certain common elements that in all periods enter into the life of every group, whether temporary or permanent, so that we may discover the constant factors and the general principles that belong to the science of society. Some of these have been referred to already among the characteristics of social life, but in this connection it is useful to classify them for closer examination.

First among these is the physical factor which conditions human activity but is not a compelling force, for man has often subdued his environment when it has put obstacles in his way. This physical element includes the geographical conditions of mountain, valley, or seashore, the climate and the weather, the food and water supply, the physical inheritance of the individual and the laws that control physical development, and the physical constitution of the group. A second factor is the psychic nature of human beings and the psychical interaction that goes on between individuals within the group and that produces reactions between groups.

359. The Natural Environment.—The early sociologists put the emphasis on the physical more than the psychic factors, and especially on biological analogies in society. It seemed to them as if it was nature that brought men together. Mountains and ice-bound regions were inhospitable, impassable rivers and trackless forests limited the range of animals and men, violent storms and temperature changes made men afraid. Avoiding these dangers and seeking a food-supply where it was most plentiful, human beings met in the favored localities and learned by experience the principles of association. Everywhere man is still in contact with physical forces. He has not yet learned to get along without the products of the earth, extracting food-supplies from the soil, gathering the fruits that nature provides, and mining the useful and precious metals. The city-dweller seems less dependent on nature than is the farmer, but the urban citizen relies on steam and electricity to turn the wheels of industry and transportation, depends on coal and gas for heat and light, and uses winter's harvest of ice to relieve the oppressive heat of summer. Rivers and seas are highways of his commerce. Everywhere man seems hedged about by physical forces and physical laws.

Yet with the prerogative of civilization he has become master rather than servant of nature. He has improved wild fruits and vegetables by cultivation, he has domesticated wild animals, he has harnessed the water of the streams and the winds of heaven. He has tunnelled the mountains, bridged the rivers, and laid his cables beneath the ocean. He has learned to ride over land and sea and even to skim along the currents of the air. He has been able to discover the chemical elements that permeate matter and the nature and laws of physical forces. By numerous inventions he has made use of the materials and powers of nature. The physical universe is a challenge to human wits, a stimulus to thought and activity that shall result in the wonderful achievements of civilization.

360. The Human Physique.—Another element that enters into every calculation of success or failure in human life is the physical constitution of the individual and the group. The individual's physique makes a great difference in his comfort and activity. The corpulent person finds it difficult to get about with ease, the cripple finds himself debarred from certain occupations, the person with weak lungs must shun certain climates and as far as possible must avoid indoor pursuits. By their power of ingenuity or by sheer force of will men have been able to overcome physical limitations, but it is necessary to reckon with those limitations, and they are always a handicap. The physical endowment of a race has been a deciding factor in certain times of crisis. The physical prowess of the Anakim kept back the timid Israelites from their intended conquest of Canaan until a more hardy generation had arisen among the invaders; the sturdy Germans won the lands of the Roman Empire in the West from the degenerate provincials; powerful vikings swept the Western seas and struck such terror into the peaceful Saxons that they cried out: "From the fury of the Northmen, good Lord, deliver us."

361. Biological Analogies.—The physical factor in society received emphasis the more because society itself was thought of as an organism resembling physical organisms and dependent upon similar laws. As a man's physical frame was essential to his activity and limited his energies, so the visible structure of social organization was deemed more important than social activity and function. Particularly did the method of evolution that had become so famous in biology appeal to students of sociology as the only satisfactory explanation of social change. The study of animal evolution made it clear that heredity and environment played a large part in the development of animal life, and Darwin pointed out that progress came by the elimination of those individuals and species least fitted to survive in the struggle for existence and the perpetuation of those that best adapted themselves to environment. It was easy to find social analogies and to reach the conclusion that in the same way individuals and groups were creatures of heredity and environment, and the all-important task of society was to conform itself to environment. Of course, history disproved the universality of such a law, for more than once a race has risen above its environment or altered it, but it seemed a satisfactory working principle.

Biological analogies, however, were overemphasized. It was a gain to know the workings of race traits and the relation of the individual to his ancestry, but to excuse crime on the ground of racial degeneracy or to despise a race and believe that none of its members can excel because it is conspicuous for certain race weaknesses has been unfortunate. Similarly there was advantage in remembering that environment is either a great help or a great hindrance to social progress, but it would be a social calamity to believe in a physical determinism that leaves to human beings no choice as to their manner of life. The important truth to keep in mind is that man and environment must be adapted to each other, but it often proves better to adapt environment to man than to force man into conformity to environment. It is the growing independence of environment through his own intellectual powers that has given to civilized man his ascendancy in the world. It is a mistake, also, to think that a struggle for existence is the only means of survival. As in the animal world, there comes a time in the process of evolution when the struggle for selfish existence becomes subordinated to effort to preserve the life of the young or to help the group by the sacrifice of the individual self, so in society it is reasonable to believe that the selfish struggle of individuals will give way by degrees to purposeful effort for social welfare, and that the solidarity of the group rather than the interest of the individual will seem the highest good. Then the group will care for the weak, and all will gain from the strength and prosperity of the whole.

362. The Importance of the Individual.—While it is true that individual interests are bound up with the prosperity of the group, and that the food that he eats, the clothes that he wears, and the money that he handles and uses are all his because social industry prevails, there is some danger of overlooking the importance of the individual. Though he does not exist alone, the individual with his distinctive personality is the unit of society. Without individuals there would be no society, without the action of the individual mind there would be no action of the social mind, without individual leadership there would be little order or progress. The single cell that made up the lowest forms of animal life is still the unit of that complex thing that we call the human body, and the well-being of the single cell is essential to the health and even the existence of the whole body; so the single human being is fundamental to the existence and health of the social body. No analysis of society is at all complete that does not include a study of the individual man.

363. The Psychology of the Individual.—Self-examination during the course of a single day helps to explain the life forces that act upon other individuals now and that have forged human history. In such study of self it soon becomes apparent to the student that the physical factor is subordinate to the psychic, but that they are connected. As soon as he wakes in the morning his mental processes are at work. Something has called back his consciousness from sleep. The light shining in at his window, the bell calling him to meet the day's schedule, the odor of food cooking in the kitchen, are physical stimuli calling out the response of his sense-perceptions; his mind begins at once to associate these impressions and to react upon his will until he gets out of bed and proceeds to prepare himself for the day. These processes of sensation, association, and volition constitute the simple basis of individual life upon which the complex structure of an active personality is built.

The individual will is moved to activity by many agencies. There is first the instinct. As a person inherits physical traits from his ancestors, so he gets certain mental traits. The demand for food is the cry of the instinct for self-preservation. The grimace of the infant in response to the mother's smile is an expression of the instinct for imitation. The reaching out of its hand to grasp the sunshine is in obedience to the instinct for acquisition. All human association is due primarily to the instinct for sociability. These instincts are inborn. They cannot be eradicated, but they can be modified and controlled.

Obedience to these native instincts produces fixed habits. These are not native but acquired, and so are not transmitted to posterity, in the belief of most scientists, but they are powerful factors in individual conduct. The individual early in the morning is hungry, and the appetite for food recurs at intervals through the day; it becomes a habit to go at certain hours where he may obtain satisfaction. So it is with many activities throughout the day.

Instincts and habits produce impulses. The savage eats as often as he feels like it, if he can find berries or fruit or bring down game; impulse alone governs his conduct. But two other elements enter in to modify impulse, as experience teaches wisdom. The self-indulgent man remembers after a little that indulgence of impulse has resulted sometimes in pain rather than satisfaction, and his imagination pictures a recurrence of the unhappy experience. Feeling becomes a guide to regulate impulse. Feeling in turn compels thought. Presently the individual who is going through the civilizing process formulates a resolve and a theory, a resolve to eat at regular times and to abstain from foods that injure him, a theory that intelligent restraint is better than unregulated indulgence. In a similar way the individual acts with reference to selecting his environment. Instinct and habit act conservatively, impelling the individual to remain in the place where he was born and reared, and to follow the occupation of his father. But he feels the discomforts of the climate or the restrictions of his particular environment, he thinks about it, bringing to bear all the knowledge that he possesses, and he makes his choice between going elsewhere or modifying his present environment. Discovery and invention are both products of such choices as these.

