Seriously, side slipping is a huge help and should be learned at once. Mr. Caulfield gives first-class instructions, which are easy to follow in detail.

When going uphill never try to climb steeper than is easy. If the Skis are slipping back, you are going too steep and should turn off and traverse instead. No time is saved by too steep a climb; the man who goes easily gets to the top first, while the other clambers up almost on all fours, gets hot and exhausted and has gained nothing. If I am leading an elementary run uphill, I can soon pick out the experienced runners by the line they take and the pace at which they climb. The puffing, panting, stumbling people, who forge ahead, herring-boning or turning their ankles over their Skis so as to get a grip with their boots, are not included in my "experienced runners."

Another hint for uphill work is that when traversing a slope, the Skis should be edged so that the inner edge of the Ski bites into the slope. A Ski with its whole surface flattened to the slope is bound to slip especially on hard snow. By standing upright as you go uphill and keeping the ankles straight, the Skis will be edged in the right way.

A quick way of getting up a steep slope is side-stepping. As you stand with your Skis horizontal across the slope, lift the upper foot and place it on the slope a few inches higher. Then lift the lower foot and place it beside the upper. You will soon be able to do this while advancing across your traverse at the same time, but it is hard work and should only be used for short climbs.

Side-stepping is a very good way of climbing, but should be avoided when descending, except when approaching a narrow gap in a fence or crossing a stream where the approach is steep.

I have known a party almost benighted by a beginner, who had discovered the joys of side-stepping and proposed to descend some 1,000 feet by this safe method, instead of sliding in the proper way. Allowing eight inches to each side-step, how many hours would it take to descend 1,000 feet?

A further hint, which may be useful for uphill work. If the Skis are slightly lifted at every push forward, they tend to stick instead of sliding back.

Always stand upright when climbing and keep the weight well on the heels. People tend to bend forward and this adds greatly to the effort and the Skis are more likely to slip back.

On long climbs sealskins are usually used on the Skis. The hairs lying towards the rear stick into the snow and prevent the back slip, while when the Ski pushes forward, they lie flat and offer no resistance.

The best uphill track is the one which keeps going at the same angle. Every good walker knows how tiring it is to go up and down across country when gullies have to be crossed. It is disappointing, having got up a certain height, to lose all that is gained by going down again. So it is even more with Ski-ing, when uphill work is really more arduous than walking. Mr. Caulfield gives a very helpful description of a good uphill track, and Skis tend to teach the beginner how to keep the angle as they slip so easily downwards the moment the uphill direction is altered.

When going uphill make up your mind what point you want to reach in the distance and what line will take you to it most easily and then go for it steadily, keeping the same angle all the way so far as is possible and choosing your places for turns very carefully before you reach them.

Following an experienced leader teaches a great deal about the art of setting an uphill track, and the criticisms of the rest of the party following, when the leader loses height soon make one want to avoid comment.



ETIQUETTE

In organized Ski-ing centres a perfectly good code of etiquette is growing up as the result of experience.

So many novices pour out on to the slopes with no knowledge of the game that notices are even posted on the boards in the hotels giving a few of the main points of the Law.

One such notice runs as follows:

(1) Ensure that you take your own Skis, sticks, etc. when you start out. It is wise to mark sticks, and they are safest kept in bedrooms.

(2) Never join a private party unless invited.

(3) Only join the advertised tours, the test for which you have passed.

(4) The slower mover has the right of way. The faster mover must avoid him. Never call "Fore," "Achtung," etc.

(5) Always offer help to anyone in difficulties.

(6) Keep with your party. They might waste a lot of time looking for you while you run home because you thought their pace too slow.

(7) Never desert a runner who, for any reason, is unable to keep up with a party.

(8) Carry your own gear including spare clothing, Ski-ing necessaries, etc.

(9) Avoid stepping on the Skis of another runner. This caution is especially necessary for uphill work.

(10) Remember that wherever you leave a track others may follow. Therefore only choose safe slopes. The snow is liable to slip on slopes of 25 deg. or more, so that these are dangerous.

Ski-ing is a sport which can be made dangerous for others if individuals do not carry out the usual etiquette. It may seem extraordinary that people should need warning not to join a private party unless invited, but it is sadly true.

One day as I was starting off on a long run a stranger came up to me and asked if she might join us. I consulted the Guide, and he said he already had as many in the party as he could take charge of. I told the lady this, and said I was sorry that we could not accept her companionship. She at once replied cheerily, "Oh, then I will follow you." Nothing could prevent her from doing this. Switzerland is a free country, and there is a right of way anywhere over the mountains in winter. We started off and she followed. From that moment, of course, we automatically became responsible for her because one of the Laws is that you never desert a runner who is alone. She was a very poor performer and fell a great deal, so that for the whole six or seven miles' run, we were kept waiting for her. Of course, we were under no real obligation to look after her, but had we left her and anything had happened to her, we could never again have held up our heads as Ski-ers.

On another occasion a runner made a formal complaint to me about a lady who joined his party. In this case it was an experienced runner, who had presumably learnt the Law, and who might have read the notice on the board. First of all she said, "May I go with you?" and the somewhat cold answer was that the party was complete. Then she followed asking questions about the route, etc. at every opportunity. Of course, she had finally to be adopted and taken along much to the boredom of the party, which was a private one.

Where the Ski-ing is organized, tests are run and tours arranged for the different standards. This does not apply so much to 2nd or 1st-class runners who, of course, prefer to make up their own parties, but, at any rate, these are protected from having the less experienced runner with them, except by invitation. By these means the organized tours only take runners up to the standard advertised, and no one need feel compunction at leaving members of their party behind in the village, because they know that the elementary runner will also get a chance of a run.

Yet even under these arrangements, I have found a beginner sitting huddled in a corner of the railway carriage when we have started before dawn for a big tour. "Where are you off to?" I said, thinking he was out with a Guide. "With your party," was the reply. What could I do? It is not easy to turn a person out of a train at 5.45 a.m. on a cold morning. I said weakly, "Did you not see the notice which said this was a run for 3rd-class runners only?" He said, "Yes, but I thought I could keep up." So there he was, and we took him through and though he was very slow uphill and kept us all back in this case, he ran down without delaying us. People often put their own capacity higher than do the people they want to run with and it is very difficult to be tactful.

Again most people would not think it necessary to warn runners against deserting their party. Yet they often do and it is not usually the beginner who is the culprit here. Perhaps he cannot run quick enough to get away! I shall always remember a run in charge of a tour when I was with a lot of novices. Another experienced runner accompanied me officially to help. I chose what I thought the easiest way to start, and he wanted to try another route at the top and went off saying he would join us below a wood. When we reached the part where I thought we should rejoin, I waited and shouted, but he did not appear. So we went on to another post where we had lunch, and then I began to get anxious as this runner never turned up. Anything might have happened to him. He might have gone over a rock or into a tree or even only be tied up in one of those tangled falls when it is practically impossible to extricate oneself. It was no good our trying to look for him then, so after about two hours' delay, I took my party down to the valley and the first person who met us in the village was our lost companion. He chaffed us for being so late as he had run down very quickly and had had his tea ages ago.

No party going beyond the Nursery slopes should consist of fewer than three. One to go for help in case of need, the other to stay with the third runner, who may need help. Needless to say, people who know the mountains well, go off alone with impunity. When I asked one of these lonely runners what would happen if he hurt himself and was benighted, he told me he always carried sufficient morphia to put him out of his agony in case of need. This was, no doubt, all right from his point of view, but what of the people who might go out to look for him among the infinite possible runs with Ski tracks in every direction.

No sporting runner would ever refuse help to a lame duck, though pretty bad cases of selfishness have been recorded.

There is one point, which does not always strike people, and that is the danger of cutting a track over a difficult place. Beginners will usually follow a track instead of working by their map. For instance on the Muottas Muraigl run at Pontresina, if once a rash runner cuts a track straight across from the restaurant to the valley, crowds will probably follow it, though they may be warned against it. This is a very dangerous slope under certain conditions as was shown this Winter, when a runner going along its top was carried down to the bottom of the valley by the avalanche he started.

I have one track left on my conscience; when a few of us went down what might have been a dangerous place under different conditions to those we found. Luckily it was not a way most people would have wished to follow as it apparently led nowhere and hardly looked attractive.

The slower mover always has the right of way when Ski-ing, so that no runner ought to shout to those ahead of him to get out of his way. Needless to say this does not apply to a runner out of control, who may be dashing unwillingly into someone in front of him when, for both their sakes, a friendly warning is advisable!

