Directly denotes without any delay; immediately implies without any interposition of other occupation.

Agreeably disappointed

When our hopes are blasted, our plans balked, our expectations defeated, our intentions thwarted, we are disappointed. We prefer the agreeable to the disagreeable, and plan and labor to secure it. When our plans fail we are disappointed, but not agreeably disappointed. If the new conditions, which are not of our seeking, prove agreeable, it is only after the sense of disappointment has vanished.

Allude to, Refer to, Mention

The word allude is often incorrectly used. Allusion is the by-play of language. It means to hint at by remote suggestions, to speak of figuratively or sportively.

Whatever is directly mentioned, or spoken of, or described, cannot be said to be alluded to. The terms

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differ in degree, the first being the weakest. An allusion is an indirect reference.

Among the rest

"Mary sat on the beach among the rest." Say "with the rest."

Peruse

This is one of those high-sounding terms too often employed when read would be much better.

Emigrants, Immigrants

These words are sometimes confounded. "Did you see the emigrants on the 'Indiana,' which arrived this morning?" "Did the immigrants go directly to Italy?" Exchange the italicized words in the two sentences and they will be correctly used.

Somewheres

The terminal s should be omitted in such words as anywheres, somewheres, nowheres, anyways, hereabouts, thereabouts, whereabouts. In such cases as "Whereabouts did you find him?" and "We knew his whereabouts," the s is properly retained.

Apart, Aside

"May I see you apart from the others?" It should be, "May I see you privately" or "aside"?

Fire, Throw

We fire a gun, but throw a stone. To fire a stone, fire him out of the house, fire him out of our employ, may

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be graphic ways of presenting the thought, but good writers never use them and good speakers should avoid them.

The First, Single

"I have not found the first objection to his candidacy." Say "a single objection," or "no objection."

First two

Such has been the strong desire to continue to use forms of expression that we have long used that not a little time and effort have been expended in the endeavor to make the wrong appear right. It is an accepted fact, however, that a large majority of the best speakers and writers now say the first two, the last five, etc., rather than the two first, the five last.

Future, Subsequent

The word future is sometimes used instead of subsequent; as, "Until he was eighteen years old his conduct was marked by cruelty and malice, but his future life was characterized by kindness and generosity." Future looks forward from the present, and not from some point of time in the past.

Gent's pants

"Gent's pants scoured and pressed." Business signs and business advertisements are responsible for many vulgarisms. Never say gent's nor pants. Even pantaloons is not so good a word as trousers.

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Sit, Set

Few words afford a more fertile field for grammatical blundering than the verbs sit and set. The important fact to remember in the use of the words is that sit, in modern usage, is an intransitive verb, and does not take an object, while set, which means to place in position, is transitive, and requires an object to complete its meaning. You cannot sit a thing, but you do set or place a thing.

The verb sit undergoes a slight change with the change of tense or time. "I sit at the window today." "I sat at the window yesterday." "I have sat at the window daily for many years." "Sitting at the window, I saw the storm arise." "Having sat at his table, I can testify to his hospitality."

The transitive verb set undergoes no tense changes. "See me set this vase on the table." "He set his seal to the paper yesterday." "Jones will not set the world on fire with his writings." "Having set my affairs in order, I returned home." "I sit down." "I sat down." "I set him down."

There are many intransitive uses of the verb set; as, "The sun sets," "The tide sets toward the south," "The fruit has set," "He set out for Boston."

There is a difference of opinion as to whether we should say "The coat sets well" or "The coat sits well," with the greater weight in favor of sits. "The

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hen sits on her eggs." "She is a sitting hen." When the verb is used reflexively use set and not sat; as, "I set me down beside her," not "I sat me down beside her."

Anyhow

This word can scarcely be regarded as elegant, and should not be used except in colloquial style.

Awful

Few words among the many that go to make up the vocabulary of American slang have been in longer use and have a wider range than the word awful. From the loftiest and most awe-inspiring themes to the commonest trifle, this much-abused word has been employed. A correct speaker or writer almost fears to use the word lest he should suggest the idea of slang, and thus detract from the subject to which the word might most fitly be applied.

Even the grammatical form of the word is often violated in such expressions as "Isn't he awful nice?" "That hat of hers is awful pretty." To say awfully nice and awfully pretty would improve the grammar, but the gross vulgarism remains.

The word, when properly used, means "inspiring with awe or dread" often accompanied with reverence, as when Milton says:

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"The trumpet spake not to the armed throng; And kings sat still with awful eye, As if they surely knew their sovran Lord was by."

Back up

In the sense of support, this, and the shorter expression back, are doubtless borrowed from the commercial world. While they may be tolerated in conversation, they must be regarded as slang.

Bulk

This word is often incorrectly used for most or the greater part; as, "The bulk of the people opposed the measure." Bulk refers to size, not to numbers.

Burglarize

This word is often used by the more sensational reporters in their reports of crime. It should be avoided.

But what, But that

"I don't know but what I shall have to punish him." The sentence should read, "I don't know but that I shall have to punish him." It is equivalent to, "I think that I shall have to punish him." The omission of but will convey the opposite meaning. "I don't know that I shall have to punish him" is equivalent to "I think that I shall not have to punish him."

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Calculate

A provincialism often used in the sense of think, deem, suppose, believe; as, "I calculate the train will be here in ten minutes."

Calculated, Liable

This word is often incorrectly used in the sense of likely, liable, apt; as, "His utterances are calculated to injure his cause." In the proper use of the word there is present the idea of purpose or intent.

Leave, Quit

Leave is often incorrectly used for quit; as, "That eminent actor expects soon to leave the stage." It would be a misfortune if he should take the stage with him. Say "quit the stage."

"Henry has quit smoking." Here left off or stopped would be better.

"The President gave me lief to speak with him." Say "gave me leave."

Let it alone and let me be are preferable to leave it alone and leave me be.

A 1

"I have just read an A 1 article on the currency, question in the last issue of the North American Review!" This is an expression from the vocabulary of business converted into the slang of the street.

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Luck

Luck, like behavior, may be either good or bad. "The carpenter has met with luck; he fell and broke his leg." "The manager has met with luck; his salary has been doubled." The adjective lucky and the adverb luckily are used only in a favorable sense.

Make way with

This expression is often incorrectly used for make away with; as, "The Judge gave the boot-blacks a Christmas dinner, and the begrimed urchins quickly made way with the turkey and cranberry sauce." Say "made away with," etc.

To make way is to make room, to provide a way, to dispatch.

In our midst

"The doctor settled in our midst." Say "among us," or "in our neighborhood."

Indorse, Endorse

From the Latin dorsum, the back, these words have come to mean the writing of one's name across the back of a check or draft or other commercial paper to signify its transfer to another or to secure its payment. To indorse a man's arguments or opinions is an incorrect use of the word.

While both forms of spelling the word are in good usage, indorse seems to be coming into more general favor.

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In, Into

In is often incorrectly used for into; as, "He hurried up the street and rushed in the store." We walk in a room when the walking is wholly within the apartment; we walk into a room when we enter it from some other room or from the outside.

Just going to

"I was just going to write you a letter." Say "I was just about to write you a letter."

Kind of

"James swallowed the dose, and now feels kind of sick." Use slightly or somewhat, or some other modifier, instead of kind of.

Knowing

Do not use knowing for skilful or intelligent. "He is a knowing artist." "See him prick up his ears; he is a knowing cur."

Clever, Smart

In England the word clever is applied to one who is bright, intelligent, ready, apt; in the United States it is often misapplied to one who is good-natured, kind, or accommodating.

"Do you believe in corporal punishment for stupid school-children?"

"Yes; a spanking always makes them smart."

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To express cleverness, brightness, intelligence, aptness, the adjectives clever, bright, intelligent, apt, are better than the word smart.

Posted, Informed

"He is well posted on all matters relating to cattle-breeding." Say informed.

Perspire, Sweat

While all mankind belongs to the animal kingdom, and no person can feel offended at being called an animal, yet society observes certain distinctions in speaking of men and of beasts. To sweat and to feed are expressions that apply to the latter; to perspire and to eat to the former.

Empty

The Mississippi river flows, or discharges its water into the Gulf of Mexico, but it can not empty so long as any water remains in the river.

Enjoyed poor health

"Gold that buys health can never be ill spent, Nor hours laid out in harmless merriment."

The negative form of expression, "I have not enjoyed good health," is not only correct, but is, at the same time, a polite way of modestly stating a fact. To say "I have enjoyed poor health for the past year" is to express a kind of enjoyment not generally appreciated. It is like being agreeably disappointed.