364. Desires and Interests.—These complexes of thinking, feeling, and willing make up the conscious desires and interests that mould the individual life. Through the processes of attention to the stimuli that act upon human nature, discrimination between them, association of impressions and ideas that come from present and past experience, and deliberate judgments of value, the mind moves to action for the satisfaction of personal desires and interests. These desires and interests have been classified in various ways. For our present purpose it is useful to classify them as those that centre in the self, and those that centre in others beyond the self. The primitive desires to get food and drink, to mate, and to engage in muscular activity, all look toward the self-satisfaction which comes from their indulgence. There are various acquired interests that likewise centre in the self. The individual goes to college for the social pleasure that he anticipates, for intellectual satisfaction, or to equip himself with a training that will enable him to win success in the competition of business. In the larger society outside of college the art-lover gathers about him many treasures for his own aesthetic delight, the politician exerts himself for the attainment of power and position, the religious devotee hopes for personal favors from the unseen powers. These are on different planes of value, they are estimated differently by different persons, but they all centre in the individual, and if society benefits it is only indirectly or accidentally.

As the individual rises in the scale of social intelligence, his interests become less self-centred, and as he extends his acquaintance and associations the scope of his interests enlarges. He begins to act with reference to the effect of his actions upon others. He sacrifices his own convenience for his roommate; he restrains his self-indulgence for the sake of the family that he might disgrace; he exerts himself in athletic prowess for the honor of the college to which he belongs; he is willing to risk his life on the battle-field in defense of the nation of which he is a citizen; he consecrates his life to missionary or scientific endeavor in a far land for the sake of humanity's gain. These are the social interests that dominate his activity. Mankind has risen from the brute by the process that leads the individual up from the low level of life moulded by primitive desires to the high plane of a life directed by the broad interests of society at large. It is the task of education to reveal this process, and to provide the stimuli that are needed for its continuance.

365. Personality.—No two persons are actuated alike in daily conduct. The pull of their individual desires is not the same, the influence of the various social interests is not in the same proportion. The situation is complicated by hereditary tendencies, and by physical and social environment. Consequently every human being possesses his own distinctive individuality or personality. Variations of personality can be classified and various persons resemble each other so much that types of personality are distinguished. Thus we distinguish between weak personality and forceful personality, according to the strength of individuation, a narrow or a broad personality according as interests are few and selfish or broadly social, a fixed or a changing personality according to conservatism or unsettled disposition. Personality is a distinction not always appreciated, a distinction that separates man from the brute because of his self-consciousness and power of self-direction by rational processes, and relieves him from the dead level that would exist in society if every individual were made after the same pattern. It is the secret of social as well as individual progress, for it is a great personality that sways the group. It is the great boon of present life and the great promise of continued life hereafter.

READING REFERENCES

ROSS: Foundations of Sociology, pages 165-181.

ELLWOOD: Sociology in its Psychological Aspects, pages 94-123.

DEALEY: Sociology, pages 96-98, 200-230.

NEARING AND WATSON: Economics, pages 60-98.

DARWIN: Descent of Man, chap. XXI.

DRUMMOND: Ascent of Man, pages 41-57, 189-266.

GIDDINGS: Inductive Sociology, pages 249-278.



CHAPTER XLVI

SOCIAL PSYCHIC FACTORS

366. The Social Mind.—As individual life is compounded of many psychic elements that make up one mind, so the life of every group involves various factors of a psychic nature that constitute the social mind. The social mind does not exist apart from individual minds, but it is nevertheless real. When emotional excitement stirs a mob to action, the unity of feeling is evidence of a social mind. When a congregation recites a creed of the church the unity of belief shows the existence of a social mind. When a political land-slide occurs on the occasion of a presidential election in the United States, the unity of will expresses the social mind. The emotional phase is temporary, public opinion changes more slowly; all the time the social mind is gaining experience and learning wisdom, as does the individual. Social consciousness, which at first is slight, increases gradually, until it fructifies in social purpose which results in achievement. History is full of illustrations of such development.

367. How the Social Mind is Formed.—The formation of this social mind and its subsequent workings may be illustrated from a common occurrence in frontier history. Imagine three hunters meeting for the first time around a camp-fire, and analyze their mental processes. The first man was tired and hungry and camped to rest and eat. The second happened to come upon the camp just as a storm was breaking, saw the smoke of the fire, and turned aside for its comfort. The third picked up the trail of the second and followed it to find companionship. Each obeying a primal instinct and conscious of his kind, came into association with others, and thus by the process of aggregation a temporary group was formed. Sitting about the fire, each lighted his pipe in imitation of one another; they communicated with one another in language familiar to all; one became drowsy and the others yielded to the suggestion to sleep. Waking in the morning, they continued their conversation, and in sympathy with a common purpose and in recognition of the advantages of association, they decided to keep together for the remainder of the hunt. Thus was constituted the group or social mind.

With the consciousness that they were congenial spirits and shared a common purpose, each was willing to sacrifice some of his own habits and preferences in the interest of the group. One man might prefer bacon and coffee for breakfast, while a second wished tea; one might wish to break camp at sunrise, another an hour later; each subordinated his own desires for the greater satisfaction of camp comradeship. The strongest personality in the group is the determining factor in forming the habits of the group, though it may be an unconscious leadership. The mind of the group is not the same as that of the leader, for the mutual mental interaction produces changes in all, but it approaches most nearly to his mind.

368. Social Habits.—By such processes of aggregation, communication, imitation, and association, individuals learn from one another and come to constitute a like-minded group. Sometimes it is a genetic group like the family, sometimes an artificial group like a band of huntsmen; in either case the group is held together by a psychic unity and comes to have its peculiar group characteristics. Fixed ways of thinking and acting are revealed. Social habits they may be called, or folk-ways, as some prefer to name them. These habits are quickly learned by the members of the group, and are passed on from generation to generation by imitation or the teaching of tradition. There are numerous conservative forces at work in society. Custom crystallizes into law, tradition is fortified by religion, a system of morals develops out of the folk-ways, the group life tends to become static and uniform.

369. Adaptation.—Two influences are continually at work, however, to change social habits—the forces of the natural environment and interaction between different groups. Both of these compel adaptation to surroundings if permanence of group life is to be secured. Family life in the north country illustrates the working of this principle of adaptation. In the days of settlement there was a partial adaptation to the physical environment. Houses were built tight and warm to provide shelter, abundant food was supplied from the farm, on which men toiled long hours to make a living, homespun clothing was manufactured to protect against the rigors of winter, but ignorance and lack of sufficient means prevented complete adaptation, and society was punished for its failure to complete the adaptation. Climate was severe and the laws of health were not fully worked out or observed, therefore few children lived to maturity, although the birth-rate was high. Economic success came only as the reward of patient and unremitting toil, the shiftless family failed in the struggle for existence. Tradition taught certain agricultural methods, but diminishing returns threatened poverty, unless methods were better adapted to soil and climate. Thus the people were forced slowly to improve their methods and their manner of living to conform to what nature demanded.

No less powerful is the influence of the social environment. The authority of custom or government tends to make every family conform to certain methods of building a house, cooking food, cultivating land, selling crops, paying taxes, voting for local officials, but let one family change its habits and prove conclusively that it has improved on the old ways, and it is only a question of time when others will adapt themselves better to the situation that environs them. The countryman takes a city daily and notes the weather indications and the state of the market, he installs a rural telephone and is able to make contracts for his crops by long-distance conversation, he buys an improved piece of machinery for cultivating the farm, a gasolene engine, or a motor-wagon for quick delivery of produce; presently his neighbors discover that he is adapting himself more effectually to his environment than they are, and one by one they imitate him in adopting the new methods. By and by the community becomes known for its progressiveness, and it is imitated by neighboring communities.