It is the business of every Ski-er to avoid obstacles and the slower mover may be looked on as such in just the same way as a rock or a tree. I was amused one day at Pontresina when a crowd of us were going up the village street and met a lady on Skis being held back as she went downhill by two friends on either side of her. It was the first time I had ever thought of someone going down hill being the slower mover in relation to those climbing.

Nursery slopes are for the practice of turns and the individual who uses them for straight running while a lot of people are practising is abhorred. The same applies to jumps on the Nursery slopes. These are so easily made where other people are not practising that it is selfish to come plunging down into a crowd of devotees to turns. When the Nursery slopes are empty, it is great fun to practise straight running down them and no one will object.

One jolly thing about Ski runners is that they seldom ridicule one another or laugh at falls in any but a friendly way. There is great rivalry and daring to greater effort, but ill-natured ridicule is seldom heard. Perhaps this is due to the fact that most people who live in glass houses do not throw stones. Everybody who tries to improve his Ski-ing is bound to fall and it is better not to set the fashion of laughing at others in difficulties.

There will always be some people who like to look on at tests as "Free entertainment without tax," but if they could hear the comments on their behaviour and probably on their own lack of prowess they would soon give up the habit.

Anyone who is really keen to get on and who will go on practising and accept advice may be sure of sympathy and help. Ski-ing with all its dangers and need for combined effort seems to bring out the best of people and to produce the very best spirit of goodwill and tolerance.

Going uphill in soft snow, every strong member should take a turn at cutting the track. It is often heavy work, and an energetic leader may not like to ask for help. The best plan is to work by time, the leader falling out at the end of his shift and letting the party pass him till he takes his position at the rear and the second man becomes the leader and so on.

People who are wise, will avoid stepping on the Skis of the man ahead. This is often difficult as instinct makes one want to go faster than the person ahead, just as a wheeler in a tandem will usually try to catch up the leader. The easiest way to avoid overlapping is to keep step. Push forward the right foot, when the man ahead pushes forward his right foot and then the left. This gives a rhythm to the uphill work, which also seems to minimize effort. Anyone who has experienced the irritation caused by his Skis being constantly touched by the runner behind while plodding uphill will learn to spare another the same nuisance.

When running straight down a steep slope make sure that there is no one ahead whom you might run into and no one below on either side, who might traverse across the slope you propose to run down. This is especially necessary in a gap between trees. Another member of your party might be among the trees below and suddenly come out into the open, traversing to the other side. When straight running at any speed, only the best Ski runners can turn suddenly to avoid a difficulty, and a nasty collision may occur if care be not exercised.

When a crowd of people are taking their Skis by train, a great deal of trouble may be avoided in getting the mass of Skis out of the train if these are tied neatly together.

A pair of Skis tied near the tips and behind the bindings is easy to handle, while a pair of Skis put together by slipping one through the toe-strap of the other is a great nuisance.

Skis piled together soon become very like a heap of spillikins if not carefully handled and a good deal of damage may be done to them as well as delay to the train if Ski-ers are careless in this small matter.

Another good plan is for the Ski-ers to form themselves into a queue and to hand out all the Skis along the line, till they can be easily distributed where there is space. The beginner is apt to hunt anxiously for his own pair, which may be at the bottom of the pile, and while he pulls and tugs with but little success, other people are waiting in vain for a chance to get their Skis out. This is especially the case on funicular railways, where space is very limited in the stations. Different nationalities travelling together add considerably to the confusion and the railway officials are usually thankful to anyone who will take charge and get a line formed and the Skis handed out tidily.

These hints may seem unnecessary to a great many people, but no matter. I have had so much of my own time wasted by this sort of tiresome lack of sense that I venture to suggest a means of saving time and temper for others.

Ski runners should remember that sledges and pedestrians have the right of way on a road. All the fields are open to the Ski runner and he should not monopolize a road. In most parts of Switzerland there is a law by which everyone has right of way everywhere where the snow lies—so long as it is not enclosed ground. This was brought home to my family rather vividly, when we lived at Davos, by a shooting gallery being set up on our land in front of our house. We had no power to prevent it and there it remained for the winter. At the same time, Ski runners should respect the property of other people, and here I would like to make two appeals to British runners.

Firstly, that we will do our best to avoid damaging young trees. (Old trees can probably look after themselves where the Ski-er is concerned as they are usually stronger than he is.)

Secondly, that we should treat the inhabitants of the country with as much courtesy as possible. The peasant, over whose land we run, makes very little out of the tourist business and has other things to think about rather than sport. He is usually courteous and friendly and always ready to help us when in difficulties. Let us return his hospitality be treating him with courtesy. School teachers have told me that they have great difficulty in persuading the children to greet foreigners because these so seldom respond. Yet few things are more pleasant than the friendly "Gruesse," or "Gruess Gott," or "Leb wohl," with which one is greeted by the people of the country. We can answer in English if we do not know how to answer in German, but do let us answer and, thereby, prove ourselves as friendly as our hosts.

Another matter, which is not always understood by beginners on the snow fields is that when an Alpine Club or local Ski Club hut is used, a fee should be paid to the funds which support the Hut. These Huts are expensive to build and their upkeep is a great tax on the Clubs. British runners can either join the local Club, when they can use the Huts by day for nothing, or they can pay the advertised fee for whatever use they make of them.

A notice is always posted in the Hut showing the various charges, but when no one is there to collect the money, it is left to the honour of the guests to pay it. A money-box can be found in all huts within Switzerland proper, but as these boxes are not safe from marauders near the frontier, the Ski runner has to send the money in by post. At the Boval hut, for instance, above the Morteratsch Glacier, a supply of money order forms will be found hanging near a door. All the leader of the party has to do is to collect the money from his members, take one of the forms and pay the money into any post office, whence it is sent to the H.Q. of the Club.

Huts should invariably be left tidy. This also is a matter of honour. The doors are unlocked always in order that people who may need hospitality, in case of distress, can find shelter. Blankets can be borrowed. Wood is usually provided for firing and there may even be a reserve of food, all of which should be respected. Before the party leaves, blankets should be folded, shutters should be shut, snow swept out and debris buried outside, or what can be used as fuel put away tidily in the kitchen. Then the door should be shut carefully and the hut left the better, rather than the worse off for having given hospitality.



SNOW AND LIGHT

Full descriptions of the different types of snow which must be negotiated by the Ski-runner will be found in Mr. Arnold Lunn's book, "Alpine Ski-ing."

It is only necessary for me, therefore, to describe the four main types, namely, soft, hard, crust and sticky snow.

Soft snow in winter is the new powder snow, which is to be found after a fall or on North slopes where sun and wind have not spoilt it. It is the ideal snow for the luxurious runner, especially two days after it has fallen, when it has settled down and a hard frost has converted it into crystal powder. A run through crystallized snow, which tinkles as the Skis cut through it, is beyond description.

Even a bad runner will find that he can do marvels as the snow seems literally to help him in all his experiments. I have known a day when a blinding blizzard has started blowing the snow into my face and I have run fast along the bottom of a valley with my eyes shut. The Skis kept to the lowest line and ran safely and steadily through this powder snow at a low gradient. It is not suggested that blind running should be indulged in as a rule and I only quote this case to show how helpful is good powder snow.

The Telemark is the usual turn in soft snow. Christiania and jump turns can also be used by people who are proficient and strong, but they require both skill and strength.

Soft snow is usually found on North slopes or at the bottom of shady valleys or even behind any ridge which protects it from the sun or wind. Also among trees which shelter it. Tracks ruin it in time so that it is usually wise to sidle off the track and try new snow beside it.

Luckily for the experienced runner, most beginners usually behave rather like sheep, preferring tracks to exploring on their own. The result is that perfect snow can often be found alongside the beaten track, and when this gets spoilt, it is only necessary to go a little further afield in order to get a good run. Then, as more and more people beat down the track it becomes hard and very amusing running can be had there.

Hard snow is of two types—a beaten track or a hard crust where the sun has melted the surface and the frost at night has frozen it, so that it will bear the weight of the Ski-runner. When this is really solid enough to allow of side-slipping and stem, or Christiania turns, it is very trustworthy and easy to negotiate. At first, however, it intimidates the beginner, because it is very fast. As time goes on and he becomes accustomed to the skid and rattle of hard snow, he will find that his horror turns into pleasure because he can trust it. The Nursery slopes become hard after two or three days and will provide useful experience for coping with such snow on a run.

The lifted stem and Christiania are the best turns on hard snow. A Telemark is apt to skid too much.

Crust is the bugbear of all runners and is out and away the most difficult to tackle. It may be hard, and then with nothing apparent on the surface to warn you, the Skis break through and catch in the crust and down you go. When crust is about, let someone else lead, and then profit by his experience.