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Aberration of intellect

"He is afflicted with a slight aberration of intellect." Simplicity would suggest, "He is slightly insane."

Above, Foregoing

"Let me call your attention to the above passage." The highest authority does not sanction the use of above as an adjective. Say "the foregoing passage."

Allowed, Said

"He allowed this was the best speech he had heard." This is a provincialism that should be avoided. Use said, or declared, or admitted, according to the meaning.

Alternation

This word is sometimes used in the sense of an unbroken series. It properly signifies a reciprocal succession, as "The alternation of summer and winter produces an ever-changing scene."

Alternative

Etymologically and by general use, this word refers to a choice between two; as, "If this demand is refused the alternative is war." But Gladstone is quoted as saying, "My decided preference is for the fourth and last of these alternatives."

Anniversary

From annus, a year, means recurring every year. Centennial means once in a hundred years. What then does centennial anniversary mean? Use centenary.

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Learn, Teach

"I taught him grammar," not "I learned him grammar." "He taught us history."

Lease, Let, Rent, Hire

We may lease to or from. "I leased the farm to my neighbor." "I leased this house from Brown." We let to another; as, "I let my house to my cousin." We may rent to or from another. We may hire from another," as, "I hired a servant;" "he hired a boat." With out and reflexively we may hire to another; as," I hired out my horses;" "he hired himself to the miller."

Like, As

Avoid the use of like in the sense of as. "He thinks just as (not like) his father does." That Anthony Trollope, Hugh Conway and other writers are chargeable with this offence does not justify the use of like for as, but rather proves the need of constant vigilance in order to avoid such errors.

Lit, Lighted, Alighted

"He lighted the candle." "The crow alighted on the top of the tree." Avoid the use of lit in such cases, and also that slang form, as, "I lit on a beautiful passage in Browning," in the sense of met with.

Lend, Loan

"Will you lend me your book," is better than "Will you loan me your book."

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Near, Nearly

"James is not near so good a scholar as his brother is." Use nearly.

Nasty, Nice

Nasty is a strong adjective, and should be used only in reference to what is offensively filthy, foul, or defiled. Such expressions as a nasty day, a nasty rain, mark a loose and careless use of the word.

The word nice once meant foolish, ignorant, weak, effeminate. It has now come to mean exact, fine, finished, exciting admiration on account of skill or exactness; as nice proportions, nice workmanship, a nice distinction in philosophy. It is loosely and colloquially used in application to what is pleasing, agreeable, delightful, good.

A bright young lady was once asked, "Don't you think nice is a nasty word?" She replied, "And do you think nasty is a nice word." The subject was abruptly changed.

Nicely

"How do you feel this morning?" "Nicely, thank you." The foregoing use of the word is as incorrect as it is common. Use very well instead.

No good, No use

"How does that new machine work?" "It's no good." "Shall I try again?" "No; it's no use." The answers should have been, "It is of no good, it is of no use."

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O, Oh

While good usage is far from uniform, many excellent authors employ O only in cases of direct address and oh when strong and sudden emotion is to be expressed. O is always written with a capital letter, and should be followed by the name of the person or thing addressed, and the exclamation or interrogation point placed at the end of the sentence; as, "O Death, where is thy sting? O Grave, where is thy victory?" "O the cold and cruel winter!"

Oh in the body of a sentence may begin with a small letter, and is immediately followed by the exclamation point; as, "Oh! how terrible was his fate!" "The sad intelligence was gently given, but oh! the shock was almost unbearable."

Observe, Say

"He observed that the orphan pines while the oppressor feeds." To observe is to notice carefully, to attend closely to what one sees. In the above sentence said or remarked should be used instead of observed.

Of any, Of all

"This is the largest tree of any I have seen." The meaning clearly is, that of all the trees I have seen this is the largest. Hence, of any should be changed to of all.

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Older, Elder

Elder and eldest are terms applied chiefly to persons, generally in speaking of members of the same family, while older and oldest are applied to persons of different families, and also to things.

"His elder brother died yesterday." "His eldest sister has gone to Italy on her wedding trip." "Our oldest neighbor was born in 1825." "This oak is older than that pine." The foregoing sentences illustrate the best usage as applied to the comparatives older and elder and the superlatives oldest and eldest.

When the direct comparison is made the word older is used, followed by the conjunction than; as, "My father is older than my mother." But when the comparison is assumed the word elder should be employed; as, "My father is the elder of my parents."

Only

Perhaps no other word in the language is so often misplaced as the word only. The only general rule is to place it as near as possible to the word which it modifies. "He only lent me a dollar" means that he did not make me a present of the dollar, but expects me to return it. "He lent me only a dollar" means that the sum lent was neither greater nor less than one dollar. The former expression is often used when the latter should be.

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"Only the man walked to the post-office to-day." The woman did not walk with him.

"The man only walked to the post-office to-day." He did not ride or drive.

"The man walked only to the post-office to-day." He did not go so far as the store.

"The man walked to the post-once only to-day." Yesterday he rode and the day before he drove. Today is the only day that he walked.

George Eliot, in Middlemarch, says: "I only know two gentlemen who sing at all well," and in another place, "I have only seen her once before." The word only should be placed before two in the first sentence, and before once in the second.

Onto

There is a growing tendency to write the words on and to as one word. "Although nearly drowned he yet had strength enough to climb onto the rock." The use of upon or on is generally better. When neither of these can be used write on and to as separate words.

Outstart

This word is sometimes used when outset should be employed.

Over and Above

"He earned twenty dollars over and above his expenses." Use more than or above.

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Party, Person

"Is she the party of whom you spoke?" "No; she is the person."

One man may be a party to a contract or agreement. Several men may form a party. When no contract is implied, one man or woman must be spoken of as a person, not as a party.

Patron, Customer

Unless there is a sense of obligation or condescension, use the term customer and not patron. In like manner, use custom instead of patronage.

Per

Per is a Latin preposition and should be used only with Latin nouns. We should say per annum, but not per year; per diem, and not per day; per capita, and not per head. "He received a thousand dollars a year is shorter and better than "he received a thousand dollars per year."

Perchance, Peradventure

These are poetic and archaic forms that should be avoided in ordinary prose.

Performers

"The entertainment consisted of reading, recitations, and singing, and the performers acquitted themselves well." Readers, reciters, and singers are not

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performers. The term is applied to the stage, and to those who play on musical instruments. Even in the latter application, "he plays well on the piano," is better than "he performs well on the piano."

Period, Point

Do not use period for a point of time. Period implies extended time.

Nothing like

"James is nothing like so successful as his brother" illustrates a colloquialism that should be avoided. Use not nearly so, etc.

Notorious, Noted

"He was elected to Congress, then Governor, and we now think of sending him to the United States Senate. He is becoming quite notorious." The word notorious implies some bad or doubtful quality or characteristic, and must not be used in the sense of noted or famous.

Nowhere near so

"He trapped nowhere near so many rabbits as his cousin." This vulgarism should be avoided. Use not nearly.

Plead

The past tense of read is read, but the past tense of plead is pleaded, not plead. "The prisoner pleaded for mercy."

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Plenty, Plentiful

"Money is plenty this summer." Plenty is a noun and should not be used as an adjective. Therefore "money is plentiful this summer." Shakespeare says, "If reasons were as plenty as blackberries," etc., but words have settled into more definite grooves since Shakespeare's time. "This house is plenty large enough." Neither is plenty an adverb. Say, "This house is quite large enough," or, simply, large enough.

About, around

"She was pleased with the conversation about her." Use "around her."

"She was pained by the conversation about her." Use "concerning her."

Overlook, Oversee

This word means to look down upon from a place that is over or above; as, "From the top of the Washington monument you can readily overlook the city." But it also means to look over and beyond an object in order to see a second object, thus missing the view of the first object; hence, to refrain from bestowing notice upon, to neglect. The confounding of these two ideas begets ambiguity, as "Brown's business was to overlook the workmen in the shop." His business was to oversee or superintend them, and not to neglect or overlook them.

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Revolting

To revolt is to rebel, to renounce allegiance, but the participial form revolting also means repugnant, loathsome. In the sentence, "A band of revolting Huns has just passed down the street," we should be in doubt whether the speaker referred to their acts against the government or to their appearance. The use of the word rebellious in the former sense, and of disagreeable or disgusting, or the stronger adjectives given above, for the latter meaning, would make the sentence clear.