This process of social adaptation is a mental process more or less definite. A particular family may not consciously follow a definite plan for improved adaptation, but little by little it alters its ways, until in the course of two or three generations it has changed the circumstances and habits that characterized the ancestral group. In that case the change is slow. Certain families may definitely determine to modify their habits, and within a few years accomplish a telic change. In either case there are constantly going on the processes of observation, discrimination, and decision, due to the impact of mind upon mind, both within and outside of the group, until mental reactions are moving through channels that are different from the old.

370. Genetic Progress.—The modification of folk-ways in the interest of better adaptation to environment constitutes progress. Such modification is caused by the action of various mental stimuli. The people of a hill village for generations have been contented with poor roads and rough side-paths, along which they find an uneasy way by the glimmer of a lantern at night. They are unaccustomed to sanitary conveniences in their houses or to ample heating arrangements or ventilation in school or church. They have thought little about these things, and if they wished to make improvements they would be handicapped by small numbers and lack of wealth. But after a time there comes an influx of summer visitors; some of them purchase property and take up their permanent residence in the village. They have been accustomed to conveniences; in other words, to a more complete adaptation to environment; they demand local improvements and are willing to help pay for them. More money can be raised for taxation, and when public opinion has crystallized so that social action is possible, the progressive steps are taken.

What takes place thus in a small way locally is typical of what is going on continually in all parts of the world. Accumulating wealth and increasing knowledge of the good things of the city make country people emigrate or provide themselves with a share of the good things at home. The influence of an enthusiastic individual or group who takes the lead in better schools, better housing, or better government is improving the cities. The growing cosmopolitanism of all peoples and their adoption of the best that each has achieved is being produced by commerce, migration, and "contact and cross-fertilization of cultures."

371. Telic Progress.—Most social progress has come without the full realization of the significance of the gradual changes that were taking place. Few if any individuals saw the end from the beginning. They are for the most part silent forces that have been modifying the folk-ways in Europe and America. There has been little conception of social obligation or social ideals, little more than a blind obedience to the stimuli that pressed upon the individual and the group. But with the awakening of the social consciousness and a quickening of the social conscience has come telic progress. There is purpose now in the action of associations and method in the enactments of legislatures and the acts of administrative officers. There are plans and programmes for all sorts of improvements that await only the proper means and the sanction of public opinion for their realization. Like a runner poised for a dash of speed, society seems to be on the eve of new achievement in the direction of progress.

372. Means of Social Progress.—There are three distinct means of telic progress. Society may be lifted to a higher level by compulsion, as a huge crane lifts a heavy girder to the place it is to occupy in the construction of a great building. A prohibitory law that forbids the erection of unhealthy tenements throughout the cities of a state or nation is a distinctly progressive step, compulsory in its nature. Or the group may be moved by persuasion. A board of conciliation may persuade conflicting industrial groups to adjust their differences by peaceful methods, and thus inaugurate an ethical movement in industry greatly to the advantage of all parties. Or progress may be achieved by the slow process of education. The average church has been accustomed to conceive of its functions as pertaining to the individual rather than to the whole social order. It cannot be compelled to change by governmental action, for the church is free and democratic in America. It cannot easily be persuaded to change its methods in favor of a social programme. By the slower process of training the young people it can and does gradually broaden its activities and make itself more efficiently useful to the community in which it finds its place.

373. Criticism as a Means of Social Education.—Education is not confined to the training of the schools. It is a continuous process going on through the life of the individual or the group. It is the intellectual process by which the mind is focussed on one problem after another that rises above the horizon of experience and uses its powers to improve the adaptation now existing between the situation and the person or the group. The educational process is complex. There must be first the incitement to thought. Most effective in this direction is criticism. If the roads are such a handicap to the comfort and safety of travel that there is caustic criticism at the next town meeting, public opinion begins to set definitely in the direction of improvement. If city government is corrupt and the tax rate mounts steadily without corresponding benefits to the taxpayers, the newspapers call the attention of citizens to the fact, and they begin to consider a change of administration. Criticism is the knife that cuts to the roots of social disease, and through the infliction of temporary pain effects a cure. Criticism has started many a reform in church and state. The presence of the critic in any group is an irritant that provokes to progressive action.

374. Discussion.—Criticism leads to discussion. There is sure to be a conflict of ideas in every group. Conservative and progressive contend with each other; sometimes it is a matter of belief, sometimes of practice. Knots of individuals talk matters over, leaders debate on the public platform, newspapers take part on one side or the other. In this way national policies are determined, first by Congress or Parliament, and then by the constituents of the legislators. Freedom of discussion is regarded as one of the safeguards of popular government. If social conduct should be analyzed on a large scale it would be found that discussion is a constant factor. In every business deal there is discussion of the pros and cons of the proposition, in every case that comes before the courts there are arguments made on both sides, in the maintenance of every social institution that costs money there is a consideration of its worth. Even if the discussion does not find voice, the human intellect debates the question in its silent halls. So universal is the practice of discussion and so prized is the privilege that this is sometimes called the Age of Discussion.

375. Decision.—Determination of action follows criticism and discussion in the group, as volition follows thinking in the case of the individual. One hundred years ago college education was classical. In the time of the Renaissance and the Reformation a revival of interest in the classics produced a reaction against mediaevalism, and in time fastened a curriculum upon the universities that was composed mainly of the ancient languages, mathematics, and a deductive philosophy and theology. In the nineteenth century there began a criticism of the classical curriculum. It was declared that such a course of study was narrow and antiquated, that new subjects, such as history, the modern languages, and the sciences were better worth attention, and presently it was argued that a person could not be truly educated until he knew his own times by the study of sociology, politics, economics, and other social sciences. Of course, there was earnest resentment of such criticism, and discussion ensued. The argument for the plaintiff seemed to be well sustained, and one by one the governing boards of the colleges decided to admit new studies to the curriculum, at first grudgingly and then generously, until classical education has become relatively unpopular. Public opinion has accepted the verdict, and many schools have gone so far as to make vocational education supplant numerous academic courses. Similarly criticism, discussion, and change of front have occurred in political theories, in the attitude of theologians to science, in the practice of medicine, and even in methods of athletic training.

Criticism and discussion, therefore, instead of being deprecated, ought to be welcome everywhere. Without them society stagnates, the intellect grows rusty, and prejudice takes the place of rational thought and volition. Feeling is bottled up and is likely to ferment until it bursts its confinement and spreads havoc around like a volcano. Free speech and a free press are safety-valves of democracy, the sure hope of progress throughout society.

376. Socialized Education.—A second step in the educational process is incitement to action. As criticism and discussion are necessary to stimulate thought, so knowledge and conviction are essential to action. The educational system that is familiar is individualistic in type because it emphasizes individual achievement, and is based on the conviction that individual success is of greatest consequence in life. There is increasing demand for a socialized education which will have as its foundation a body of sociological information that will teach individuals their social relations, a fund of ideas that will be bequeathed from generation to generation as the finest heritage, and a system of social ethics that will produce a conviction of social obligation. The will to do good is the most effective factor that plays a part in social life. This socializing education has its place in the school grades, properly becomes a major subject of study in the higher schools, and ideally belongs to every scheme of continued education in later life. The social sciences seem likely to vie with the physical sciences, if not eventually to surpass them as the most important department of human knowledge, for while the physical sciences unlock the mysteries of the natural world the social sciences hold the key to the meaning of ideal human life.

READING REFERENCES

ELLWOOD: Sociology in Its Psychological Aspects, pages 329-340.

GIDDINGS: Principles of Sociology, pages 132-152, 376-399.

GIDDINGS: Descriptive and Historical Sociology, pages 124-185.