There are many forms of crust, all of which may be met on the same run, and when wind has been at work, there may be crust on North slopes and not on South. After rain too, when the surface has been soaked and a frost follows, crust will be found everywhere.

Sticky snow is usually due to the effect of the sun or to Fohn wind or thaw. It is easily coped with by proper waxing of the running surfaces, but the sudden sticking of the skis, which have been running well over wet snow in the open, when they get into cold powder snow under trees or in shadow, is very disconcerting.

The same is apt to happen when people have dried their Skis in the sun by sticking them on end while lunching. The sun not only dries them but warms them so that if the first run after lunch is in shadow and the snow is cold, the Skis stick because the warm surfaces melt the snow, which immediately freezes again and adheres to the Skis, so that they come to an absolute standstill.

The only way to avoid sticking is to keep the running surfaces of the Skis in good condition by oiling them thoroughly and to carry one or two different types of wax for use according to circumstances.

The great thing is to get practice on all types of snow and never to mind it. Look upon crust as a joke, and learn jump turns, which are the only safe turns for any but the strongest runners. Some of these can accomplish a Telemark, or stem-turn or even a Christiania on every sort of snow, but most people are content with the jump turn on crust. The great trouble of this turn is that it is very tiring when a heavy Rucksack is carried, but knack and good use of the stick will help it.

Light is a great factor in Ski-ing. On a fine day when visibility is good, it is easy to distinguish between the rise and fall of country ahead and, therefore, to be prepared for decrease or increase in speed. Some days when the sky is clouded, it is practically impossible to tell what is coming. This difficulty is increased in a narrow valley when the reflection of the slopes on either side make the whole surface look identical.

Coloured glasses may help a little, but it is better to run slowly and to take no risks. On these occasions tracks help immensely as they give the eye something to follow. Rocks and trees also help; anything that breaks the surface of the snow and shows up the gradient ahead.



FALLS

Falls!—what a word. When I first thought of writing this book, it struck me that the best selling title would be "Ski-ing without Falls." But then I remembered that I could never look a beginner in the face again if, knowing that he had read my book, I saw him fall.

Besides which, a Ski runner who never falls, is probably but a poor exponent of the sport. When you begin to run comfortably and can do the turns at low speeds, falls show that you are still trying to learn more of the game. It is only by trying new things that a runner becomes really proficient and you are almost certain to fall constantly as you learn. There is art in falling on Skis as well as in running and turning. Fall loose. Let yourself go; never try to save yourself when once you find the fall is inevitable and get rid of your sticks. You will have the most amazing falls on Skis and nobody will listen to your descriptions of them because they are just as eager to describe their own. The surprising thing is how little people hurt themselves—knees and ankles go most. The strain on the knee and ankle is very great in some falls, but if you let yourself go and relax your muscles as you fall, you will find that even ankles and knees survive as a rule.

I once saw a really good runner turn three somersaults while nose-driving down a steep slope at high speed in soft snow. And all the damage done was two hat-pins snapped! Moral, don't wear hat-pins.

People are so tangled up sometimes that they do not know whether the Ski tip sticking out of the snow belongs to their right or left foot, and they have to dig with their sticks before they can extricate themselves. And sometimes the results of a fall are so intricate that the runner could never extricate himself, but needs the help of a friend, who will undo a binding so as to free him. The most curious fall I ever saw was when a man, running down a steep slope among trees, ran into a fir tree on the upper side where the snow was lying well up the trunk. He then fell head downwards into the hole below the tree where the snow had not penetrated and, his Skis being caught in the branches, there he hung. Had he been alone, I doubt whether he would ever have succeeded in getting free. As it was, we undid a binding quickly and no damage was done.

Not only is there art in falling but there is a technique of getting up. Before attempting to get up, arrange your Skis so that they are ready to stand on. Suppose they are crossed below you on a steep slope, lie on the slope, raise the Skis in the air, uncross them, set them parallel across the slope below you, facing the way you want to go, and get up. This fall is sometimes used as a turn and may be very useful, though not considered the best possible form if done intentionally.

Never attempt to get up on to Skis facing downhill. They will only go off with you the moment you begin to rise, and then down you flop again.

If you fall head downwards down a slope, you still have to get your Skis parallel across the slope below you before you can stand up, and the only thing to be done is to turn a somersault uncrossing your Skis in the air if they are crossed and getting them below you and then standing up. All of which is extremely easy, but it is very necessary to ensure that clothes are so made that the powder snow cannot slip into crevices while you are gambolling in this fashion. The first thing I do before getting up from a fall is to put up my hands and let the snow shake out of my glove gauntlets.

If you are so tangled up in a fall that it is almost impossible to get out, just undo a binding, slip off a Ski and get up easily with a free foot to stand on. And, if you see anyone else so tangled up that he does not begin to get up immediately, hurry to his assistance, because his ankle or knee may be in a very strained position and he may be thankful to you for undoing a binding and releasing him. It is in these falls that the leather heel bindings so often prove better than a rigid toe binding. The leather will ease a little or slip and allow the foot to turn a fraction of an inch so that the strain is not maintained long enough to cause real damage.

Falls are often half the fun of Ski-ing, and every runner who is trying something new will sometimes fall in the endeavour. So never lose hope, however much you fall. If you have been running rather well, and then get a day when you do nothing but only means that you are stale and that your muscles and nerves need a rest. This is where the all-round Winter sportsman gains. He can spend a day on the rink or curling or tobogganing and not feel that he has wasted time.

Never scoff at people because they fall. A first-class runner is supposed to be able to run at high speed, using turns without falling. So he will, probably, if he intends to, but no first-class runner worth his salt would always run like this. He will always be trying something more difficult, turns at higher speed or in difficult snow, and consequently he will often be seen to fall, and the beginner who scoffs is merely voted an ignoramus. Here again a runner will be judged by his tracks. Look carefully at the place where he ran and try to make out what turn he was trying and what the snow was like, and why he fell. You can learn a great deal from other people's tracks.

Falls in deep snow are always a little more risky than on hard snow, because there is greater strain on muscles and ligaments. On hard snow you get many a bump and scratch, but the results are less lasting than a torn ligament.

Having got up safely from your fall, look on the snow and see what you have dropped before starting off again. Even pockets with flaps may allow of leakage.

It is wise to tie your Rucksack firmly with a strap round your waist because, if it is loose, anything heavy inside may give you a nasty bump on the head as you fall.



TESTS

There are three British Ski tests under the Federal Council of British Ski Clubs. In addition to these, different centres and local clubs often set an elementary test for beginners in order that these may be sorted into various standards for expeditions.

Hitherto the Elementary test has usually been a run down a certain distance within a time set by the judges. This is not an altogether satisfactory test, as the beginner, who goes straight down sitting on his Skis may get through, while another, who conscientiously tries to run standing, falls the whole time and fails. Style might be judged and the sitting candidate disqualified, but when, as often happens, some seventy or eighty people enter for an Elementary test, the judges have their hands full enough with starting and timing, apart from watching individual running critically as in the 2nd-class test.

A better way, therefore, is to flag a line, which must be followed, providing traverses across slopes, which soon catch out the sitting novice.

Beginners usually hate traversing because they dislike the look of a steep slope and do not know how to prevent the instinctive pointing straight downwards of the Skis. They do not realize yet that if they would stand upright on their Skis while traversing, and lead with the upper foot while they put their weight on the lower foot and keep their whole weight somewhat on their heels, they will traverse quite easily at a gentle angle.

The Elementary test ought to be so planned as to force this type of running.

Another way of running an Elementary test is for a judge to lead at a steady easy pace for an hour's cross-country run, including both up and downhill, as well as level running and obstacles. The test would be timed, an ample margin being allowed beyond the judge's time. All those, who finished within the time would pass.

This would probably not be nearly so popular a Test with the candidates as the short downhill run, but it would be a far better test of their capacity for touring.

The British Ski tests consist of the 1st, 2nd and 3rd-Class Tests, the Regulations for which will be found in the Ski Year Book, which can be obtained from the Hon. Secretary, Federal Council of British Ski Clubs, Essex Court, Temple, London, E.C. They can also be obtained from any official representative of one of the British Clubs in Switzerland, and are printed as an Appendix at the end of this book.

In the 3rd class test, which is the first and which has to be passed before the runner can go up for his 2nd class, there are three parts.

Part (a) is a climb of 1,500 feet in not more than 1-1/2 hours and a run down 1,500 feet in a time set by the judges. The time may not be less than seven, or more than twenty minutes. It should not be more than 12 minutes under good conditions.

Men must carry Rucksacks weighing not less than 6 lbs., and women 3 lbs. Sealskins may be used for the climb.