Unexampled

Such adjectives as unexampled, unparalleled, unprecedented, do not admit of comparison, hence such expressions as the most unexampled bravery, the most unparalleled heroism, etc., should be avoided.

Utter

This verb should be distinguished from express or say. Utter carries with it the idea of articulate expression, except in the sense of uttering false coins or forged notes.

As an adjective it is defined by complete, perfect, absolute, etc., but it can be applied only to what is unpleasant or unfavorable. "I enjoyed utter happiness" would be an absurd expression, but "I was doomed to utter misery" illustrates a proper use of the word.

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Valuable, Valued

These words are not synonymous; valuable means precious, costly, having value; valued refers to our estimation of the worth. "He is one of our most valued contributors," not valuable, unless you are thinking of the value of his contributions and the smallness of the compensation.

Very pleased

A few participles used as adjectives may be directly modified by too or very; as, "I was very tired," "He was too fatigued to go farther."

We sometimes hear the expression, "I was very pleased," but the critics insist upon "I was very much pleased," or "greatly pleased," or "very greatly pleased."

Vicinity

Often too high-sounding a word for the thought; neighborhood is less pretentious.

The old man

The use of such words as dad, daddy, mam, mammy, the old man, the old woman, when applied to parents, not only indicates a lack of refinement, but shows positive disrespect. The words pap, pappy, governor, etc., are also objectionable. After the first lispings of childhood the words papa and mamma, properly accented, should be insisted upon by parents, and at

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the age of twelve or fifteen the words father and mother should be substituted and ever after used, as showing a proper respect on the part of children.

Great big

"He gave me a great big apple." This is a colloquialism that should be avoided. Use large.

Argue, Augur

"The hollow whistling of the wind among the trees argues an approaching storm." Use augurs.

Barbaric, Barbarous

Barbaric refers to a people; barbarous to their low state of life and their habits of cruelty.

Cut in half

A colloquialism in very frequent use. "I will cut this melon in half and share it with you." Say, cut in two, or cut in halves, or cut in two parts.

Hearty meal

"He ate a hearty meal before starting on his journey." Hearty applies to the eater rather than to the meal. "He ate heartily," etc.

Some better

"John has been right sick, but is now some better." Somewhat, rather, or slightly may take the place of some. The sentence may be otherwise improved. "John has been quite ill, but is now somewhat better."

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Through, Finished

Unless you have fallen through a trap door and finished your career, do not say, "I am through," when you mean "I have finished." The school-boy says, "I am through with, that lesson," when he should say, "I have finished that lesson." The farmer asks the man in his employ, "Are you through with that field?" when he should have asked, "Have you finished ploughing that field?" You ask your friend, "Are you through, with Trilby?" when you should ask, "Have you finished reading Trilby."

Winterish

Do not say summerish and winterish, but summery, or summerlike, and wintry.

Wish

The word hope should be employed instead of wish in such cases as, "I wish you may succeed in your undertaking."

Right

This little word has many meanings and is put to many uses. In the following senses it should be avoided:

"Stand right here." In most instances the briefer expression, "Stand here," is sufficient. If it is necessary to locate the place more definitely or to emphasize the position, "Stand just here," or "Stand on this very spot," may be better.

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"The train came to a standstill right here." Better, "The train stopped just here."

"Do it right away." This is a colloquialism that should be avoided. Immediately, instantly, at once, without delay, are expressions that may safely be substituted for right away.

"I heard of your misfortune, and came to you right away." "John, post this letter for me right off." Directly or immediately, in the place of right away and right off, is better English.

"James is right sick, and the doctor comes to see him right often." The use of right as an intensive with adjectives and adverbs is very common in many quarters. Quite ill or very ill is better than right sick, and often or frequently is better than right often.

"We have a right good crop of wheat this year." Use very instead of right.

"You have as good a right to be punished as I have." The person addressed would gladly relinquish his right. "You merit punishment as well as I," or "You deserve to be punished," etc.

Shall, Will, Should, Would

Few persons can claim to be entirely free from slips of speech in the use of these auxiliaries. Simply to express a future action or event, shall is used with the first person and will with the second and third; as,

101 I shall read, We shall read, You will read, You will read, He will read, They will read.

But when I desire to show determination on my part to do a certain thing, or when I exercise my authority over another, or express promise, command, or threat, will is used in the first person and shall in the second and third; as, I will read, We will read, You shall read, You shall read, He shall read, They shall read.

Shall primarily implies obligation; will implies intention or purpose. Will and would should be used whenever the subject names the one whose will controls the action; shall and should must be employed whenever the one named by the subject is under the control of another.

The difference between should and would is, in general, about the same as that between shall and will.

The foregoing suggestions cover the ordinary uses of these auxiliaries, but there are some special cases deserving attention.

Will, in the first person, expresses assent or promise, as well as determination; as,

"I will read this poem for you since you have requested it."

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"I will meet you to-morrow at the time appointed."

Will, in the second person, may express a command; as,

"You will take the places assigned you."

"You will report immediately at my office."

Will is sometimes employed to express a general fact, without conveying the idea of futurity; as, "Accidents will happen." "Differences will arise."

Will is sometimes incorrectly used instead of shall; as, "Will I go?" for "Shall I go?" This fault is common in Scotland, and prevails to some extent in this country.

Will is also used where may would be more appropriate; as, "Be that as it will."

Shall you? Will you?

The distinction between shall and will in the interrogative forms of the second person are not very clearly defined. Many writers and speakers use them interchangeably. The answer should have the same auxiliary as the question.

"Shall you go to town to-morrow?" "I shall."

"Will you attend to this matter promptly?" "I will."

Should, Would, Ought

Should is often used in the sense of ought; as, "Mary should remain at home to-day and wait upon her sick mother."

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Should and would are employed to express a conditional assertion; as, "I should go to college, if I could secure the necessary means." "He would have gone fishing, if his father had been willing."

Would is often used to express a custom, a determination, or a wish; as, "He would sit all day and moan." "Would to God we had died in the land of Egypt." "He would go, and his parents could not prevent him."

Talented

Certain authors and critics, including Coleridge, have objected strongly to the use of talented. One writer argues that since there is no such verb as to talent, the formation of such a participle as talented cannot be defended, and he further declares that no good writer is known to use it, Webster (The International Dictionary) states that, as a formative, talented is just as analogical and legitimate as gifted, bigoted, moneyed, lauded, lilied, honeyed, and numerous other adjectives having a participial form, but derived directly from nouns and not from verbs.

We must therefore conclude that the use of talented as an adjective is entirely legitimate.

Climb down

The critics generally oppose the use of the expression climb down. When the verb is employed without

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its adverbial modifier, the upward direction is always understood. In figurative language, as "Black vapors climb aloft, and cloud the day," "The general climbed the heights of fame," the upward direction is also understood.

But in a specific sense climb is defined "to mount laboriously, especially by the use of hands and feet." Here the manner seems to be as important as the direction. When the same manner must be employed in descending, as a tree, a mast, or a steep, rocky cliff, the general term descend fails to convey the meaning, and to use slip, slide, drop, tumble, fall, would be incorrect. We are then left to choose between the short and clear, but objectionable, expression climb down and some long and cumbersome equivalent.

Mighty

Never use mighty in the sense of very, or exceedingly. It is not only inappropriate but inelegant.

Of, From

"She had consumption and died from the disease." Say, "died of the disease."

On, Over, Upon

"Mary called upon her friend." Say, "called on her friend." "The Senator prevailed over his friends to support his bill." Say, "prevailed upon his

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friends." "The candidate prevailed over his enemies."

Partake

This word means to take a part of, to share with another. It is often incorrectly used for ate, as "He partook sparingly of the food."

Powerful sight

This is a Westernism to be avoided. It is used indiscriminately for a large number, a great quantity, a vast amount, etc.

Apprehend, Comprehend

To apprehend is to take into the mind; to comprehend is to understand fully what is already there. We may apprehend many truths which we do not comprehend.

Introduce, Present

Present implies more formality than introduce. We introduce one friend to another. An envoy is presented to the King. Foreign ministers are presented to the President of the United States.

Same as

"This is the same story as I read last week." Use same that.

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Section

"We raise finer horses in our section." This is an Americanism that should be avoided. Neighborhood, vicinity, region, part of the country or State, may be substituted for section.

Seldom or ever

This incorrect expression is sometimes used instead of seldom or never or seldom if ever. "I have seldom if ever heard so eloquent an oration." "I have seldom or never seen the man."

Sewage, Sewerage

These words have distinct meanings. Sewage refers to the contents of the sewer; sewerage to the system of sewers.