COOLEY: Social Organization, pages 3-22.

WARD: Psychic Factors of Civilization, pages 291-312.

BLACKMAR AND GILLIN: Outlines of Sociology, pages 329-348.

DEALEY: Sociology, pages 67-68, 84-87, 243-257.

ELLWOOD: Sociology and Modern Social Problems, revised edition, pages 354-367.



CHAPTER XLVII

SOCIAL THEORIES

377. Theories of Social Order and Efficiency.—Out of social experience and social study have emerged certain theories of social order and efficiency which have received marked attention and which to-day are supported by cogent arguments. These theories fall under the three following heads: (1) Those theories that make social order and efficiency dependent upon the control of external authority; (2) those theories that trust to the force of public opinion trained by social education; (3) those theories that regard self-control coming through the development of personality as the one essential for a better social order.

378. External Authority in History.—The first theory rests its case on the facts of history. Certain social institutions like the family, the state, and the church have thrown restraint about the individual, and when this restraint is removed he tends to run amuck. From the beginning the family was the unit of the social order, and the authority of its head was the source of wisdom. Self-control was not a substitute for paternal discipline, but was a fact only in presence of the dread of paternal discipline. The idea of absolute authority passed over into the state, and absolutism was the theory of efficiency in the ancient state, down to the fall of the Roman Empire in the West. It was a theory that made slavery possible. It strengthened the position of the high priest of every religious cult, created the thought of the kingdom of God and moulded the Christian creeds, and made possible the mediaeval papacy. It has been the fundamental principle of all monarchical government. It has remained a royal theory in eastern Europe and Asia until our own day, and survives in the political notion of the right of the strongest and in the business principle that capital must control the industrial system if prosperity and efficiency are to endure.

Irresponsible absolutism has been giving way slowly to paternalism. This showed itself first in a growing conviction that kings owed it to their subjects to rule well. Certain enlightened monarchs consulted the interests of the people and, relying on their own wisdom, instituted measures of reform. This type of paternalism was not successful, but it has been imitated by modern states, even republics like the United States, in various paternalistic measures of economic and social regulation. Those who hold the theory that external authority is necessary have been urgent in calling for the regulation of railroads, of trusts, and of combinations of labor, until some have felt that the authority of representative democracy bore more heavily than the authority of monarchy. It is the principle of those who favor government regulation that only by governmental restraint can free competition continue, and everybody be assured of a square deal; their opponents argue that such restraint throttles ambition and is destructive of the highest efficiency that comes as a survival of the fittest in the economic struggle.

379. Socialism.—Socialism is a third variety of the theory that social order and efficiency depend on external authority. Socialists aim at improving the social welfare by the collective control of industry. While the advocates of government regulation give their main attention to problems of production, the Socialists emphasize the importance of the proper distribution of products to the consumers, and would exercise authority in the partition of the rewards of labor. They propose that collective ownership of the means of production take the place of private ownership, that industry be managed by representatives of the people, that products be distributed on some just basis yet to be devised by the people. All that will be left to them as individuals will be the right to consume and the possession of material things not essential to the socialistic economy. Certain Socialist theories go farther than this, but this is the essence of Socialism. Socialists vary, also, as to the use of revolutionary or evolutionary means of obtaining their ends.

The main objections that are made to the theory of Socialism are: (1) That it is contrary to nature, which develops character and progress through struggle; (2) that private property is a natural right, and that it would be unjust to deprive individuals of what they have secured through thrift and foresight, even in the interest of the whole of society; (3) that an equitable distribution of wealth would be impossible in any arbitrary division; (4) that no government can possibly conduct successfully such huge enterprises as would fall to it; (5) that Socialism would destroy private incentive and enterprise by taking away the individual rewards of effort; (6) that a socialistic regime would be as unendurable an interference with individual liberty as any absolutist or paternal government that the past has seen.

380. Educated Public Opinion.—The second group of theorists is composed of those who would get rid of prohibitions and regulations as far as possible, and trust to the force of an educated public opinion to maintain a high level of social order and efficiency. It is a part of the theory that constraint exercised by a government established by law marks a stage of lower social development than restraint exercised by the force of public opinion. But it must be an educated public opinion, trained to appreciate the importance of society and its claims upon the individual, to function rationally instead of impulsively, and to seek the methods that will be most useful and least expensive for the social body. This training of public opinion is the task of the school first and then of the press, the pulpit, and the public forum. Public and private commissions, organized and maintained to furnish information and suggest better methods, make useful contributions; public reports, if presented intelligibly, impartially, and concisely, are among the helpful instruments of instruction; reform pamphlets will again perform valuable service, as they have in past days of moral and social intensity; but it is especially through the newspapers and the forums for public discussion that the social thinker can best reach his audience, and through these means that commission reports can best be brought to the attention of the people. It may very likely be necessary that press and platform be subsidized either by government or by private endowment to do this work of social training.

381. Individualism.—The third group of theorists rejects all varieties of external control as of secondary value, and has no faith in the working of public opinion, however well educated, unless the character of the individuals that make up the group is what it should be. These theorists regard self-control coming through the development of personal worth as the one essential for a better social order. This individualist theory is held by those who are still in bondage to the individualism that has characterized social thinking in the last four hundred years. There is much in the history of that period that justifies faith in the worth of the individual. Along the lines of material progress, especially, the individualist has made good. Looking upon what has been achieved the modern democrat expects further improvement in society through individual betterment.

The arguments in defense of the individualist theory are: (1) That natural science has proved that social development is achieved only through individual competition, and that the best man wins; (2) that experience has shown that progress has been most rapid where the individual has had largest scope; (3) that it is the teaching of Christian ethics that the individual must work out the salvation of his own character, must learn by experience how to gain self-reliance and strength of will, and so has the right to fashion his own course of conduct.

382. The Development of Personal Worth.—It is evident, however, that the usefulness of the individual, both to himself and to others, depends on his personal worth. The self-controlled man is the man of personal worth, but self-control is not easy to secure. Defendants of the first two theories may admit that self-control is an ideal, but they claim that in the progress of society it must follow, not antedate, external authority and the cultivation of public opinion, and that time is not yet come. Only the few can be trusted yet to follow their best judgment on all occasions, to be on the alert to maintain in themselves and others highest efficiency. Human nature is slowly in the making. One by one men and women rise to higher levels; social regeneration must therefore wait on individual regeneration. Seeing the need of a dynamic that will create personal worth, the individualist has turned to religion and preached a doctrine of personal salvation. He has seen what religion has done to transform character, and he believes with confidence that it and it alone can create social salvation if we give it time.

At the present time there is an increasing number of social thinkers who regard each of these three theories as containing elements of value, but believe that there is something beyond them that is necessary to the highest efficiency. They consider that external authority has been necessary, and look upon a strong centralized government with power to create social efficiency as essential, but they expect that an increasing social consciousness will make the exercise of authority gradually less necessary. They have great confidence in trained public opinion, but do not forget that opinion must be vitalized by a strong motive, and mere education does not readily supply the motive. They look for a time when individual worth will be greater than now, and they recognize religion as a powerful dynamic in the building of character, but they regard religion as turned inward too much upon the individual. They would develop individual character for the sake of society, and make a socialized religion the motive power to vitalize public opinion so that it shall function with increasing efficiency. A socialized religion supplies a principle, a method, and a power. The Hebrew prophets and Jesus laid down the principle that there is a solidarity of interests to which the claims of the individual must be subordinate and must be sacrificed on occasion. The prophets and Jesus taught a method of experimentation, calling upon the people whom they addressed to test the principle and see if it worked. The prophets and Jesus showed that power comes in the will to do and in actual obedience to the principle. They looked for an improved social system reared on this basis which would be a real "kingdom of God," not merely the economic commonwealth of the Socialist, but a commonwealth governed by the principle of consecration to the social welfare, spiritual as well as physical.