Part (b) consists of four consecutive lifted stem-turns on a slope of 15 deg. to 20 deg., and Part (c) four consecutive Telemark turns on a slope of the same gradient. Parts (b) and (c) are often used as a qualifying test before Part (a) is run, in order to limit the entries for Part (a), which may otherwise be a very difficult test to run when a large field enters for it.

Candidates who enter for this test should really take pains to ensure that their bindings fit their boots and that they have everything necessary for a run as well as being up to the standard. Speaking as a judge of four years' standing, who has run innumerable tests, I may say that it is pitiable to see the number of casual people who will come up for a test without reading the regulations and without being in any way prepared for a 1,500 ft. climb. Few things are more disagreeable than having to disqualify a candidate, who turns up without a Rucksack, or more miserable than having to shepherd down beginners who are worn out by a run for which they are quite out of training. The one comfort is that a candidate, who is pertinacious and courageous enough to face this test five or six times without passing and goes in again, is almost sure to pass in the end.

For the judge's sake, however, I strongly urge such a candidate to time himself over similar runs with his friends and to persist in this until he proves that he is up to 3rd-class standard, when he will be a very welcome candidate in the test itself.

A course is easily found by using an aneroid, or it may also be worked off the Ordnance Map. Any ordinary watch with a second hand will suffice for the timing of one's own run.

Some people may think that I am a little harsh in my reasons for suggesting that beginners should not enter for the running part of the 3rd-class test so lightheartedly. It is really for their own sakes as much as for that of the judge's. Failure is very discouraging, and I have known people's nerve quite upset by one of these runs. They have tried to race down and have taken really nasty tosses in their rush, while the fatigue of constant falling and getting up out of deep snow, becoming more and more out of breath in the anxiety to compete, is very bad for their running. I have often wanted to hide my head in shame when coming home after such a test with a lot of worn-out people, wet through, who have failed. And yet, such is life, that many with the first breath, after they finish exhausted, will ask when the next Test takes place in order that they may compete again. Such a candidate really does one's heart good.

Tests have probably done more than anything else to improve the standard of British running. We all have a liking for competition, and here is our chance. Having succeeded in passing the 3rd-class test, we can wear a badge and then we have to ski better in order to prove worthy of it, and presently we see no reason against qualifying for the 2nd-class test before going home. "After all, the turns only have to be done on a steeper slope." "The run can be put off till next Winter, and passed the moment we come out," they say.

The 1st-class standard is rising higher and higher as British Ski runners become more proficient. The runner who passed a year or two ago now hesitates to wear the gold badge, because he often realizes that his speed and turns are not good enough for what is now required.

Judges of the British Ski tests may be found in most well-known centres, but, as there are very few 1st-class people, the tests for this class are usually run in one or two districts only.



GUIDES AND SKI INSTRUCTORS

Swiss Guides are certificated by the Swiss Alpine Club and are the only people permitted by law to guide parties among the higher mountains. A tariff exists in every district showing the fees which these Guides must charge. In addition to the fee, the client usually gives a gratuity and also pays for the Guide's accommodation and provisions on the tour. A percentage may be added for numbers greater than those provided for in the tariff, while on a really difficult tour, the Guide will probably refuse to take more than two or three runners unless a second Guide or porter be engaged. The Certificated Guides wear a badge issued by the Swiss Alpine Club and any man wearing this may be depended upon to be a good fellow, a careful Guide, and a philosopher and friend. Most of them can now ski well, though a few of the older ones may not be very proficient in technique and may be stick riders.

When on tour with a Guide, he is responsible for the safety of the party, and every member should do his best to help him by carrying out any instructions he may give for their greater safety. This is not always appreciated by people who do not know the Alps and their unwritten laws, and the Guides complain somewhat bitterly that they are often put in very difficult positions. For instance, on one occasion, when a party was crossing an avalanche slope, the Guide asked them to go singly at intervals of 20 metres, so that if anyone was carried away, the others would not be involved and could go to his rescue. One of the party was overheard saying: "Oh! he is only trying to prove how careful he is in order to get a higher tip," and they were careless in their carrying out of the instructions.

In any case it is discourteous not to do what the Guide prescribes and he is put in a very false position as he is held responsible.

Ski Instructors belong to a different category, unless they are also Certificated Guides, which is often the case. In some Cantons, such as Graubuenden, the Instructors have to pass an examination showing their capacity to ski and also to teach. Many of them are perfectly beautiful runners, but they should not be pressed to conduct tours where glacier work or rock climbing is involved. They are not examined for this and they hold no credentials, and if an accident occurs, everyone is blamed. There are a great many other runs they are allowed to lead and they will set as good a course as anyone would wish for.

Before engaging a Guide, or an Instructor on the recommendation of the concierge, get some expert advice as to who is the best. The Secretary of the local Ski Club would advise or some good runner in the neighbourhood.

In some parts of Switzerland the Guides and Instructors have taken to touting for clients. They hang about the hotels and try to induce the unwary to engage them and to go for tours for which they are often not fit. The better Swiss Guides are the first to want the public to discourage this type of behaviour, as it is doing a lot of harm to their good name.

When a Guide is engaged, treat him as a friend and trust him. They are usually a most obliging and reliable set of men, who will do everything in their power for their clients, such as carrying food and spare clothing, waxing skis, attaching skins and even making terms in inns, and cooking the food in huts when on tour. Their knowledge of the mountains and their experiences are well worth probing, and they will usually talk willingly when kindly dealt with. They are quick judges of character and if the younger ones are sometimes a little inclined to take advantage of the people who do not treat them suitably, only those people themselves can be blamed. The old-fashioned Guides are never familiar, though they are very friendly and will always do their best for the entertainment of their party. They should not be petted and flattered, neither should they be treated as inferiors. A happy medium is easily found which is what the Guide will prefer, because in his heart of hearts, he has the whole of the Swiss characteristics—great dignity, independence and respect for wise people.

On a long and dangerous tour the safety of the party may ultimately depend upon the trust and confidence placed in the Guide in charge, and by him in his clients, and this should be remembered in all negotiations. These men often have to risk their lives for the sake of the people who employ them, and their staunch unselfishness is a fine example of human endeavour for the benefit of others. Their fees may appear to be high, but when everything is taken into consideration, including the shortness of their Winter and Summer Seasons, it is soon realized that the fees are not exorbitant.



MAPS AND FINDING THE WAY

Every Ski runner going across country should carry a map. Even on a short run a great deal can be learnt from a map, which will prove useful later on a longer run. Both time and risk can be saved by people who run by their map and who know how to avoid dangerous places and how to take advantage of narrow safe openings.

There are different types of maps to be had in Switzerland. The best are the official Ordnance Maps published by the Eidg. Landestopographie at Bern. The mountain districts are produced at a scale of 1 centimetre in 50,000 centimetres or 2 centimetres in one kilometre, and large or small sheets can be bought almost everywhere. The gradients are clearly shown by contour lines. The equidistance being 30 metres, or roughly 100 feet, the dotted contour lines when height is marked some every 8 or 10 ordinary contour lines. This differs according to the edition. Cliff and rock are shown grey, while glacier contour lines are blue.

Some districts, such as the Bernese Oberland, have produced this map with red lines showing all the Ski runs. In other places they also provide Ski-ing maps, but on a different scale and not as good as the Ordnance Map.

All maps are best when mounted on linen, as the weathering they receive on a run may reduce a paper map to pulp or rag.

It is easy to work out the distance of runs or the gradient of slopes from the large scale Ordnance Map. 1 in 50,000 metres means that 1 centimetre on the map equals a run of 50,000 metres; 2 centimetres equal a kilometre or 100,000 metres; 8 kilometres equal five English miles. Therefore, if a centimetre measure be carried, the distances are soon ascertained with a minimum of arithmetic.

Throughout this chapter I have taken the mathematical or map gradient and not the engineer's gradient. The latter is generally used, I understand, to measure the gradients of roads, railways, etc.

To avoid confusion when Ski-ing, the gradient is usually named by the angle of the slope.

The gradient of slopes is shown by the contour lines, the drop between each being 30 metres or approximately 100 feet. The table on p. 92 was got out by Commander Merriman, R.N., and has proved very useful to me in setting tests as well as in judging whether slopes are comparatively safe from avalanche or not.

A slope showing eight 30-metre contour lines in one centimetre works out roughly at 27 deg., which is a steeper slope than most people care to take straight, running over unknown country. Anything steeper than this is apt to avalanche in certain conditions, though a 30 deg. slope should usually be safe. (A 25 deg. slope may be dangerous under some conditions.)

A comfortable slope is 5 contour lines in 1 centimetre, or a gradient of 17 deg.. Taking English measurements as in Commander Merriman's scale, 16 contour lines in one inch on the map.