Sociable, Social

"He is one of the most sociable men I have met. He is fond of society, and is very ready in conversation." Sociable means companionable; social applies to the relations of men in society; as social duties, social pleasures, social interests.

Specialty, Speciality

These words are interchangeable, but the former is the better word.

Requirement, Requisition, Requisite

While these words have something in common, each has a meaning peculiar to itself. Requirement

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means that which is required as an essential condition, or as something necessary; requisition, that which is required as of right, a demand or application made as by authority; requisite, that which is required by the nature of things, or by circumstances, that which cannot be dispensed with. "She understood the nature of the child and of its requirements." "The officer made a requisition for more troops." "This is as much a requisite as food and clothing."

Sick, Ill

There is a growing tendency to discriminate between sickness and illness, limiting the words sick and sickness to some slight disturbance of the physical system, as nausea, and applying the words ill and illness to protracted disease and disordered health.

Scholar, Pupil

Although these words are often used synonymously and with good authority, it would be better to limit the former to learned persons and to apply the latter to persons under instruction.

Commenced to write

"I commenced to write at a very early age." After the verb commence the best writers use the verbal

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noun instead of the infinitive with to; as, "I commenced writing at a very early age."

Beside, Besides

These words were formerly used interchangeably, but the best writers of to-day make a distinction. Beside means by the side of. Besides means in addition to. Besides is sometimes incorrectly used for except; as, "No trees will grow here besides the pine."

Bountiful, Plentiful

Bountiful applies to the giver; plentiful to the things furnished. "The bountiful Giver of all good furnishes a plentiful supply of all things needful for our comfort and happiness." Do not say a bountiful repast, a bountiful harvest.

Attacked, Burst, Drowned

The incorrect past tense forms attackted, bursted, drownded, are sometimes heard; as, "The cashier was attackted by three of the ruffians," "The cannon bursted and killed the gunners,"" The fishermen were drownded off the bar." Use attacked, burst, drowned.

All

This little word is used in a great many ways, some of which are quite colloquial, and in some cases provincial. When the grocer's clerk has taken your order he is prompted to say, "Is that all?" Or if

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he should say, "Is there anything else that you wish?" you are likely to reply, "No; that is all." Whether used in the question or in the reply, the word all should be avoided, or else the expression should be expanded so as to make a clear sentence.

A friend calls to see you, and, finding you alone when he expected to meet others with you, he says, "Good morning; I see you are all alone." All is not a good equivalent for quite or entirely, either of which words would be better than all. In truth, the sentence is as clear and as strong and more concise without the use of a modifier. "I see you are alone."

Inaugurate

To inaugurate means to induct into office or to set in motion with formality and serious ceremony. Pompous writers too often employ the word in referring to commonplace events. A new business is established. A new hall or library is opened. A new pastor is installed. A new order of procedure is adopted. In general, the word begin or commence would be more appropriate than inaugurate.

Came across, Met with

"I came across the passage quite unexpectedly." Better, "I chanced upon," or "happened upon,," or "met with the passage quite unexpectedly."

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Expect

Few words are more frequently incorrectly used than expect. "I expect you went to town yesterday," "I expect you will hear from me to-morrow," "I expect the train has arrived," represent some of the uses to which this word is often put. Expect refers wholly to the future, and should not refer to present or past events; as, "I expect you to write me from Liverpool." "John expects to see his father to-morrow." Among the expressions that can most readily and appropriately be substituted for expect are suspect, suppose, think, believe, presume, daresay.

Over with

"After the supper was over with the guests departed." Omit with.

Overflown

"The lowlands along the river are overflown." Use overflowed. The perfect participle of overflow is overflowed, not overflown.

Good piece

"I have come a good piece to see you." Say "I have come a long distance to see you."

Stand a chance

"He does not stand any chance of an election." Say, "It is not probable that he will be elected."

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No more than I could help

"As I was not in sympathy with the cause, I gave no more than I could help." So accustomed are we to hearing this awkward, blundering expression that we readily understand the meaning it is intended to convey, and should be sorely puzzled to interpret the correct form. Let us analyze it. I gave five dollars. That much I could not help (giving). I gave no more. Hence, "I gave no more than I could not help." This last form appears to be correct. By changing the phraseology the sentence can be greatly improved. "I gave no more than I felt compelled to give." "I made my contribution as small as possible." "My gift was limited to the measure of my sense of obligation."

Above, More than, Preceding

"It is above a week since I heard from my brother." We may say "above the earth," "above the housetops," but in the preceding sentence it is better to say, "It is more than a week since I heard from my brother."

"In the above paragraph he quotes from Horace." Say, "In the preceding or foregoing paragraph," etc. The awkwardness of the use of the word above becomes very apparent when the line in which it occurs is found at the top of a page, and the passage

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to which reference is made appears at the bottom of the previous page.

Climax

The Greek word climax means literally a ladder, and implies ascent, upward movement. The best authors use it only in this sense, and not to denote the highest point.

Factor

This word, from the Latin factor, a doer, an agent, signifies working, doing, effecting. Its frequent use in the sense of source or part should be avoided.

"All are but factors of one stupendous whole, Whose body Nature is, and God the soul."

Pope employs the better word parts.

Hung, Hanged

Pictures, signs, bells, and other inanimate objects are hung; men are hanged. While some writers ignore this distinction, the best authorities observe it.

Healthy, Healthful

A lady wrote to a paper asking, "Are plants in a sleeping-room unhealthy?" The answer came, "Not necessarily; we have seen some very healthy plants growing in sleeping-rooms."

Persons are healthy or unhealthy. A plant or tree is

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healthy or unhealthy according as it possesses vigor. Food, surroundings and conditions are healthful or unhealthful according as they promote or destroy health.

Idea, Opinion

"Many persons think that the interior of the earth is a mass of fire; what is your idea?" Say, "What is your opinion?"

Alone, Only

"An only child" is one that has neither brother nor sister. "A child alone" is one that is left to itself. "Virtue alone makes us happy" means that virtue unaccompanied by any other advantages is sufficient to make us happy. "Virtue only makes us happy" means that nothing else can do it.

Grow, Raise, Rear

"We grow wheat, corn, oats, and potatoes on our farm." "We raise wheat," etc., would be better. With the same propriety we might use sleep for lodge, and eat for feed, or supply with food; as, "We can eat and sleep fifty persons at one time."

The word raise is often incorrectly used in the sense of rear; as, "She raised a family of nine children." It is sometimes employed in the sense of increase, as, "The landlord raised my rent." Increased would be better.

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Has went

"He goes to school," "He went to school yesterday," "He has gone to the West." Avoid such ungrammatical forms as "He has went," "I have saw."

Badly, Greatly

Badly is often incorrectly used for greatly or very much, as, "I need it badly," "He was badly hurt."

"That fence wants painting badly, I think I'll do it myself," said the economical husband.

"Yes," said his wife, "you had better do it yourself if you think it wants to be done badly."

At you

"If you don't stop teasing me I will do something at you," meaning "I will punish you." That form of expression is very common in some localities, and it is even more inelegant than common. The use of the preposition to instead of at would be a slight improvement, but the sentence should be entirely recast.

Haply, Happily

In the reading of the Scriptures the word happily is sometimes used where the archaic word haply should be employed. In like manner the word thoroughly is substituted for the old form throughly. Both words should be pronounced as they are spelled.

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Thanks

To say "I thank you" requires but little more effort than to say "Thanks," and it will be received as a more sincere token of thankfulness.

Got to

This inelegant expression is often employed where must would serve the purpose better. "This work has got to be done." Say, "Must be done."

Hangs on

"The cold weather hangs on." Better, "The cold weather continues."

Under the Weather

"Are you well?" "No; I have been quite under the weather." Substitute sick or ill, for the colloquial expression under the weather.

Again, Against

Again is often erroneously used for against; as, "He leaned again the tree for support." Say, "He leaned against the tree for support."

Could, Can, Will

Could is often incorrectly employed where can or will would be more appropriate.

"Could you lend me a dollar this morning?" If the thought of the inquirer is, "Are you willing to lend," etc., he should have used will instead of could;

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but if his thought was, "Are you able to lend," or "Do you have a dollar to spare this morning," he should have used can.

Bravery, Courage

Bravery is inborn; courage is the result of reason and determination. The brave are often reckless; the courageous are always cautious.

Hate

Avoid the use of hate for dislike, and all other intensive words when the thought is more correctly expressed by a milder word.