383. Social Ideals.—At the basis of every theory lies the individual with social relations. To socialize him external authority is the primitive agent. This authority may give way in time to the restraint of public opinion made intelligent by a socialized education, but effective public opinion is dependent on the development of personal worth in the individual. The most powerful dynamic for such development and for social welfare in general is a socialized religion. If all this be true, what is it that comprises social welfare? In a word, it is the efficient functioning of every social group. The family, the community, the nation, and every minor group, will serve effectually the economic, cultural, social, and spiritual needs of the individuals of whom it is composed. Perfect functioning can follow only after a long period of progress. Such progress is the ideal that society sets for itself. In that process there must be full recognition of all the factors that enter into social life. There is the individual with his rights and obligations, who must be protected and encouraged to grow. There are the institutions like the family, the church, and the state that must receive recognition and maintenance. There must be liberty for each group to function freely without arbitrary interference, as long as its privileges and acts do not interfere with the public good. Ideal social control is to be exercised by an enlightened and self-restrained public opinion energized by a socialized religion. All improvements must not be looked for in a moment, but can come only slowly and by frequent testing if they are to be permanently accepted. The system that would result would be neither absolutist, socialistic, nor individualistic, but would contain the best elements of all. It would not be forced upon a people, but would be worked out slowly by education and experiment. Social institutions would not be tyrannous but helpful, and human happiness would be materially increased.

READING REFERENCES

ELLWOOD: Sociology in Its Psychological Aspects, pages 352-381.

NEARING AND WATSON: Economics, pages 443-493.

BLACKMAR AND GILLIN: Outlines of Sociology, pages 373-392.

DEALEY: Sociology, pages 351-361.

SKELTON: Socialism, pages 16-61.

CARNEGIE: Problems of To-day, pages 121-139.



CHAPTER XLVIII

THE SCIENCE OF SOCIOLOGY

384. Sociology vs. Social Philosophy.—Sociology is one of the recent sciences. It had to wait for the scientific method of exact investigation and the scientific principle of forming conclusions upon abundant data. Naturally, theories of society were held long before any science came into existence, but they were of value only as philosophizing. Some of these theories were published and attracted the attention of thoughtful persons, but they did not affect social life. Some of them developed into philosophies of history, based on the preconceived ideas of their authors. Now and then in the first part of the nineteenth century certain social experiments were made in the form of co-operative communities, which it was fondly hoped would become practical methods for a better social order, but they almost uniformly failed because they were artificial rather than of natural growth, and because they were based on principles that public opinion had not yet sanctioned. The story of the predecessors of modern sociology naturally is preliminary to the history of sociology itself.

385. Philosophers and Prophets.—Two classes of men in ancient time worked on the problems of society, one from the practical standpoint, the other from the philosophic. One group of names includes the great statesmen and lawgivers, like Moses, who laid the foundations of the Hebrew nation and gave it the nucleus of a legal system; Solon and Lycurgus, traditional lawgivers of Athens and Sparta, and several of the earlier kings and later emperors of Rome. The other group is composed of men who thought much about human life and disseminated their opinions by writing and teaching. For the most part they were idealistic philosophers, but their influence was far-reaching in time. In the list belong Plato, who in his Republic outlined an ideal society that was the prototype of later fanciful commonwealths; Aristotle, who made a real contribution to political science in his Politics; Cicero, who himself participated actively in government and wrote out his theories or spoke them in public, and Augustine, who gave his conception of a Christian state in the City of God.

During the period when ancient ways were giving place to modern, and a transition was taking place in the realm of ideas, Thomas More, in his Utopia, and Campanella in his City of the Sun, published their conceptions of an ideal state, while Machiavelli took society as it was, and in his Prince suggested how it might be governed better. These are all evidences that there was dissatisfaction with existing systems, but no unanimity of opinion as to possible improvements. Later theories were no more satisfactory. The French Revolutionary philosophers, especially Rousseau, with his theory of voluntary social contract, and the Utopian dreamers who followed, were longing for justice and political efficiency, but their theories seem crude and visionary from the point of view of the social science of the present day.

386. Experimenting with Society.—Robert Owen in England and Fourier and Saint-Simon in France were prophets of an ideal order which they tried to establish. Believing that all men were intended to be happy, and that happiness depended on a reorganization of the social environment in which property should be socialized, at least in part, they organized volunteers into model communities, expecting that their success would attract men everywhere to imitate the new organization. The arrangement of industry was planned in detail, a co-operative system was organized that would keep every man busy at useful labor without working him too hard, would take away the profits of the middleman by a well-planned system of distribution, and would allow liberty in social relations as far as consistent with the general good, but would subordinate the individual to the community. Certain of the Utopians thought that it would be necessary for the state to determine the minutiae of daily life, and for a few directors to prescribe activities, and they introduced a uniformity in dress, food, and houses that savored of the old-fashioned orphan asylum. These features, together with the failure to understand that social institutions could not be made to order, and that human nature was not of such quality as to make an ideal commonwealth at once actual, soon wrecked these utopian schemes and brought to an end the first period of socialistic experiments.

387. Biological Sociologists.—Not a few writers in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, before sociology was born, recognized the need and the possibility of a true science of society. Scholars were studying and writing upon other sciences that are related to sociology—biology, history, economics, and politics. Scientific information about the various races of mankind was accumulating. At length Auguste Comte, a Frenchman, found a place for sociology among the sciences and declared it to be the highest of them all. In 1842 he completed the publication of the Positive Philosophy, in which he maintained that human society is an organism similar to biological organisms, and that its activities can be systematized and generalizations be deduced therefrom for the formation of a true science. In his Descriptive Sociology and later works Herbert Spencer in England amplified the theory of Comte and arranged a mass of facts as evidence of its truth. He put too much emphasis on biological resemblances in the opinion of present-day sociologists, but his emphasis on inductive study and his generalizations from biology were important contributions to the development of the new science.

388. Psychological Sociologists.—Comte and Spencer were followed by other biological sociologists whose names are well known to students of the science. Interest was aroused in Great Britain, on the continent of Europe, and in America. Students were influenced by conclusions that were being reached in biology, in economics, and in other allied departments of thought, but the one science which became most prominent to the minds of sociologists was psychology. Ward's Dynamic Sociology, published in 1883, marked an epoch, because it called special attention to the psychic factors that enter into social life. After him it became increasingly clear that the true social forces were psychic, though physical conditions affected social progress. A younger school of sociologists has come into existence, and the science is being developed on that basis. More than one individual thinker has made his special contribution, and there is still a variety of opinion on details, but the general principles of the science are being worked out in substantial agreement. It is not to be expected that such a complex and comprehensive science could be completed in its short history of approximately half a century, or that it can ever be made exact, like mathematics or the natural sciences, but there is every reason to expect the development of a body of classified facts that will be of inestimable value in attacking social problems, and of principles that will serve as a guide through the labyrinth of social life. The value of any science is not in the perfection of its system, but in the practical application which can be made of it to human progress.

389. Relation of Sociology to the Natural Sciences.—Sociology has relations to an outer circle of general sciences and to an inner circle of social sciences. It is itself but one of the social sciences, though it is regarded as chief among them. Man looks out upon the universe, of which he is but an atom, and asks questions. Astronomy brings to him the findings of its telescopes and spectrum analyses. Geology explains the transformations that have taken place in the earth on which he lives. Physics and chemistry analyze its substance and reveal the laws of nature. Biology opens up the field of life. Psychology investigates the structure and functions of the human mind, and shows that all activity is at base mental. At last the new sociology discloses human life in all its complex relationships, the function of the social mind, and the channels through which it works. Since social life is lived in a world where physical and mental factors are constantly in action, there is a close connection between all the sciences. Although social life is not so closely similar to animal life as was thought previously, the principles of biology are important to the sociologist because biology is the science of all life. Psychology is important because it is the science of all mind.