The beginner will probably content himself with slopes where 10 contour lines are shown in one inch, or a gradient of about 13 deg..

ROUGH TABLE OF GRADIENTS.

Assuming 30 metre contours to be equal to 100 feet contours (actually this is 98.4 feet). Natural Scale 1: 50,000.

Drop per inch Average angle Gradient on map. of slope. 1 in. 100' 1 deg. 24' 40.9 200' 2 deg. 45' 20.8 300' 4 deg. 07' 13.9 400' 5 deg. 29' 10.4 500' 6 deg. 50' 8.3 600' 8 deg. 12' 6.9 700' 9 deg. 33' 5.9 800' 10 deg. 52' 5.2 900' 12 deg. 11' 4.6 1,000' 13 deg. 30' 4.2 1,100' 14 deg. 47' 3.8 1,200' 16 deg. 04' 3.5 1,300' 17 deg. 20' 3.2 1,400' 18 deg. 34' 3.0 1,500' 19 deg. 48' 2.8 1,600' 21 deg. 00' 2.6 1,700' 22 deg. 11' 2.5 1,800' 23 deg. 22' 2.3 1,900' 24 deg. 30' 2.2 2,000' 25 deg. 39' 2.1 2,100' 26 deg. 45' 2.0 2,200' 27 deg. 50' 1.9 2,300' 28 deg. 53' 1.8 2,400' 29 deg. 56' 1.7 2,500' 30 deg. 58' 1.6

Up till now I have only been describing the official Ordnance Maps. There are several other maps which may also be useful.

The Dufour maps are good for direction and lie of country, but their scale being 1 in 100,000 they are not much help for actual running.

The local Ski Tour Map is useful to show where the usual tours go, but cannot always be trusted for gradients or cliffs and rocks. The Pontresina map, for instance, though showing an equidistance of 30 metres as in the Ordnance Maps, really has 50 metres contour lines, which might be a terrible snare to the unwary, who would confidently run towards a slope, thinking it was about 20 deg. and find that it was nearer 35 deg., or an avalanche slope. In a case like this the Ordnance Map must be used for actual running, while the Ski Tour Map is used to show the line to be followed.

In some districts, such as the Bernese Oberland, the Ordnance map has been used for the local Ski tour map, and the tours shown on it in red. This is a great saving of weight and money for the runner, who then only has one map to carry.

Most Ski maps show dangerous avalanche slopes. The local Summer map published in most tourist centres in Switzerland is not much use to the Ski runner, because it shows walks which may be along slopes or down cliffs, which are perfectly safe in Summer and very dangerous in Winter.

I strongly advise all beginners who are bitten by the joy of Ski-ing to buy, at any rate, the small local sheet of the Ordnance Map which usually only costs Frs. 1.30, or roughly 1s., and to study it carefully, noticing the contour lines on the well-known Nursery slopes, and gradually realizing the gradient represented by the different widths between them.

Let him also notice the difference between a hill and a hole on the map. This is easily recognized either by the thin blue line of a stream emerging from a lake, or by comparing the nearest heights shown on the dotted lines or some marked point. Contours are often puzzling to a beginner in map reading, but knowledge of what they represent may save a party from a weary climb back up a place they have gaily ski-ed down, thinking they could get through but finding an impossible slope or fall of rock which forced them to retrace their steps.

Before going on tour even with a Guide, it is wise to study the map with a view to knowing where an Alpine hut can be found in case of need, or where a hay chalet could offer shelter.

When once the Ski runner has begun to appreciate the fun and interest of running by a map, he will never leave it behind, and he will be able to enjoy all sorts of runs he would never know of if he were content with the sheep habit of "following tracks."

The greatest fun of Ski-ing is in finding one's own way, and this one can never hope to do without a map.

The following scale of comparative heights in metres and feet may be of use in estimating the heights of points which the Ski runner wishes to reach:

10 metres equal 33 feet (approximately). 50 " " 164 " 100 " " 328 " 250 " " 820 " 500 " " 1,640 " 1,000 " " 3,281 " 2,000 " " 6,562 " 3,000 " " 9,843 "

A compass is, of course, useful when running by map, but as precipices are apt to get in the way when running straight for any given point, a compass cannot be trusted alone. In the case of fog, it is very difficult to avoid difficulties, and points on the map can only be identified by the use of an aneroid, as well as a compass. Set the aneroid at the point you start from and check your heights by this as you climb or descend, referring constantly to the map to ensure that you are running on the right line. It is wise to practise this on clear days in order to get accustomed to running by map, compass and aneroid. As the weather also affects the aneroid, it should be constantly reset at known levels.

All this may sound very confusing, and most beginners will probably prefer to take a Guide who knows his country well rather than trust to elementary map-reading knowledge in unknown country. Most runners who go on tour will find running much more interesting, however, if instead of following a Guide blindly they also watch the map or get a knowledge of what is good or bad country to run over. There are sometimes cases also when the party must necessarily divide, and an amateur may have to take the lead over unknown country.



AVALANCHES

Much has been written on this subject. Mr. Arnold Lunn, in "The Alps," tells some extraordinary stories about these monsters of the mountains. My father, John Addington Symonds, in "Our Life in the Swiss Highlands," also describes them.

There was a very interesting article by Monsieur F. Krahnstoever in the "Swiss Ski Club Year-Book for 1923" on the subject of avalanches in relation to Ski-ing. They are an everlasting nightmare to Ski runners in high places, and beginners should at once take care to learn all they can of snow-craft in order, in so far as possible, to realize what is safe and what is dangerous.

The steepness of slopes and the condition of snow, as well as the direction of wind, are all factors affecting avalanches.

Any slope whose gradient is more than 15 deg. may be dangerous under certain conditions, but it may be generally accepted that most long slopes under 25 deg. are comparatively safe so long as they have not much steeper slopes immediately above or below them.

New snow is always apt to slip before it has had time to settle down. Snow blown by wind into a cornice or overhanging lip at the top of a slope or on a cliff may topple down and start an avalanche.

Wet snow, after rain, or a warm Foehn wind, becomes heavy and begins to slide.

A very dangerous condition is new soft snow lying on a slope covered with old hard snow.

Trees or rocks sticking up through the snow make such slopes safer, as they tend to prevent the snow from beginning to slip. This is why the Forestry Laws of Switzerland are so strict. In some districts the owner of a forest may not cut a tree unless it has been approved by the Government forester. This is to ensure that the forests are maintained as a protection for the villages in the valleys below.

Beginners should never go on a tour without first ascertaining that the route they propose to follow is a safe one. And if there is the slightest doubt, owing to weather conditions, they should put it off for a day or two. Some runs are perfectly safe when the snow has settled and a sharp frost has bound it, but they may become dangerous again when a thaw sets in, a Foehn wind is blowing, or rain has fallen.

The Ski runner himself may start an avalanche on a slope where the snow would lie safely if he did not pass along it. The cutting of his track, breaking the continuity of the snow, may set it going either above or below him and he will be carried away with it.

Wherever there seems to be the slightest risk of avalanche the party should separate and proceed in single file at about 20-yard intervals. Then if a runner is carried away, the others will be able to go to his assistance. In some cases, however, even this is not sufficient protection as the whole slope may go at once. In old days before the railways had tunnelled through the passes we were driving over the Fluela above Davos on our way to Italy in March. We were in the post consisting of some 20 one-horse sledges and had just left the Hospiz when we met the up-coming post, also consisting of a number of one-horse sledges. It took some time to pass, as the track was narrow and the horses floundered in the deep snow when passing each other. After we had got by and were continuing on our way down to Sues, we turned along an outstanding buttress of cliff and saw that some two miles of steep slope ahead had avalanched. The whole surface of the snow had slipped to the bottom of the valley and if either of the diligences had been on this slope when it happened, horses, sledges and all would have been carried away.

This experience fixed avalanche danger very firmly in my mind, and having also seen several large avalanches falling, as well as the immense amount of damage done to forests and chalets by these insuperable monsters, I have never wished to risk getting into a large one myself.

Even a small avalanche is very overwhelming and a beginner who has felt its effects soon realizes what it may mean. Choose a very short steep slope on a day when the snow is slipping and try to get it going. Once it moves and entangles your legs and Skis, you will feel the extraordinary helplessness which results. This was one of our games when I was a child. Without Skis it is possible to float on top of a baby avalanche and to enjoy it, but with Skis on, the feet soon become entangled and helplessness results.

The first thing to do when an avalanche starts and no escape is possible is to get the Ski bindings undone and the feet free. Then "swim" with arms and legs and try to keep on top. If buried, keep one arm over nose and mouth so as to keep air space and push the other arm up, pointing the Ski stick through to the open so that it may show your whereabouts. This is easy to describe, but probably not so easy to carry out if the occasion arises.