Pretty, Very

Pretty is often incorrectly used in the sense of very or moderately, as "He was pretty badly hurt," "He is a pretty good scholar," "She is pretty wealthy," "Thomas is pretty ugly." So common is this provincialism in some localities that the incongruity of such an expression as the last would pass undiscovered.

Lot, Number

The use of lot for number or many is a colloquialism that should be avoided. "He collected a lot (large number) of books on the subject." "A lot of policemen were gathered there" "I ate lots of oranges while I was in Florida."

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Lead a dance

"He led his companion a fine dance." This expression, as generally used, is ironical, and implies that the leader conducts those who are led through experiences unfamiliar to them and usually to their disadvantage. To lead astray, to deceive, to corrupt the morals of, may be substituted for the foregoing inelegant expression.

Try and

"Have you been to the country this summer?" "No; but I will try and go next week.". The second speaker intends to convey the idea that it is his purpose to go if nothing occurs to prevent, but his going is still a matter of uncertainty. His statement, however, when properly interpreted means that he not only will try, but that he positively will go.

"Try and finish that work to-day." Here the purpose is not to command that the work shall be finished, but that the trial shall be made. As the sentence stands two distinct commands are given, first, that the trial shall be made, and, second, that the work must be completed. The sentence should read, "Try to finish that work to-day."

Use to instead of and in such expressions as "Try and make it convenient to come," "Try and do your work properly," "Try and think of your lessons," "Try and go and see our sick neighbor."

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CHAPTER III

Contractions

Whatever may be said against employing contractions in dignified discourse, their use in colloquial speech is too firmly established to justify our censure. But, in their use, as, indeed, in the use of all words, proper discrimination must be shown.

Just why haven't, hasn't, doesn't, isn't, wasn't, are regarded as being in good repute, and ain't, weren't, mightn't, oughtn't, are regarded with less favor, and why shalln't, willn't are absolutely excluded, it would be difficult to explain.

Use determines the law of language, whether for single words, grammatical forms, or grammatical constructions. Wherever a people, by common consent, employ a particular word to mean a certain thing, that word becomes an inherent part of the language of that people, whether it has any basis in etymology or not. We must not wrest this law to our own convenience, however, by assuming that such words and phrases as are introduced and employed by the illiterate, or even by the educated, within a circumscribed territory, are, therefore, to be regarded as

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reputable words. The sanction of all classes, the educated as well as the uneducated, throughout the entire country in which the language is spoken, is necessary and preliminary to the proper introduction of a new word into the language.

Ain't

This word is a contraction of am not or are not, and can, therefore, be used only with the singular pronouns I and you, and with the plural pronouns we, you, and they, and with nouns in the plural.

I am not pleased. I ain't pleased.

You are not kind. You ain't kind.

They are not gentlemen. They ain't gentlemen.

These sentences will serve to illustrate the proper use of ain't, if it is ever proper to use such an inelegant word as that. "James ain't a good student," "Mary ain't a skillful musician," or "This orange ain't sweet," are expressions frequently heard, yet those who use them would be shocked to hear the same expressions with the proper equivalent am not or are not substituted for the misleading ain't.

The expression ain't is compounded of the verb am or are and the adverb not, and by the contraction the three vocal impulses I-am-not, or you-are-not, or they-are-not, are reduced to two. By compounding the pronoun with the verb and preserving the full adverb,

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as in "I'm not," "You're not," "They're not," we also reduce the three vocal impulses to two, thus securing as short a contraction in sound and one that is as fully adapted to colloquial speech, and that is, at the same time, in much better taste.

The old form for ain't was an't, but this has now become obsolete. It will be a blessing to the English-speaking people when the descendant shall sleep with his father.

Are not is sometimes contracted into aren't, but this form has not found much favor.

Can't and Couldn't

As cannot and could not may be used with pronouns of the first, second, or third person, in either number, and with nouns in both numbers, no error is likely to follow the use of their contracted forms.

Why cannot is properly written as one word, and could not requires two, is not founded upon any principle of philosophy. The concurrent sanction of all classes in all parts of the English-speaking world establishes it as law.

Observe that the a in the verb can't is broader in sound than the short a in the noun cant.

Don't and Didn't

Don't is a contraction of do not. It is in very general use and in good repute. It may be employed

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wherever the expanded expression do not could be applied, and only there.

"One swallow don't make a spring" is equivalent to saying, "One swallow do not make a spring." We may say "I don't," "You don't," "We don't," "They don't," "The men (or birds, or trees) don't," but we must use doesn't with he, or she, or it, or the man, the grove, the cloud, etc.

Unlike the verb do, its past tense form did undergoes no change in conjugation, hence the contraction didn't is also uniform.

Haven't, Hasn't, and Hadn't

The verb have, like the verb do, has a distinct form for the third person singular. The same change affects the contraction. I haven't, you haven't, he hasn't. The construction hadn't undergoes no change.

Haint, Taint

Haint is used indiscriminately for haven't and hasn't. Taint is used for tisn't. Their use is indicative of an entire lack of culture.

Isn't

No one need hesitate to use this word. It is smooth in utterance and contributes much to the freedom and ease of social intercourse. Its equivalent is too stately for colloquial forms of speech, and is often

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suggestive of pedantry. Compare "Isn't he an eloquent speaker?" "Isn't this a beautiful flower?" with "Is not he an eloquent speaker?" "Is this not a beautiful flower?"

Wasn't

Although not so elegant as the present tense form isn't, yet the contraction wasn't is in excellent repute. It is properly used only in the first and third persons singular. No one who makes any pretension to culture would be guilty of saying" You was my neighbor, but you wasn't my friend," "We was engaged in trade, and they wasn't of any use to us." Say we were or were not, but never wasn't or wa'nt.

Weren't

The forms aren't, and weren't do not have the sanction of the best speakers and writers, and should be used sparingly, if at all.

Shouldn't and Wouldn't

These are frequently used in speech, but are not so common in writing.

Mustn't, Mayn't, Mightn't, and Oughtn't

Mustn't may be used in light conversation, but not in writing. The others should be avoided in speech and writing.

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I'm, You're, He's, She's, It's, We're, They're

The contractions formed by compounding the pronoun with the verb are very common, and tend to preserve conversation from becoming stiff and formal. Nouns in the singular are sometimes compounded in like manner; as, "John's going by the early train," "Mary's caught a bird." Not many verbs beside is and has are thus compounded, and the practice should be discouraged.

Mayst, Mightst

Although mayst, canst, mightst, couldst, wouldst, and shouldst are contracted forms, the apostrophe is not employed to indicate the contraction.

Daren't, Dursent

Dare not is sometimes contracted to daren't and durst not to dursent, but the practice should not be encouraged.

Let's

While verbs are often contracted when compounded with pronouns, as it's, he's, I'm, you're, etc., the pronoun must not be contracted to form a combination with the verb. It may be a poor rule, but it will not work both ways. Let's should therefore be let us.

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CHAPTER IV

Possessive Case

Some time ago a shoe merchant called upon the writer to know how to arrange the points in the wording of a new sign that he was preparing to place over his door. He made a specialty of shoes for men and boys. He presented a paper containing the lines:

Men's and Boy's Shoes. Mens' and Boys' Shoes.

He was politely informed that both were incorrect; that the two words form their plurals differently, and that the possessive case is, therefore, formed in a different manner. The plural of man is men,; the plural of boy is boys. The possessive of man is man's; of men is men's. The possessive of boy is boy's; of boys is boys'. In the latter case we are obliged to place the apostrophe after the s in order to distinguish the possessive plural from the possessive singular. All nouns that form their plurals by adding s to the singular, form their possessive case as the word boy does. The sign should therefore read:

Men's and Boys' Shoes.

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Singular Nouns

All nouns in the singular form their possessive case by adding the apostrophe and the letter s; as, child's, girl's, woman's, bird's, brother's, sister's, judge's, sailor's.

When the noun ends in s, sh, ch, ce, se, or x, the additional s makes another syllable in pronouncing the word; as, James's, Charles's, witness's, duchess's, countess's, Rush's, March's, prince's, horse's, fox's. In poetry the terminal s is sometimes omitted for the sake of the meter.

While writers differ, the tendency in modern usage is toward the additional s in such expressions as Mrs. Hemans's Poems, Junius's Letters, Knowles's "Virginius," Knox's Sermons, Brooks's Arithmetics, Rogers's Essays.

By long-established usage such expressions as for conscience' sake, for righteousness' sake, for qoodness' sake, for Jesus' sake, have become idioms. Some authorities justify the omission of the possessive s when the next word begins with s, as in Archimedes' screw, Achilles' sword.