390. Relations of Sociology and Other Social Sciences.—There are many phases of human experience and differences of relationship. Obviously the specific sciences that deal with them have a still closer relation to sociology. Economics, for example, has as its field the economic relations and activities that are connected with the business of making a living. The production, distribution, and use of material things is the subject that absorbs the economist. The sociologist makes use of the facts and principles of economics to throw light on the economic functions of society, but the economic field is only one sector of his concern. In a similar way political science is related to sociology. It deals with the organization and development of government and embraces the departments of national and international law, but the governmental function of the social group is but one of the divisions of the interests that absorb the sociologist. He uses the data and conclusions of the political scientists, but in a more general way. It is the same with the sociologist and history. History supplies much of the data of the sociologist from the records of the past. It deals with social life in the concrete, and historical interpretation is essential to an understanding of social phenomena, but sociology takes the past with the present, analyzes both, and generalizes from both as to the laws of the social process. Pedagogy deals with the history and principles of education. Sociology is interested in the educational function of the family, of the community, and of the nation, but again its interest is from the standpoint of abstraction and generalization. Ethics is a science that treats of the right and wrong conduct of human beings. It is very closely associated with sociology, because the valuation of conduct depends on social effects, but the moral functioning of the group is but one phase of social life, and, therefore, ethics is far narrower in its range than sociology. Theology, the science of religion, has sociological implications. As far as it is a science and not a philosophy, it rests upon human interest and human experience, and it is becoming increasingly recognized that these human interests depend on social relationships, but all the religious interests of men are but one part of the field of sociology.

It is clear that each of the social sciences holds a relation to sociology of the particular to the general. Sociology seeks out the laws and principles that unify all the rest. It does not include them all, as does the term social science, but it correlates and interprets them all. It is not the same as philosophy, for that subject has for its field all knowledge, and especially tries to probe to the secrets of all being, and to learn the meaning of the universe as a whole, while sociology is restricted to social life. Each has its distinct place among the studies of the human mind, and each should be distinguished carefully from its rivals and associates.

391. Social Classification.—When we enter into the field of sociology itself we find other distinctions to be necessary. The novice frequently confounds similar terms. Not infrequently sociology and socialism are used as synonymous terms by persons who know little of either, so that it is necessary to point out that socialism is a particular theory of social organization and functioning, while sociology is the general science that includes all varieties of social theory, along with social fact, and especially is it necessary to explain that any fallacies of socialistic theory do not invalidate well-established conclusions of social science. Another common error is to identify sociology with social reform. Social pathology is too important a branch of sociology to be omitted or minimized, but it is only one division of the subject, and all measures as well as theories of social reform are only a small part of the concern of sociology. Such terms as philanthropy, criminology, and penology all have connection with sociology, but they need to be carefully differentiated from the more general term.

Sociology itself has been variously classified under the terms pure and applied, static and dynamic, descriptive and theoretical. Terms have changed somewhat, as the psychological emphasis has supplanted the biological. It is important that terms should be used correctly and should be sanctioned by custom, but it is not necessary to make sharp distinction between all the different divisions, old and new. Classification is a matter of convenience and technic; though it may have a scientific basis, it is entirely a matter of form. There is always danger that a particular classification may become a fetich. It is the life of society that we study, it is the improvement of social relations at which we aim. Whatever method best contributes to this end is valid in classification for all except those who delight in science for science's sake.

392. The Permanent Place of Sociology.—The study of the science of social life is eminently worth while, for it deals with matters that are of vital importance to the human race and every one of its individual members. For that reason it is likely to receive growing recognition as among the most important subjects with which the human mind can deal. It is vast in its range, exacting in its demand of unremitting investigation and careful generalization, stimulating in its intense practicality. Its abstractions require the closest reasoning of the scholar, but its basis in the concrete facts of daily life tends to make it popular. Once understood and appreciated, sociology is likely to become the guide-book by which social effort will be directed, and the standard by which it will be measured. As progress becomes in this way more telic it will become more rapid. Social life will approach more nearly the norm that sociology describes, but until the day that society ceases to be pathological, sociology will teach a social ideal as a goal toward which society must bend its energies. As human life is the most precious gift that the world bestows, so the science of that life is worthy of being called the gem of the sciences.

READING REFERENCES

DEALEY: Sociology, pages 19-40.

BLACKMAR AND GILLIN: Outlines of Sociology, pages 13-47, 541-564.

GIDDINGS: Principles of Sociology, pages 3-51.

ELLWOOD: Sociology in Its Psychological Aspects, pages 29-65.

ROSS: Foundations of Sociology, pages 15-28, 256-348.

SMALL: General Sociology, pages 40-97.



INDEX

Achievement, 5, 115, 341.

Activity, 2-6, 88, 111, 117, 164, 170, 188, 236, 237, 298, 346.

Adaptation, 31, 234, 333-335, 342, 343, 349-351.

Administration, 320, 321.

Adultery, 75-78, 81.

AEsthetics, 144.

Aggregation, 348.

Agricultural clubs, 107, 118.

Agricultural colleges, 107, 164.

Agricultural fairs, 107.

Agriculture, 52, 99, 100, 104, 106, 118.

Almshouses, 272.

American Civic Federation, 148.

American Federation of Labor, 192.

American Vigilance Association, 85.

Amusements, 86, 164, 238-240.

Ancestor-worship, 32.

Arbitration, 191, 194, 195, 335, 336.

Art, 283.

Assimilation, 327.

Association, 6-9, 17-23, 53, 54, 88, 108, 109, 111, 118, 133, 152, 164, 170, 188, 233, 236, 240, 254, 294, 307, 308, 337, 338, 344-346, 348, 349.

Athletics, 109, 111, 112, 196, 237, 240, 308, 309.

Attention, 345, 351.

Banks, 106, 307.

Big Brother idea, 251.

Biological analogies, 342, 343.

Birth-rate, 42.

Boards of Conciliation, 194, 195.

Boy Scouts, 110, 251.

Boys' Clubs, 110.

Cabinet, 320, 321.

Camp-Fire Girls, 112.

Catholic Church, 76, 271, 276.

Census of marriage and divorce, 35, 74, 77.

Change, 10-13, 88, 129, 170, 173-176, 189, 236, 351.

Charity, 242, 267, 271-277.

Charity organization, 57, 267, 272-276.

Charter, 257, 260, 261.

Chautauqua Movement, 118, 133, 309.

Child labor, 49-53, 190, 191, 235.

Children, 42-59. Dependency of, 56-58. Relief of, 57, 58. Rights of, 42, 48, 53-55.

Children's aid societies, 58.

Chinese Exclusion Act, 329.

Christianity, 32, 76.

Church, The, 156-161, 252, 287-293, 310, 311, 338, 353. In the city, 287-293. In the country. See Rural church.

Church charity, 275, 276.

Church organization, 290-293.

City, The, 169 ff., 294-299. Attraction of, 171, 172. Characteristics of, 169. Economic interests in, 180. Government of, 256-262. Growth of, 170. History of, 177-179. Importance of, 176. Improvement of, 295-298. In the making, 294-298. Manager, 261, 262. Neighborhood, 284, 285. Opportunities in, 173, 175.

Classes, 212-218.

Classification, 370.

Clubs, 107, 110-112, 116, 118, 133, 134, 148.

Collective bargaining, 194.

College life, 10, 12, 85, 131, 132.

Commerce, 205, 206, 337.

Commission government, 260, 261.

Commissions, 195, 199, 233.

Communication, 116, 118, 281, 288, 294, 307, 336, 337, 349.

Community house, 163, 164.

Community leadership, 164-168.

Community obligation, 154.

Competition, 107, 198, 227.

Conference, 297, 298.

Conflict, 31, 115, 186, 187, 194, 320, 328, 334, 353.

Congregational churches, 77.

Control, 9, 10, 88, 136, 142, 170, 188, 189, 197-199, 203, 208-210, 234, 246, 256, 258, 298, 303, 314, 352, 357, 358.