One of the first books on Ski-running advises people to carry some 60 metres of red tape and to let this trail behind them when crossing dangerous ground. Then, if overwhelmed by an avalanche, the red thread can be picked up by the search party and the victim may quickly be dug out. I have never met anyone who has carried out this suggestion and do not want the extra weight of red tape in my Rucksack, but it makes one think and realize how much other experienced runners have thought also.

The following precautions would seem to me to be better:

Never ski along, or above, or below a dangerous-looking slope under doubtful conditions.

Never go for a tour without making sure beforehand that the route you propose to follow is a safe one.

Always carry out any instructions your Guide or the experienced leader of your party may give. If you have any sudden doubt about the safety of the slope you are on, make quickly for the nearest rocks sticking up.

If there are trees near get among them as quickly and quietly as you can.

If the snow begins to slip and you see no chance of Ski-ing quickly away from the dangerous place, get your Skis off. This is where toe bindings may be safer than heel bindings as they come off quicker.

Never follow a track across a slope, about which you are doubtful, thinking hopefully that the runner who cut it knew more than yourself.

Never cut a track across a dangerous place at your own risk if there is the slightest chance of misleading another runner into danger later.

Remember that though you yourself may be on a safe slope, the slope above or below you may be so steep that the snow may slip off by itself and your slope may be involved. This applies equally to running along the bottom of a valley. The slopes on either side may be dangerous, and if the snow slips you will be buried.

There are so many perfectly safe runs that it is folly to risk being killed by an avalanche, when it can easily be avoided by a little forethought and common sense.

Even if you do not mind the risk yourself, think not only of your people waiting below, but also of the people who have to come and look for your body. There have been several cases where the search party have been overwhelmed by a second avalanche while digging for people carried away by the first.

January and March are probably the most dangerous months from the avalanche point of view. In January the fresh snow is apt to slide before it has settled. A few days after a new snowfall, most of the avalanches will have come down and the ordinary runs will be safe again, but every snowfall entails the same risk. There are some slopes where the snow will never stay in February, but unless a Foehn wind or rain make the snow heavy, most slopes are pretty safe below a gradient of 25 deg..

In March when the thaw begins more avalanches will fall. These usually come down well-known tracks and can easily be avoided for this reason.

This chapter may appear to be somewhat intimidating, but it is better to be safe than sorry. Very few experienced Ski runners get into avalanches and if ordinary precautions are taken and the advice of experts followed beginners need have no fear.

The Ski-ing maps usually show the more dangerous places, but every runner should keep his own eyes open and learn all he can of snow-craft in order to be able to explore new country as he becomes proficient.



ACCIDENTS

Some people will think that I lay too much stress on the dangers of Ski-ing. Considering the thousands of people who ski every Winter and the extraordinarily small number of accidents, I admit that I have exaggerated the dangers. But I do so quite deliberately because it is only by realizing risks that they can be avoided, and my experience proves to me that the average town-bred man and woman, boy and girl have very little appreciation of life lived up against Nature. They set out so lightheartedly and often so fool-hardily on an expedition, without telling anyone where they propose to go, or when they expect to be home, and without having provided themselves with the extra equipment which may prove to be very necessary before the day is finished.

While writing this book I have constantly had in mind Ski-ing centres above 5,000 feet, whence tours are made among the glaciers and at high levels where the cold may be a danger during the months of January and February. Much of what I have said of the necessity of carrying spare clothing in good quantity does not apply so much to places below 5,000 feet unless high tours are undertaken. But wherever people ski there is a possibility of accidents due to falls, and though these are seldom serious, they need attention.

When someone is really lamed by knee or ankle, Ski-ing becomes very difficult, except to the expert, who can ski mainly on one foot, and walking through the deep snow, sinking at every step, is an agony, so that some form of stretcher becomes necessary.

Two or, better still, four Skis tied together, side by side, form an excellent sledge, which will travel straight downhill every easily. It practically refuses to traverse a slope so that the case has to be slipped straight down to the bottom of the slope and along the valley or level below.

Skis usually have holes through the flat part of the tip in front. A piece of strong wire should be threaded through these, care being taken that the Skis lie parallel their whole length and that the tips are not drawn together too much. A stick must be tied to the wire and the Ski tips to keep them in position and to take the pull when the sledge is drawn along. If there are trees about, a branch can be cut to serve this purpose. If not, a Ski stick must be cut in half and used. It should not project beyond the Skis on either side, or it will catch in the snow.

The other half of the Ski stick or another branch must be tied across the Skis, by the toe irons, to keep the Skis parallel there also, and to give solidity to the sledge. People sometimes tie a strap or string round the Skis, including their running surfaces, forgetting that this will soon cut through with the friction of the snow.

To finish the sledge, put some fir branches on it, the bushy part of which will make it more comfortable to lie on. The thick wood of the branch part should point towards the front of the Skis and be fixed there. If branches are not available, Rucksacks can be used for the injured person to lie on. He will probably be more comfortable going downhill if he can be laid head-first downwards on the sledge.

To draw the sledge along, join a lap thong or sealskin or rope or puttee to the outer Ski tips, and also to the ends of the stick across them. In order to prevent this from pulling these Skis forward too much it is well to tie a string to the inner Ski tips also and join them to the pulling rope.

Another rope or thong should be attached to the stick and centre toe irons, so that this can be held from behind to prevent the sledge travelling too fast downhill. Experienced runners will be able to travel on Skis while getting this sledge down, but beginners will do well to wade on foot, especially the rear man, who has to control the speed. Neither the pulling nor control rope should be attached to the body of the person holding it because a sudden jerk may pull him over and the sledge be stopped suddenly with a jar to the person hurt.

Most club huts are provided with excellent ambulance sledges, which may be used, and which should be conscientiously returned to the Rettungschef of the locality.

There is a Rettungschef in every mountainous district whose duty it is to help with accidents when these are reported to him. He arranges to send out Guides and porters with an ambulance sledge to the assistance of any party in trouble. If, therefore, your accident be a serious one, and you are far from home, the wisest plan may be to send one or two of the best runners down to the nearest village for help, while the remainder stay with the injured person. For this reason it is always unwise to go out with fewer than three in a party. Five or six are a better number on a long day's run.

Remember the people waiting at home, and when you have made arrangements for help to go to your party ring up your friends and tell them what has happened and what you have arranged. Having often seen the anxiety of relations and friends when their party comes home late, I know how important this is. Even if you are only delayed for some small reason such as a train being late, it is kind to ring up, and this is easily done, as there are telephones in almost every village.

While on this subject I would again like to urge that before going off on an expedition of any length the Concierge and someone should be told in writing the destination, the route, and the hour anticipated for return. Then, if the party does not turn up and no news comes through, a search party can be sent out with some hope of finding them within a reasonable time. Time is very important in January and February, when the weather is cold, as people can be badly frost-bitten if benighted.

Search parties are expensive luxuries, as it is risky work for the Guides, who deserve to be well paid for it. I have only once followed a Rettungschef with his five assistants and their ambulance sledge, and shall never forget the pace at which their lantern went ahead of us, dancing like a will-of-the-wisp. A runner had come home at 5 p.m. with news that one of the party had hurt his knee some four miles from home. This runner had already wisely rung up the Rettungschef from the first house he came to, and a party of Guides was being collected. I decided to go out with some friends in case the accident was a serious one and we could bring the remainder of the party home, and so save the Guides that duty. They were all beginners who were benighted.

We followed the lantern and saw it stop and knew the Guides had reached the people in trouble. When we caught up they already had the patient looking like a mummy, rolled up in blankets in a canvas bag on the sledge. I could hear him choking over the brandy which was being poured down his throat. He had only hurt his knee, but his friends, who were all real novices, had had a wearing time getting him down.

The way in which the Guides handled the job filled me with admiration and confidence. When they found we were ready to herd the party home, they shot off with their sledge and the lantern soon became a speck of light in the distance again.

I also had a lantern that night, and found it delightful to ski by, but doubt whether anyone else profited much by its light except as a guide to direction.

When a person is hurt and helpless at a high level, in winter, cold is the most immediate danger, and all spare clothing should be piled on him, and his limbs should be rubbed to prevent frost-bite. When he cannot be moved, a fire might well be lit if below tree level where wood is available, because, though the lighting of fires is forbidden in the Swiss forests, a breach of the law would surely be overlooked in case of danger to life. The heat of the fire would help to keep the patient warm, while its light would act as a beacon to the search party.

The following is the code of signals in use among the Alps:

The Alpine Signal of Distress—

(a) By Day.—The waving of anything (a flag or stick with an article of clothing attached) six times in a minute, repeated after an interval of one minute without signals.