Plural Nouns

Most nouns form their plurals by adding s or es to the singular. These plurals form their possessive by adding the apostrophe; as, horses', countesses', foxes', churches', princes'. Nouns whose plurals are formed otherwise than by adding s or es, form their possessive

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case by adding the apostrophe and s, just as nouns in the singular do; as, men's, women's, children's, seraphim's.

Pronouns

Sometimes the mistake is made of using the apostrophe with the possessive personal pronouns; as, her's, our's, it's. The personal and relative pronouns do not require the apostrophe, but the indefinite pronouns one and other form their possessives in the same manner as nouns; as, "each other's eyes," "a hundred others' woes."

Double Possessives

"John and Mary's sled," means one sled belonging jointly to John and Mary. "John's and Mary's sleds" means that one sled belongs to John, the other to Mary.

"Men, women, and children's shoes for sale here." When several possessives connected by and refer to the same noun, the sign of the possessive is applied to the last one only.

When a disjunctive word or words are used, the sign must be annexed to each word; as, "These are Charles's or James's books."

Possessive of Nouns in Apposition

When two nouns are in apposition, or constitute a title, the possessive sign is affixed to the last, as

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"For David my servant's sake," "Give me here John the Baptist's head in a charger," "The Prince of Wales's yacht," "Frederick the Great's kindness."

After "of"

By a peculiarity of idiom the possessive sign is used with a noun in the objective; as, "This is a story of Lincoln's," "That is a letter of the President's," "A patient of Dr. Butler's," "A pupil of Professor Ludlam's."

In ordinary prose the custom of the best writers is to limit the use of the possessive chiefly to persons and personified objects; to time expressions, as, an hour's delay, a moment's thought; and to such idioms as for brevity's sake.

Avoid such expressions as, "America's champion baseball player," "Chicago's best five-cent cigar," "Lake Michigan's swiftest steamer."

Somebody else's

The question whether we should say "This is somebody's else pencil," or "This is somebody else's pencil," has been warmly argued by the grammarians, the newspapers, and the schools. If some leading journal or magazine were to write somebody else as one word, others would, doubtless, follow, and the question of the possessive would settle itself. The word notwithstanding is composed of three separate words,

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which are no more closely united in thought than are the three words some, body, and else. Two of the latter are already united, and the close mental union of the third with the first and second would justify the innovation.

But the words are at present disunited. A majority of the best writers still conform to the old custom of placing the possessive with else.

"People were so ridiculous with their illusions, carrying their fool's caps unawares, thinking their own lies opaque, while everybody else's were transparent."— George Eliot.

Some make a distinction by placing the possessive with else when the noun follows, and with somebody when the noun precedes; as, "This is somebody else's pencil," and "This pencil is somebody's else." This distinction is not generally followed.

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CHAPTER V

Pronouns

The correct use of the pronouns, personal and relative, involves a degree of skill which many speakers and writers fail to possess. The choice of the appropriate pronoun, the agreement with its antecedent, the proper case form, are matters that require careful consideration.

Case Forms

Following am, are, is, was, and other forms of the verb to be, the pronoun must be in the nominative case.

"Are you the person that called?" "Yes; I am him." The answer should have been, "I am he."

"I saw a man trespassing on my grounds, and I think you are him." Say, "You are he."

"It is only me; don't be afraid." "It is only I" is the correct form.

"It was him that struck you, not me." Change him, to he, and me to I.

"It might have been him that sent you the present." Use he, not him.

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"It is him whom you said it was." The sentence should be, "It is he who you said it was."

"That was but a picture of him and not him himself." Say, "and not he himself."

After Verbs and Prepositions

When a pronoun depends upon a verb or a preposition the pronoun must be in the objective case.

"Between you and I, that picture is very faulty." The pronouns you and I depend upon the preposition between. The pronoun I should therefore be in the objective case, and the sentence should be, "Between you and me, that picture is very faulty."

"The president of the meeting appointed you and I upon the committee." As both pronouns are objects of the transitive verb appointed, both should be in the objective case. You having the same form in the objective as in the nominative is, therefore, correct, but I should be changed to me.

"The teacher selected he and I to represent the class." The pronouns are the objects of the verb selected, and should be changed to him and me. The infinitive to represent, like other infinitives, can have no subject, and, therefore, does not control the case of the pronouns.

Interrogatives

When a question is asked, the subject is usually placed after the verb, or between the auxiliary and

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the verb; as, "Did you go to town?" "Will he sail to-day?" "Has your uncle arrived?" "Hearest thou thy mother's call?"

The object or attribute of the verb, when a pronoun, is often used to introduce the sentence. "Who should I see coming toward me but my old friend?" Who should be whom, for it is the object, and not the subject, of the verb should see.

"Whom do you think that tall gentleman is?" Whom should be who, as it is the attribute of the verb is.

"Who do you take me for?" Being the object of the preposition for, who should be whom.

After "To be"

"I knew it was him" is incorrect, because the word which forms the pronoun attribute of the verb was must be in the nominative case. But the infinitive of the neuter verb requires the objective case. Therefore we must say, "I knew it to be him," not "I knew it to be he." The latter faulty form is very frequently employed.

"Who did you suppose it to be?" Incorrect. Say, "whom."

"Whom did you suppose it was?" Incorrect. Say, "who."

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After the Imperative

The imperative mood requires the objective case after it. "Let you and I try it." It should be, "Let you and me try it."

"Let he who made thee answer that."— Byron. He should have said, "Let him who made thee answer that."

"Let him be whom, he may." Him is the objective after the imperative let, and is correct. Whom should be who, as pronoun attribute of the verb may be. "Who he may be, I cannot tell," is correct. "Who he may be, let him be," is also correct. By transposing, and by omitting be, we have "Let him be who he may."

"Let the sea roar, and the fullness thereof; the world, and they that dwell therein." When, as in this case, the verb is widely separated from its object, we need to give particular care to the case of the pronoun which constitutes the object. They should be them.

Silent Predicate

"Who will go with us to the woods? Me." The complete answer would be," Me will go with you to the woods," the faultiness of which is evident. The answer should be "I."

After "Than" and "As"

The objective pronoun is often incorrectly used for the nominative after than or as.

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"He can swim better than me." The complete sentence would be, "He can swim better than I can swim." The omission of the verb can swim affords no reason for changing I to me.

"He is no better than me." Say, "He is no better than I," meaning, I am.

"They are common people, such as you and me." Such people "as you and I are." The pronoun should be I, not me.

Parenthetical Expressions

When a parenthetical expression comes between a pronoun in the nominative case and its verb, the objective is often incorrectly used instead of the nominative.

"She sang for the benefit of those whom she thought might be interested." The explanatory parenthesis "she thought" comes between the pronominal subject and its verb might be interested. Omit the explanatory clause and the case of the pronoun becomes clear. "She sang for the benefit of those who might be interested."

Agreement with Antecedent

A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in gender, person, and number. The gender and person usually take care of themselves, but the number of pronouns is a serious obstacle to correct speech.

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"One tells the quality of their minds when they try to talk well"— George Eliot, in Middlemarch. The pronouns their and they should be singular.

"Everybody has something to say which they think is worthy of being heard." Everybody refers to persons singly, and not collectively. They think should be he thinks, he being the proper pronoun to employ when the gender is not indicated.

"Every nation has laws and customs of their own." The use of the word every necessitates a pronoun in the singular, hence their should be its.

"Every one is accountable for their own acts." Use his.

"She studied his countenance like an inscription, and deciphered each rapt expression that crossed it, and stored them in her memory." Change them to it.

"Each of them, in their turn, received the reward to which they were entitled." This should be "Each of them in his turn received the reward to which he was entitled."

No and not, like each and every, when they qualify a plural antecedent, or one consisting of two or more nouns, require a pronoun in the singular.

"No policeman, no employee, no citizen dared to lift their hand" Say, his hand.

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Or, Nor

When the antecedent consists of two or more nouns separated by or, nor, as well as, or any other disjunctive, the pronoun must be singular.

"Neither spelling nor parsing receive the attention they once received." Verb and pronoun should be singular, receives and it.

Collective Noun

When a noun of multitude or collective noun is the antecedent, the pronoun, like the verb, must be plural or singular according to the sense intended to be conveyed.

Ambiguity

Never leave the antecedent of your pronoun in doubt.

"John tried to see his father in the crowd, but could not, because he was so short." If the father was short, repeat the noun and omit the pronoun, as "John tried to see his father in the crowd but could not because his father was so short." If John was short, recast the sentence: "John, being short of stature, tried in vain to see his father in the crowd."