Co-operation, 31, 53, 63, 89, 90, 105-107, 129, 130, 198-200, 205, 206, 297, 298, 365.

Cost of living, 69, 76, 89.

Country store, 116.

Court of Domestic Relations, 79.

Courts. See Judiciary.

Craft guilds, 182.

Crime, 75, 84, 90, 154, 228, 235, 240, 242, 244, 246, 248-255. Causes of, 248-250. Discharge, 253, 254. Prevention of, 250-252. Punishment, 252-254. Reformation, 252, 254.

Criticism, 353.

Crowds, 22, 23.

Cruelty, 48, 49, 75, 77, 78.

Custom, 139, 152, 334, 349.

Dance-halls, 82, 84, 238, 240.

Decision, 351, 354.

Defectives, 84, 86.

Degeneracy, 43-46, 218, 219, 228.

Delinquency, 154. See Crime.

Democracy, 141, 189, 190, 196, 298, 309, 316-319, 327.

Democracy in industry, 189, 190.

Department stores, 201, 203.

Dependency, 56, 57, 271. See Charity.

Desertion, 70, 75, 77, 78, 267.

Desires, 334, 345-347.

Difficulties of working people, 263-270.

Discrimination, 345, 351.

Discussion, 284-286, 353, 354.

Division of labor, 62, 125.

Divorce, 74-80, 88. Catholic attitude toward, 76 Causes of, 75, 76, 267. Difficulty of, 77. History of, 76. In Europe, 74-78. Laws of, 74-79. Protestant attitude toward, 76, 77. Remedies for, 78, 79.

Divorce court, 79.

Divorce proctor, 79.

Drama, 283, 284. See Theatre.

Duelling, 194.

Dynamic society, 2, 10.

East, The, 100, 139, 140, 224.

Economics, 180, 368.

Education, 55, 120-131, 280, 327, 328, 331, 339, 346, 353-355. Agricultural, 124, 127, 128. Cultural, 122, 132. Industrial, 251, 331. Moral and religious, 160, 251, 287, 291. Principles of, 120-124. Rural, 120-131. Vocational, 121, 123, 267, 268, 296. Weaknesses of, 123, 124.

Edwards family, 45, 46.

Elberfeld system, 275.

Election, 317, 318.

Employers' liability, 191, 192.

Environment, 25, 26, 40, 47, 48, 99, 100, 105, 121, 125, 169, 235, 248, 327, 334, 340-343, 345, 350, 351.

Erdman Act, 195.

Ethics, 202, 368.

Eugenics, 43-47, 90.

Euthenics, 47, 48.

Evangelical Alliance, 311.

Evangelism, 288, 289.

Evolution, 342, 343.

Exchange, 64, 201-203.

Executive, 320, 321.

Experimentation, 128, 187.

Factory life, 188.

Factory system, 51, 182-184.

Family, 24 f., 88-90. Changes in, 65, 67-69, 76. Functions of, 26, 27, 88. History of, 29-33. Mediaeval, 33, 37-39. On the farm, 25, 26, 64, 65, 350. Reform, 88-90. Roman, 32, 37. Study of, 24. Urban, 68.

Farmers' Institute, 118.

Farmers' Union, 117.

Federal Council of churches, 77, 310, 311.

Federation, 334, 335.

Feeble-mindedness, 44, 84.

Feeling, 344, 345, 355.

Feminism, 71, 72.

Folk-ways. See Social habits.

Forum, 284-286, 360.

Friendly visiting, 274.

Galveston plan, 260, 261.

Gambling, 153, 235, 239.

Gangs, 22, 109-111.

Germans, 223, 259, 260, 269, 322, 335.

Girls' clubs, in, 111, 112.

Government, 136-143, 195, 208, 256-262, 313-327. City, 256-262. National, 313-323. Rural, 136-143.

Government ownership, 208, 209.

Grange, 117, 284.

Great Britain, 44, 259, 269, 316, 317, 322.

Group consciousness, 18, 192.

Habits, 334, 345.

Hague Conferences, 335.

Health, 85, 144-148, 196, 233, 242, 267, 307, 308. Clubs, 148. Nurses and physicians, 147, 148, 296. Officials, 146, 147.

Hebrew Charities, 276.

Heredity, 26, 46, 249, 342.

History, 368.

Home, 37-42. Children in the, 42, 90. Education in the, 39, 55, 56. History of the, 37-39. Ideal, 40. Man in the, 70. Modern, 39, 40, 67-71. Rural, 121, 122. Values of the, 39, 40. Women in the, 69.

Home economics, 60-66.

Hospitals, 272, 296.

Hours of labor, 190, 207.

Housing, 86, 89, 230-234, 252, 350.

Hull House, 277, 278.

Imitation, 349, 351.

Immigrants and Immigration, 82, 86, 102, 170, 171, 221-229, 250, 327-329. Asiatic, 328, 329. Causes and effects of, 227, 228. German, 223. History of, 221-226. Irish, 222. Italian, 224, 225. Jewish, 225, 226. Lesser peoples, 226. Problems of, 327. Scandinavians, 223, 224. Slavs, 225.

Imprisonment, 78. See Crime.

Impulse, 345.

Individual, The, 128, 144, 151, 152, 192, 203, 248, 343-347, 360.

Individualism, 72, 73, 75, 78, 88, 89, 107, 144, 149, 360.

Industrial control, 189, 190.

Industrial problem, 183, 186-200. Principles for solution of the, 197-200.

Industrial reform, 190.

Industrial revolution, 178, 184.

Industrial schools, 58.

Initiative, 261.

Insanity, 44, 78, 244.

Instincts, 27, 109, 111, 112, 344, 345, 348.

Insurance, 106, 269.

Intemperance, 75, 78, 84, 90, 153, 233, 240, 241. Results of, 242-244. See Temperance.

Interests, 302-304, 311, 334, 345-347.

International law, 320, 335.

International Workers of the World, 193.

Internationalism, 333-339.

Invention, 184, 206, 341, 345.

Irish, 222.

Italians, 224, 225.

Jews, 225, 226.

Judiciary, 321, 322.

Jukes, 44, 45.

Juvenile courts, 154, 254.

Kallikak family, 45.

Labor, 61-63. Division of, 62. Hired, 63. Organization of, 192, 193.

Labor bureaus, 191, 193, 268.

Labor conditions, 184.

Labor exchanges, 269.

Labor unions, 192, 193, 207.

Lack of support, 75.

Law, 136, 137, 142, 258, 321, 322, 349.

Lawgivers, 364.

Lawlessness, 54, 55, 235.

Legislation, 319, 320. See Social legislation.

Liberty, 54, 55.

Libraries, 132, 282, 283.

License, 83, 246.

Like-mindedness, 192, 308.

Local Government Act, 259.

Local option, 141, 246.

Manufacturing, 180-185. History of, 181-183.

Marriage, 27, 20-36, 46, 76, 79, 84. Ideals of, 35, 36, 79. Laws of, 34, 35, 77, 78. Reforms, 35.

Mass meeting, 19.

Massachusetts Society for Promoting Good Citizenship, 260.

Maternity benefits, 44.

Metronymic period, 30.

Misery, 263.

Missions, 338, 339.

Mobs, 22, SS, 348.

Monogamy, 29, 31, 33.

Monopoly, 208-210, 242.

Morals, 151-155, 175, 230, 232, 235, 237, 242, 349. Definition of, 151. In the city, 175, 230, 232, 235, 237. Rural, 151-155.

Morals commission, 86.

Morals court, 86.

Moving pictures, 82, 86, 112, 238, 240, 283.

Municipal ownership, 260.

Municipal reform, 260.

Music, 133, 164, 165, 237, 241, 283, 284, 310.

Nation, The, 300-332. Economics in, 306, 307. Education in, 309. Functions of, 305-311, 314. Government of, 313-323. Health in, 307, 308. History of, 301, 302. Philanthropy in, 310. Problems of, 324-332. Sport in, 308.