(b) By Night.—A light flashed six times a minute, repeated after an interval of one minute without signals.

(c) By Sound.—Six sharp calls, or whistles, in the minute, repeated after an interval of one minute without signals.

The Answering Call—

(d) Anything waved, a light flashed, a sharp call, or whistle three times in the minute, repeated after an interval of one minute without signals.

If a Ski runner does not remember the exact signal any regular signal repeated a definite number of times in a minute, with a minute's interval, should prove sufficient. Similarly, if you hear a signal repeated at short regular intervals, you should always suspect a call for help.

An ordinary whistle is hardly loud enough for the sound to carry any distance and a siren might be better. Newspaper could be used for a flare if the party does not possess a lantern or electric torch, but it would not last long.

Finally, may I suggest that everyone who takes up Ski-ing seriously, and who carries gear to be used in emergency, should be proficient in the use of such gear and not wait till it is needed to find out how to fit it.

To experiment in making an ambulance sledge while an injured person lies beside you and when your fingers are cold and people are buzzing round you with suggestions, which may or may not be better than your own ideas, is a bad plan. It is wiser to have made the experiment at home and to have got someone to drag you down a hill on the result, and then you will know something about it. A new game for the Nursery slopes, and what fun for the spectators who already think all Skiers mad!

I would like to add at the end of this chapter on accidents that during the many years I have enjoyed Ski-ing, and with the hundreds of beginners I have helped, I have never met with a single really serious accident.

One or two knees and ankles twisted and now and then a cut or severe bruise have been among the worst cases I have come across.



THE ATTRACTIONS OF SKI-ING

Though some runners are content merely to enjoy the actual practice of Ski-ing with all the difficulties to be overcome and the various turns to be perfected, the greater proportion probably ski mainly on account of the exhilaration obtained, the freedom enjoyed, and the wonderful beauty of the places reached.

The amazing thing is that Skis were not used sooner among the Alps. They have already in less than thirty years entirely altered the life of the young people in far-away villages, who used to be practically shut up during the winter months, but who can now ski from one place to another on Sundays and holidays, enjoying the companionship of their friends and widening their outlook by mixing with strangers. This will probably have a very good effect on the population of the High Alps, who will be less inclined to leave their homes in order to get away from the monotony of the long winters. So much is this appreciated that Ski-ing is now part of the school curriculum in some districts, often taking the place of gymnastics during the winter.

It is amusing to watch the classes of children out on the Nursery slopes with their teachers. While we foreign women Ski-runners are provided with elaborate costumes, including breeches or trousers, the little Swiss girls ski in frocks and cotton pinafores without cap or hat, and often without gloves. Led by their teacher they wearily climb up the slopes, and then comes the mad career home to the midday meal. Twenty or thirty little girls all dashing down together practising turns as they go, or making as straight down as they dare in their effort to outpace their rivals.

The boys carry the sport still further and most local Ski-jumping competitions start with a demonstration by the boys, who often do not look more than 10 or 12 years old, and who go over the big jump as straight as their elders and usually a good deal more gaily, as they have not begun to appreciate the dangers. The smaller boys line the sides of the jump and pour out at the word of the judge on to the steep landing-slope like a lot of little goblins, jumping on their Skis horizontally to flatten away any track or hole made by a jumper who has failed to jump perfectly. Little chaps of seven or eight run through the woods on these occasions, swanking their turns through the trees and putting most grown-up runners to shame by their nimbleness. At Pontresina one winter I was much amused by one of these small children wearing a British third-class test badge which he must have picked up. I asked him where he got it, but he hurried away for fear I would claim it, and his Christianias through the big trees made me very envious.

Many of the children ski to school and back, getting endless practice all through the winter months.

May I here appeal to British runners who may have old Skis, even broken ones to throw away, to offer them to the local branch of the Swiss Ski Club as there is an organization which mends them or cuts them down for lending or giving to the school children, who are too poor to provide themselves with Skis.

When the beginner has learnt the elements of straight running and turns and begins to go off among the mountains the real interest of Ski-ing is begun, with the slow climb up in single file, first of all through woods and then out on to the open slopes. This is usually a silent game as breath is needed for the climb, and it is dull work keeping up a conversation with the back ahead. Sometimes, as one inadvertently steps on the Skis ahead, a gruff word is flung back and the trespasser is wise who stops, pretending to attend to his binding, or to look at the view—the view is usually worth looking at, too, as there is usually something to see. If it is not a distant view of the Great Alps or of the valley below, it is of trees or rocks, which, if examined carefully, usually show some sign of life. I remember being snubbed by an ardent Ski-er because I ventured to ask "What are those black birds?" "Who wants to know about birds when he is ski-ing?" was the answer. I did want to know, and I found out that they were Alpine choughs and I still want to know when I see the inhabitants of the mountains or their tracks.

Most of the wild animals use old Ski tracks as highways now, even finding it worth while to follow the zigzag of an uphill traverse. Foxes, hares and roe deer all use them, the roe deers' feet showing so much tinier than the chamois, who leaves a deep rough track as they usually run in each other's footsteps. The hare's track when running is two holes abreast and then two single ones. The fox runs rather like a dog. The squirrel hops two feet at a time, often leaving a slight ruffle on the snow as he swishes his tail. Among the cembra trees in the Engadine the snow may be sprinkled with the nuts out of the cones. They are delicious eating, being very like the Italian stone pine nut, or pinelli, and they attract the squirrels as much as they do the nutcracker bird.

Martens and pole cats leave distinct footmarks. Weasels, also, and these are easily recognized as they usually start from a hole under a bush or a rock. One day when a party of us were silently traversing a slope above Muerren a tiny brown ball came rolling down, which, when picked up, proved to be the warm dead body of a mouse. Looking up we saw a weasel peering out of his hole anxious as to the fate of his dinner. A mouse's track also usually starts from a tiny hole and the two feet go abreast, while the tail leaves a line all the way.

We nearly always see chamois and roe deer when ski-ing in the woods at Pontresina as it is a protected area and they are not shot and therefore become very tame. The chamois are driven down into the woods in search of the lichen which hangs like a beard from the branches of the cembra trees. On Muottas Celerina this winter we saw four chamois below us in the wood. Without a word our guide, Caspar Gras, dashed down the slope after them and very nearly caught one round the neck, as they were surprised, and knowing there was a precipice beyond the scrub below them, they could not make up their minds which way to go.

The roe deer scrape away the snow below the trees in search of alpenrose or bear berry leaves or dry blades of grass. They suffer more than the chamois after a heavy snowfall because they are not so strong and cannot scamper through it. At the beginning of this season, Klosters had a snowfall of some two metres and the roe deer were driven down to the villages where the peasants fed them in stables till the weather improved. Four were caught on the railway, having got on to the line at a crossing and being unable to spring out over the high banks of snow.

Ibex are being let loose in order to re-establish them where they were exterminated a few years ago. They can usually be seen through the telescope at Bernina Hauser above Pontresina, and also opposite Muerren. The ibex, or steinbock, is used as the Coat of Arms of the Canton of Graubuenden, and is familiar to Ski runners as the badge of the local Ski Club of Zuoz in the Engadine.

After some controversy eagles are being encouraged to increase, having been almost exterminated. We saw a beauty sailing over the Muottas Muraigl Valley one day. There is even talk of trying to get bear back, but the peasants obstruct this as they were so destructive to sheep. As a child at Davos I saw three bears brought in dead by hunters, and remember with pride, mixed with disgust, tasting a bear's paw. A peasant told me of how as a boy he looked after the village sheep near the Silvretta Glacier, and of a bear who used to come and kill a sheep and then bury it in the ice for future eating.

Ski runners shudder at the idea of meeting a bear while on a run, but they need not worry as the bears roll up and sleep through the winter so that unless the Ski-er took an unusually heavy fall into the bear's hole, he would be safe enough on the surface. Besides which it is said that a bear cannot traverse down a slope, so that the Ski-er could easily get away unless the bear rolled to the bottom, and then ran along and waited for him. As there are no bears in Switzerland now, perhaps it is waste of time to start a controversy about the best turn with which to circumvent a bear. Cows are much more dangerous. I was pursued down the village street at Pontresina by a playful cow, who had been taken to the pump to drink. She put down her head and stuck up her tail and I wasted no time in pushing away from her.

Another animal which hibernates through the winter is the marmot, and I often think of them sound asleep under the snow as I pass along the slopes of some high valley. They are said to have breathing holes, but I have never seen them, unless this was the explanation of some holes which puzzled me on the Schiltgrat above Muerren. I was traversing uphill a long way ahead of my party and noticed some isolated holes in the snow, very like Ski stick holes, but with no Ski tracks near. As I passed a grey hen flew out of one of the holes, and, looking back, I saw several black cocks and grey hens flying away. It is more likely that they had made their own holes to shelter in rather than that these were marmot holes.