"He said to his friend that, if he did not feel better soon, he thought he had better go home." This sentence is susceptible of four interpretations. We shall omit the first part of the sentence in the last

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three interpretations, as it is the same in all. "He said to his friend: 'If I do not feel better soon, I think I had better go home.'" "If I do not feel better soon, I think you had better go home." "If you do not feel better soon, I think I had better go home." "If you do not feel better soon, I think you had better go home."

"The lad cannot leave his father; for, if he should leave him, he would die." To avoid ambiguity substitute his father for the italicised pronouns. The repetition is not pleasant, but it is the lesser of two evils.

Needless Pronouns

Avoid all pronouns and other words that are not essential to the meaning.

"The father he died, the mother she soon followed after, and the children they were all taken down sick."

"Let every one turn from his or her evil ways." Unless there is special reason for emphasizing the feminine pronoun, avoid the awkward expression his or her. The pronoun his includes the other.

Mixed Pronouns

Do not use two styles of the pronoun in the same Sentence. "Enter thou into the joy of your Lord." "Love thyself last, and others will love you."

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Them, Those

It should not be necessary to caution the reader against the use of them for those.

"Fetch me them books." "Did you see them, fat oxen?" "Them's good; I'll take another dish."

Which, Who

"Those which say so are mistaken." Who is applied to persons; which, to the lower animals and to inanimate things.

"He has some friends which I know." Whom, the objective case form of the pronoun who, should here be used.

"The dog, who was called Rover, went mad." Use which.

What, That

That is applied to persons, animals, and things. What is applied to things. The antecedent of what should not be expressed. What is both antecedent and relative.

"All what he saw he described." Say, "What he saw," or "All that he saw," etc.

Uniform Relatives

When several relative clauses relate to the same antecedent, they should have the same relative pronoun.

"It was Joseph that was sold into Egypt, who became

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governor of the land, and which saved his father and brothers from famine." Change that and which to who.

Choice of Relatives

Since who and that are both applied to persons, and which and that are both applied to animals and things, it often becomes a serious question which relative we shall employ. Much has been written upon the subject, but the critics still differ in theory and in practice. The following is probably as simple a statement of the general rule as can be found:

If the relative clause is of such a nature that it could be introduced by and he, and she, and it, and they, etc., the relative who (for persons) and which (for animals or things) should be used in preference to the relative that.

"Man that is born of a woman is of few days, and full of trouble." The language of the Bible and of Shakespeare must stand, although the forms of expression differ greatly from those employed at the present day. According to modern standards, that should be who.

"The earth is enveloped by an ocean of air that is a compound of oxygen and nitrogen!" Change that to which.

The relative that should be used in preference to who or which:

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(1) When the antecedent names both persons and things; (2) When it would prevent ambiguity; (3) After the words same, very, all; (4) After the interrogative pronoun who; (5) After adjectives expressing quality in the highest degree.

"The wisest men who ever lived made mistakes." Use that. See (5).

"He lived near a stagnant pool which was a nuisance." Use that. See (2).

"All who knew him loved him." Say that. See (3).

"Who who saw him did not pity him." See (4).

"He spake of the men and things which he had seen." See (1).

"These are my pupils which I have brought to see you." Use whom, as which is not applied to persons.

"This is the window whose panes were broken by the rude boys." Use "the panes of which." Because of its convenience, perhaps, the faulty whose is very largely used; as, "The eagle whose wings," "The house whose gables," "The ocean whose waves," "The vessel whose sails," "The play whose chief merit," "Music whose chief attraction," etc.

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Which and Who after "And"

Which and who cannot follow and unless there has been a preceding which or who in the same sentence and in the same construction.

"The more important rules, definitions and observations, and which are therefore the most proper to be committed to memory, are printed with a large type."— Murray's Grammar. In Moore's Bad English the sentence is corrected thus: "The rules, definitions, and observations which are the more important, and which are therefore the most proper to be committed to memory, are printed in larger type."

Adverbs for Relative Pronouns

Adverbs are often employed where a preposition with a relative pronoun would better express the sense.

"There is no method known how his safety may be assured." Use by which instead of how.

"He wrote me a letter where he repeated his instructions." "Letter in which he repeated," etc.

"And curse the country where their fathers dwelt." "In which their fathers dwelt."

"This is a case where large interests are involved." The preposition and relative will better express the meaning; as, "This is a case in which large interests are involved."

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Misplaced Relative

The relative should be so placed as to prevent ambiguity, and as near as possible to its antecedent.

"Mr. Smith needs a surgeon, who has broken his arm." Say, "Mr. Smith, who has broken," etc.

"The figs were in small wooden boxes, which we ate." "The figs which we ate," etc.

"He needs no boots that cannot walk." "He that cannot walk," etc.

Omitted Relatives

The relative pronoun is often omitted when it should be expressed.

"The next falsehood he told was the worst of all." Say, "The next falsehood that he told," etc.

"It is little we know of the divine perfections." Say, "Little that we know."

"Almost all the irregularities in the construction of any language have arisen from the ellipsis of some words which were originally inserted in the sentence and made it regular."— Murray's Grammar. The sentence should end with "and which made it regular."

The one, the other

When the one and the other refer to things previously mentioned, the one applies to the first mentioned, and the other to the last mentioned.

"Homer was a genius, Virgil an artist: in the one we most admire the man; in the other, the work."

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CHAPTER VI

Number

Many persons of moderate education regard nouns that do not end with s or es as singular. Even the gifted pen of Addison once slipped so far as to betray him into using the word seraphim, in the singular.

Cherubim, Seraphim

The words cherub and seraph, are singular. Cherub, as applied to a little child, takes the English plural, cherubs. As applied to an order of angels, it takes the Hebrew plural, cherubim. The singular, seraph, has an English plural, seraphs, as well as the Hebrew plural, seraphs. The double plurals, cherubims and seraphims, although found in the King James version of the Bible, are regarded as faulty in modern writing, and should be avoided.

News

Although plural in form, the word news is singular in meaning; as, "The news from Europe this morning is quite interesting."

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Acoustics

Names of sciences ending in ics, are generally regarded as singular. "Acoustics is a very considerable branch of physics." Do not say, "The acoustics of this hall are good," but "The acoustic properties of this hall are good."

Dialectics, dynamics, economics, mathematics, ethics, politics, tactics, when used as substantives, require a verb in the singular.

Analysis

Many words like analysis, crisis, ellipsis, emphasis, hypothesis, oasis, parenthesis, synopsis, form their plurals by changing the termination is into es; as, analyses, crises, etc. The word iris takes the English plural irises; Latin plural is irides. Chrysalis has only the Latin plural, chrysalides; but chrysalid, which means the same as chrysalis, takes the English plural, chrysalids.

Terminus

Terminus, radius, alumnus, and some other words ending in us, form their plurals by changing the termination us into i; as termini, radii, etc.

Many words ending in us that formerly were written with only the Latin plural, are now given an English plural also; as, focuses, foci; cactuses, cacti; sarcophaguses, sarcophagi; convolvuluses, convolvuli ; funguses, fungi; nucleuses, nuclei.

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Isthmus, prospectus, rebus, take only the English plural.

Apparatus has no plural. Avoid apparatuses.

The plural of genius, as applied to a man of unusual vigor of mind, is geniuses. When applied to a good or bad spirit, the plural is genii.

Formula

Formulas, larvas, stigmas, are regular English plurals; formulae, larvae, and stigmata are the classical plurals. Nebulae and alumnae are the proper plurals, the latter being the feminine noun corresponding to the masculine plural alumni.

Datum, Phenomenon

Datum, erratum, candelabrum, and memorandum form their plurals by changing um to a; as, data, errata, etc. The last two also take the English plurals, memorandums, candelabrums.

The plural of phenomenon and criterion are phenomena, criteria, although criterions is sometimes employed.

The plural forms, data, strata, and phenomena, are so much more frequently used than their singular forms, datum, stratum, and phenomenon, that some writers have slipped into the habit of using the plurals with a singular meaning; as, "The aurora borealis is a very strange phenomena." "Our data is insufficient to establish a theory." "The strata is broken and irregular."

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Mussulmans

While most words ending in man become plural by changing this termination to men, as gentlemen, noblemen, clergymen, statesmen, the following simply add s: dragomans, Mussulmans, Ottomnans, talismans "A dozen dragomans offered their services as guides and interpreters." "A band of Mussulmans cut off our retreat." "Those fierce Ottomans proved to be very revengeful." "He purchased five finely upholstered ottomans for his drawing-room."