National Bureau of Education, 309.

National Conference of Charities and Corrections, 273, 310.

National Conference on Unemployment, 269.

National Divorce Reform League, 77.

National Education Association, 309.

National Insurance Act, 44.

National Municipal League, 260.

National Reform League, 260.

Nature study, 127.

Neglect, 48, 75.

Negro problem, 329-331.

Newspapers, 252, 281, 284, 336, 353, 354, 360.

Occupations, 104, 181, 235, 345.

Offices, 204.

Organization, 2, 8, 9, 22, 23, 109, 110, 111, 118, 133, 140, 149, 182-184, 188, 196, 210, 259, 260, 200-293, 317-323.

Organization of labor, 192, 193.

Parks, 238.

Parole, 253.

Paternalism, 358.

Patriarchal household, 30, 32, 49, 61.

Pauperism, 268.

Personality, 1, 54, 344, 347, 349.

Personal worth, 360, 361.

Persuasion, 352.

Philosophers, 364, 365.

Placing-out system, 57, 58.

Play, 53, 54, 109, 235, 236, 239.

Playgrounds, 108, 235, 236.

Police, 258, 259.

Political science, 368.

Politics, 137, 138, 141, 142, 194, 244, 252, 260.

Polyandry, 31.

Polygyny, 30, 31.

Population, 100-103, 176, 177, 223, 232, 248. Characteristics of, 100, 101. Composition of, 101, 102, 223. Congestion of, 207. Growth of, 102.

Poverty, 84, 90, 228, 242, 246, 266-270. Causes of, 267-269. Remedies for, 267, 268.

Press, The, 280-282.

Primaries, 141, 260, 261.

Probation, 251, 253.

Profanity, 153, 235.

Profit-sharing, 196.

Progress, 351-353. Genetic, 351, 352. Telic, 352, 353.

Prophets, 365, 366.

Prosperity, 324, 325.

Prostitution, 81-88.

Protestant-Episcopal Church, 77.

Psychology, 344-346.

Public opinion, 34, 35, 59, 78, 79, 81, 82, 123, 142, 210, 237, 246, 252, 282, 320, 359-361.

Punishment. See Crime.

Race problem, 327-332.

Railways, 207, 208.

Raines Law hotels, 84.

Reading-circles, 133.

Reason, 3, 4, 17.

Recall, 261.

Recreation, 53, 54, 108-114, 164, 196, 235, 238, 252, 254, 308, 309.

Referendum, 141, 193, 198, 261.

Reformatories, 84, 86.

Relief, 57, 58, 267, 271-277.

Religion, 34, 39, 230, 287-293, 349, 361.

Religious education, 160, 287, 291.

Remarriage, 77.

Rescue homes, 86.

Royal Commission on Divorce, 78.

Rural church, 156-161. Function of, 157, 160. Minister of, 158. Needs of, 159, 160. New, 160. Problems of, 158, 159. Value of, 156, 157.

Rural emigration, 67, 102, 172, 173.

Rural Life Commission, 153, 154.

Russell Sage Foundation, 268, 295.

St. Vincent de Paul Society, 276.

Saloon, The, 84, 173, 238, 240, 241, 243.

Salvation Army, 293.

Scandinavians, 223, 224.

Schools, The, 120-131, 141, 236, 280. Consolidated, 125, 129, Continuation, 129, 165. Curriculum of, 121, 122, 127, 128, 354. District, 124, 125, 284. Normal, 123, 130, 131. State, 58. Teaching in, 124, 129, 130.

School districts, 140.

Scientific management, 196.

Segregation, 83, 85, 250, 272, 296.

Self-control, 360, 361.

Servant class, 62, 63, 69, 82, 89, 182.

Settlements, 277-279.

Sewing-circles, 116, 117.

Sex hygiene, 55, 90.

Sexual impurity, 81, 88, 90, 153, 154, 233. See Prostitution.

Slavery, 62, 182.

Slavs, 225.

Slums, 38, 231-233.

Sociability, 108, 111, 164, 171.

Social analysis, 340-371.

Social centres, 117, 163, 164, 176-179, 241, 242, 284-286.

Social characteristics, 2-14, 88, 129.

Social contract, 315.

Social degeneration, 103.

Social development, 2, 334, 342, 360.

Social education, 35, 39, 46, 56, 80, 86, 87, 90, 110, 121, 123, 237, 254, 330, 331.

Social elements. See Social factors.

Social factors, 4, 16, 17, 68, 187, 188, 333, 334, 340-356. Physical, 343. Psychic, 344-356.

Social groups, 14-23, 53, 54, 349, 350.

Social habits, 349, 351.

Social ideals, 362, 363.

Social institutions, 21, 24, 57, 58, 90, 115-120, 162, 168, 169, 237, 280, 337-339, 357.

Social legislation, 44, 52, 53, 142, 190, 191, 194, 222, 250, 268.

Social mind, 17-19, 54, 344, 348.

Social organization. See Organization.

Social pathology, 369.

Social problems, 14, 210, 221, 228, 242, 298.

Social reform, 369.

Social relations, 1, 6-8, 24, 31, 47, 90, 108, 169, 187, 189, 195, 203, 237, 314, 332, 334, 365.

Social science, 128, 129, 298, 355, 365.

Social selection, 31, 342, 343.

Social service, 89.

Social sympathy, 89.

Social theories, 315, 357-363, 365.

Social utility, 4.

Social values, 39, 40, 108, 337.

Social weaknesses, 13, 14, 88, 123, 124, 170, 175, 189, 324.

Social welfare, 73, 186, 191, 196, 202, 210, 212, 300, 343, 358.

Socialism, 197, 314, 358, 359, 369. Objections to, 359.

Society, 1, 2.

Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children, 57.

Sociology, 2, 364-371. Biological, 366. Psychological, 366. Relations of, 367-369.

Source material, 2.

South, The, 99, 100, 140, 261.

South Carolina dispensary system, 242.

Southern Sociological Conference, 310.

Standard of living, 207, 222, 231, 327, 329.

State, The, 57, 272, 313-323. History of, 315, 316. Theories of, 315.

State schools, 58.

Static society, 2, 10, 139, 169.

Sterilization, 250.

Stimulus, 18, 56, 238, 283, 341, 344, 345, 347, 351, 352.

Stock exchange, 202.

Street trades, 235.

Strikes, 193, 194.

Struggle for existence, 342, 343.

Summer visitors, 148, 149, 351.

Sweating, 52.

Syndicalism, 197.

Telephone, 106.

Temperance, 244. Anti-Saloon League, 245. Education, 245. Good Templars, 245. No license, 245. Prohibition, 245, 246. Regulation, 246. Total abstinence, 245. Woman's Christian Temperance Union, 245, 338.

Tenant farming, 101.

Tenements, 69, 82, 84-86, 230-234, 239, 263.

Theatre, 82, 238, 240, 283.

Theology, 369.

Theories. See Social theories.

Town meetings, 140-142, 163, 284-286.

Toynbee Hall, 278.

Tradition, 349, 350.

Transportation, 204-208, 336, 337.

Trusts, 209, 210.

Unemployment, 199, 269.

United Mine Workers, 193.

United States, 302-304, 335.

United States Census, 67.

United States Department of Agriculture, 306.

United States Patent Office, 306.

Universities, 131, 132, 308, 309, 354.

University of Wisconsin, 131, 132.

University Settlement, 278.

Unorganized groups, 16-23.

Utopians, 365.

Venereal disease, 44, 85.

Vice commissions, 83-85.

Vice reform, 85, 86.

Village, The, 115, 301. Improvement Society, 148, 149. Nurse, 147, 148.

Vocational training, 35, 296.

Volunteer Prison League, 254.

Wages, 84, 86, 89, 203, 204, 207, 222, 228.

War, 90, 194, 249, 334.

West, The, 99, 102, 223, 224, 261.

THE END