Ptarmigan often greet one on the higher ridges and sometimes a capercailzie will get up with a noise which is very apt to upset one.

The choughs are persistent followers of a Ski-ing party, flying over one's head and chirruping for lunch. When at last we stop and take our nosebags out of our Rucksacks, they perch on a cliff near and wait till we move on, when they immediately fly down to see what we have left for them. I have seen a paper lunch-bag, which they were unable to tear, absolutely surrounded by a circle of their footmarks, some eight feet in diameter. How they must have worried it and each other in their endeavour to get at the contents.

At Muerren a pair of ravens also accompany the Ski-ers. They take their perch high up and watch the many luncheon parties, croaking now and then to remind us of their wish to share our slices of beef and sausage. These "packed lunches" are usually so plentiful that the choughs and the ravens get a goodly feed. The tidy Ski-er who buries all his paper and orange peel and other debris will often find next day that the whole thing has been dug up by a fox.

At many of the Alpine huts, the snow-finch has adopted the habits of the sparrow and is often so tame that he will almost take crumbs from one's hand.

Another bird I love among the Alps is the dipper or water ouzel. Ski-ing along the snow banks of the rivers, I have often watched him hop down into the water and run along the bottom picking up whatever his food is among the pebbles.

Surely most Ski runners can spare time to watch all these little people, whose rights to the snow fields are even greater than their own.

Very little vegetation shows in winter, but it is wonderful what a lot one can find if one looks carefully and it certainly makes Ski-ing more interesting to me if I can recognize the trees, plants and seeds.

A very fair estimate can be made of the different heights by noticing what grows.

Corn stops at 2,000 to 3,000 feet, though a little rye may be grown up to 5,000 feet in sunny places. Fruit trees and beech trees stop at about 4,000 feet. There is one beech tree above Davos about 5,500 feet above the sea, but it has never succeeded in topping the huge boulder which shelters it from the North. The silver fir is healthy at 4,000 feet, but is seldom found much above that level, while the spruce or fir goes up to 7,000 feet and does best there. Larches seem to thrive best at about 5,000-6,000 feet, but may be seen almost as high as the top of the Bernina Pass on the south side facing Italy. The cembra pine, like a great cedar, is the finest tree in the Alps and does best at 6,000 feet to 7,000 feet. It is also called the Arolla pine, because of the forests near that place. In the Upper Engadine almost all the forests are of cembra and there is one splendid old tree known as the "Giant Tree" near upper tree level on Muottas Celerina. Another group of veterans grows just below the Little Scheidegg on the Grindelwald side. Many of these trees are said to be 600 or 700 years old and their wood is much used for panelling in Graubuenden. It is recognized by the big dark knots. The panels are usually formed of boards reversed so that the knots form a symmetrical pattern. Larch is also used and is very red, while sycamore goes to the making of tables and chairs in the Buendner Stuebli. Good examples of the modern use of these woods may be seen in the hotels, Vereina and Silvretta, at Klosters, while the museum at Zurich contains beautiful old panelled rooms from different districts.

Creeping down steep avalanche slopes above 5,000 feet we find Pinus montana, whose long branches form a tangle in which to catch one's Ski tips. Below 5,000 feet this pine will sometimes grow almost upright but never attains much height. Alder may also be a trap for Skis on an avalanche slope where it creeps downhill and provides a very slippery surface for the snow. I remember shooting down such a slope about 100 feet when the snow slipped with me in a safe place.

Along the rivers the alder grows into quite a fine tree, and if its catkins be picked at Christmas and are brought into the warm house, they soon blossom out and spread their green pollen over everything. Rather a nice way of bringing a reminder of Spring into one's Winter holiday.

Birch and mountain ash grow happily up to 6,000 feet on sheltered slopes but after 6,000 feet there are no deciduous trees, except the tiny creeping willows buried deep under the snow.

Juniper is the most ubiquitous shrub to be found, it seems to me. You get its various types at sea level in Italy and on the top of mountains up to 8,000 feet when it pokes up through the snow beside the Alpine Rose or Rhododendron ferrugineum.

On the top of ridges when the snow is blown away, all sorts of treasures may be recognized. The creeping azalea with its wee evergreen leaves, which no one, thinking of the garden azaleas at home, would recognize as belonging to the same family. Little primulas and saxifrages sheltering in cracks in the rocks, with nothing but bunches of brown leaves to show them up. Polygula Chamaebuxis or Bastard Box almost always in flower on a sunny patch even in midwinter. On the lower slopes, gentians or anemone plants with their buds waiting to open when the soft wind or rain of Spring calls to them. Erica carnea with its whitish buds waiting for Spring to colour them, one of the earliest of the flowers. Or the seeds of Gentiana lutea or asclepedia or purpurea and of Aconite or Monkshood on their strong stems standing high above the snow.

One winter when at 4,000 feet we had no snow at Christmas, we went flower hunting instead of Ski-ing, and found thirty different sorts of flowers out. But this was exceptional and by no means satisfying to the Ski runner, who has come out for the sport he loves and not on botany intent.

Later, when the snow begins to melt on South slopes in March, the mass of purple and white crocuses open to the sun; nothing in the whole world can equal the mass of these crocuses. They push up as the miracle of Spring, impatiently thrusting through the snow, melting holes for themselves. The soldanellas do the same, but not till late in March, and with them come gentians and the whole glory of the Alpine Spring has begun. By this time the Ski-er has to oil and put away his Skis or climb to the glaciers and higher snow fields. A wonderful experience alternating between Spring and Winter as he changes his levels.



SUMMER SKI-ING

The only experience of Summer Ski-ing which I have had is on the Jungfrau Joch, about 11,900 feet above the sea.

The Berner Oberland and Jungfrau Railways carry one up from Interlaken to the Joch where there is an excellent new hotel, offering every possible comfort.

Good Ski-ing can be had on the glaciers and I am surprised that more people do not come out for practice during the Summer.

The two great draw-backs to this Ski-ing are, firstly, the expense and, secondly, the difficulty of breathing. The expense is unavoidable because the carriage of building materials, food, etc. to such a height must necessarily entail high prices. Glacier Ski-ing, except on the snow-field near the Joch, also usually necessitates the employment of Guides. But these snow-fields are so extensive and so safe that a week could be spent in practising without a Guide.

After the first night on the Joch the feeling of breathlessness is reduced, and so long as all climbing is done slowly no bad effects need be expected by people in good health and condition. The Jungfrau Joch can be reached from London in twenty-six hours, and keen runners could enjoy a week or a fortnight of amusing Ski-ing on snow which lends itself particularly well to the practice of all turns.

The Jungfrau Joch branch of the Swiss Ski Club holds an annual meet on the Joch in the month of July, which is well attended by Runners and Jumpers from all parts of Switzerland.

First-Class Guides and Ski Instructors can be found at the Joch.

People who would prefer not to sleep at so great a height could stay at the Scheidegg or Eiger Gletscher, at both of which places hotels exist.

In view of the shortness of Winter holidays, it seems a pity that more enthusiasts do not profit by the chance of practising which the Jungfrau Joch Railway offers in Summer time. I have twice spent two days up there and have enjoyed them immensely. The snow was very different to anything I ever met in Winter, but also very easy and filled me with confidence. In July and August the crevasses show clearly and need not inspire anxiety in anyone, except after a new fall of snow, which may hide the smaller ones temporarily again.

There must be several square miles of perfectly safe Ski-ing on the glaciers behind the Joch, which provide Nursery slopes just as good as anything found in Winter. The gradients vary, but it is easy to find stretches of 10 deg. to 30 deg. unbroken by crevasses.

Anyone coming out to ski on the glaciers in Summer time should bring with them their own Skis or arrange to hire these at some Winter Sports centre in the valleys. They should also be provided with all the Ski-ing equipment they may need. A few pairs of Skis are kept for hiring purposes on the Jungfrau Joch, but they are not very good ones and it would be better not to depend on them.



REGULATIONS OF THE BRITISH SKI TESTS

AS APPROVED BY

THE FEDERAL COUNCIL OF BRITISH SKI CLUBS. 1923.



GENERAL REGULATIONS.

1. The British Standard Ski Tests have been drawn up by the Federal Council of British Ski Clubs, hereinafter referred to as "The Council." The Council represents the following clubs, which are named in the order of their foundation: The Davos Ski Club, the Ski Club of Great Britain, the Alpine Ski Club, the British Ski Association, and the Ladies' Ski Club.