Heroes, Cantos

Most nouns ending in o add es to form the plural; as, heroes, negroes, potatoes, stuccoes, manifestoes, mosquitoes. Words ending in io or yo add s; as, folios, nuncios, olios, ratios, embryos.

The following words, being less frequently used, often puzzle us to know whether to add s or es to form the plural: armadillos, cantos, cuckoos, halos, juntos, octavos, provisos, salvos, solos, twos, tyros, virtuosos.

Alms, Odds, Riches

Many nouns that end in s have a plural appearance, and we are often perplexed to know whether to use this or these, and whether to employ a singular or a plural verb when the noun is used as a substantive.

Amends is singular. Assets, dregs, eaves, bees, pincers, riches, scissors, sheers, tongs, vitals, are plural. When we

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say a pair of pincers, or scissors, or shears, or tongs, the verb should be singular. Tidings, in Shakespeare's time, was used indiscriminately with a singular or plural verb, but is now generally regarded as plural.

Alms and headquarters are usually made plural, but are occasionally found with a singular verb. Pains is usually singular. Means, odds, and species are singular or plural, according to the meaning.

"By this means he accomplished his purpose." "What other means is left to us?" "Your means are very slender, and your waste is great."

Proper Names

These are usually pluralized by adding s; as, the Stuarts, the Caesars, the Beechers, the Brownings.

Titles with Proper Names

Shall we say the Miss Browns, the Misses Brown, or the Misses Browns? Great diversity of opinion prevails. Gould Brown says: "The name and not the title is varied to form the plural; as, the Miss Howards, the two Mr. Clarks."

Alexander Bain, LL. D., says: "We may say the Misses Brown, or the Miss Browns, or even the Misses Browns."

The chief objection to the last two forms is found when the proper name ends with s, as when we say, the Miss Brookses, the Miss Joneses, the Miss Pottses, the

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Miss Blisses. The form the Misses Brooks is objected to by some on the ground that it sounds affected. On the whole the rule given by Gould Brown is the best, and is quite generally observed.

Knight Templar

Both words are made plural, Knights Templars, a very unusual way of forming the plural.

Plural Compounds

The plural sign of a compound word is affixed to the principal part of the word, to the part that conveys the predominant idea; as, fathers-in-law, man-servants, outpourings, ingatherings. In such words as handfuls, cupfuls, mouthfuls, the plural ending is added to the subordinate part because the ideas are so closely associated as to blend into one.

Beaus, Beaux

Some words ending in eau have only the English plurals, as bureaus, portmanteaus; others take both the English and the French plurals, as beaus, beaux; flambeaus, flambeaux; plateaus, plateaux; and still others take only the foreign plural; as, bateaux, chateaux, tableaux.

Pair, Couple, Brace

After numerals, the singular form of such words as these is generally employed; as, five pair of gloves, eight couple of dancers, three brace of pigeons, five

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dozen of eggs, four score years, twenty sail of ships, fifty head of cattle, six hundred of these men, two thousand of these cattle, etc.

After such indefinite adjectives as few, many, several, some of the above words take the plural form; as, several hundreds, many thousands.

Index, Appendix

Indexes of books; indices, if applied to mathematical signs in algebra. Appendixes or appendices.

Fish, Fly

The plural of fish is fishes when considered individually, and fish when considered collectively. "My three pet fishes feed out of my hand." "Six barrels of fish were landed from the schooner."

Most words ending in y change this termination into ies, as duties, cities, etc. The plural of fly, the insect, is formed in the usual manner, but fly, a light carriage, adds s; as, "Six flys carried the guests to their homes."

Animalcule

The plural of this word is animalcules. There is no plural animalculae. The plural of the Latin animalculum is animalcula.

Bandit

This word has two plural forms, bandits and banditti.

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Brother

Plural brothers, when referring to members of the same family; brethren, when applied to members of the same church or society.

Die

Plural dies, when the stamp with which seals are impressed is meant; dice, the cubes used in playing backgammon.

Herring

The plural is herrings, but shad, trout, bass, pike, pickerel, grayling, have no plural form. "I caught three bass and seven fine pickerel this morning."

Grouse

The names of game birds, as grouse, quail, snipe, woodcock, usually take no plural form.

Pea

Considered individually the plural is peas; when referring to the crop the proper form is pease.

Penny

"He gave me twelve bright new pennies," referring to the individual coins. "I paid him twelve pence," meaning a shilling.

Wharf

Plural, generally wharves in America; wharfs in England.

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CHAPTER VII

Adverbs

The clearness of the sentence is often dependent upon the proper placing of the adverb. No absolute rule can be laid down, but it should generally be placed before the word it qualifies. It is sometimes necessary to place it after the verb, and occasionally between the auxiliary and the verb, but it should never come between to and the infinitive.

"I have thought of marrying often." As the adverb relates to the thinking, and not to the marrying, the sentence should read, "I have often thought of marrying."

"We have often occasion to speak of health." This should be, "We often have occasion," etc,

"It remains then undecided whether we shall go to Newport or Saratoga." Place undecided before then.

Adjective or Adverb?

There is often a doubt in the mind of the speaker whether to use the adjective or the adverb, and too frequently he reaches a wrong decision. When the limiting word expresses a quality or state of the subject

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or of the object of a verb, the adjective must be employed; but if the manner of the action is to be expressed, the adverb must be used. The verbs be, seem, look, taste, smell, and feel furnish many stumbling-blocks.

"This rose smells sweetly." As the property or quality of the rose is here referred to, and not the manner of smelling, the adjective sweet should be employed, and not the adverb sweetly.

"Thomas feels quite badly about it." Here, again, it is the condition of Thomas's mind, and not the manner of feeling, that is to be expressed; hence, badly should be bad or uncomfortable.

"Didn't she look beautifully upon the occasion of her wedding?" No; she looked beautiful.

"The sun shines brightly." Bright is the better word.

"The child looks cold," refers to the condition of the child. "The lady looked coldly upon her suitor," refers to the manner of looking.

"The boy feels warm" is correct. "The boy feels warmly the rebuke of his teacher" is equally correct.

While license is granted to the poets to use the adjective for the adverb, as in the line

"They fall successive and successive rise,"

in prose the one must never be substituted for the other.

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"Agreeably to my promise, I now write," not "Agreeable to my promise."

"An awful solemn funeral," should be "An awfully solemn funeral."

"He acts bolder than was expected," should be "He acts more boldly."

"Helen has been awful sick, but she is now considerable better." "Helen has been very ill, but she is now considerably better."

Do not use coarser for more coarsely, finer for more finely, harsher for more harshly, conformable for conformably, decided for decidedly, distinct for distinctly, fearful for fearfully, fluent for fluently.

Do not say "This melon is uncommon good," but "This melon is uncommonly good."

The word ill is both an adjective and an adverb. Do not say "He can illy afford to live in such a house," but "He can ill afford."

"That was a dreadful solemn sermon." To say "That was a dreadfully solemn sermon" would more grammatically express what the speaker intended, but very or exceedingly would better express the meaning.

Such, So

Such is often improperly used for the adverb so.

"In such a mild and healthful climate." This should be, "In so mild and healthful a climate."

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"With all due deference to such a high authority on such a very important matter." Change to, "With all due deference to so high an authority on so very important a matter."

Good, Well

Many intelligent persons carelessly use the adjective good in the sense of the adverb well; as, "I feel good to-day." "Did you sleep good last night?" "Does this coat look good enough to wear on the street?" "I can do it as good as he can." The frequent indulgence in such errors dulls the sense of taste and weakens the power of discrimination.

Very much of

"She is very much of a lady." Say, "She is very ladylike." "He is very much of a gentleman." Say, "He is very gentlemanly."

Quite

This adverb is often incorrectly used in the sense of very or rather. It should be employed only in the sense of wholly or entirely. These sentences are therefore incorrect:

"He was wounded quite severely."

"James was quite tired of doing nothing."

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How

This word is sometimes used when another would be more appropriate.

"He said how he would quit farming." Use that.

"Ye see how that not many wise men are called." We must read the Bible as we find it, but in modern English the sentence would be corrected by omitting how.

"Be careful how you offend him." If the manner of offending is the thought to be expressed, the sentence is correct. But the true meaning is doubtless better expressed by, "Be careful lest you offend him."

No, Not

"I cannot tell whether he will come or no." "Whether he be a sinner or no I know not." In such cases not should be used instead of no.