Cabs, Cars, and Carriages.—The hackney carriages, or four-wheelers, of this town, have the credit of being superior to those used in London, though the hansoms (notwithstanding their being the inventions of one who should rank almost as a local worthy—the architect of our Town Hall) are not up to the mark. Prior to 1820 there were no regular stands for vehicles plying for hire, those in New Street, Bull Street, and Colmore Row being laid in that year, the first cabman's license being dated June 11. The first "Cabman's Rest" was opened in Ratcliffe Place, June 13, 1872, the cost (L65) being gathered by the cabman's friend, the Rev. Micarah Hill, who also, in 1875, helped them to start an association for mutual assistance in cases of sickness or death. There are sixteen of these "shelters" in the town, the cabmen subscribing about L200 yearly towards expenses. As a rule, the Birmingham cabmen are a civil and obliging body of men, though now and then a little sharp practice may occur, as in the instance of the stranger who, arriving in New Street Station one evening last summer, desired to be taken to the Queen's Hotel. His luggage being properly secured, and himself safely ensconced, Mr. Cabby cooly took the rug from his horse's back, mounted his seat and walked the animal through the gates back to the building the stranger had just left, depositing his fare, and as calmly holding out his hand for the customary shilling as if he had driven the full distance of a mile and a half. The fares laid down by the bye-laws as proper to be charged within the Borough, and within five miles from the statue in Stephenson Place, in the Borough, are as follows:—

By time, the driver driving at a rate not less than five miles per hour, if so required:—

s. d. For every carriage constructed to carry four persons, for the first hour, or part of hour .. .. 3 0 For every additional 15 minutes, or part of 15 minutes. .. .. 0 2 For every carriage constructed to carry two persons, for the first hour, or part of hour .. .. 2 6 For every additional 15 minutes, or part of 15 minutes.. .. .. 0 6 Any person hiring any carriage otherwise than by time is entitled to detain the same five minutes without extra charge, but for every 15 minutes, or part thereof, over the first five minutes, the hirer must pay .. .. .. 0 6 By distance:— Cabs or Cars to carry 2 persons not exceeding 1-1/2 miles .. .. 1 0 Per 1/2 mile after .. .. .. 0 4 One horse vehicles to carry 4 persons, not exceeding 1 mile .. 1 0 For any further distance, per 1/2 mile after .. .. .. .. .. .. 0 6 Cars or Carriages with 2 horses, to carry 4 persons, not exceeding 1 mile .. .. .. .. .. .. 1 9 Per 1/2 mile after .. .. .. 0 9 Double Fares shall be allowed and paid for every fare, or so much of any fare as may be performed by any carriage after 12 o'clock at night, and before 6 in the morning.

Calthorpe Park, Pershore road, has an area of 3la. 1r. 13p., and was given to the town in 1857 by Lord Calthorpe. Though never legally conveyed to the Corporation, the Park is held under a grant from the Calthorpe family, the effect of which is equivalent to a conveyance in fee. The Duke of Cambridge performed the opening ceremony in this our first public park.

Calthorpe Road was laid out for building in the year 1818, and the fact is worthy of note as being the commencement of our local West End.

Calico, Cotton, and Cloth.—In 1702 the printing or wearing of printed calicoes was prohibited, and more strictly so in 1721, when cloth buttons and buttonholes were also forbidden. Fifty years after, the requisites for manufacturing cotton or cotton cloth were now allowed to be exported, and in 1785 a duty was imposed on all cotton goods brought into the Kingdom. Strange as it may now appear, there was once a "cotton-spinning mill" in Birmingham. The first thread of cotton ever spun by rollers was produced in a small house near Sutton Coldfield as early as the year 1700, and in 1741 the inventor, John Wyatt, had a mill in the Upper Priory, where his machine, containing fifty rollers, was turned by two donkeys walking round an axis, like a horse in a modern clay mill. The manufacture, however, did not succeed in this town, though carried on more or less till the close of the century, Paul's machine being advertised for sale April 29, 1795. The Friends' schoolroom now covers the site of the cotton mill.

Canals.—The first Act for the construction of the "cut" or canal in connection with Birmingham was passed in 1761, that to Bilston being commenced in 1767. The delivery here of the first boat-load of coals (Nov. 6, 1769) was hailed, and rightly so, as one of the greatest blessings that could be conferred on the town, the immediate effect being a reduction in the price to 6d per cwt, which in the following May came down to 4d. The cutting of the first sod towards making the Grand Junction Canal took place July 26, 1766, and it was completed in 1790. In 1768 Briudley, the celebrated engineer, planned out the Birmingham and Wolverhampton Canal, proposing to make it 22 miles long; but he did not live to see it finished. The work was taken up by Smeaton and Telford; the latter of whom calling it "a crooked ditch" struck out a straight cut, reducing the length to 14 miles, increasing the width to 40 feet, the bridges having each a span of 52 feet. The "Summit" bridge was finished in 1879. The Fazeley Canal was completed in 1783, and so successfully was it worked that in nine years the shares were at a premium of L1170. In 1785 the Birmingham, the Fazeley, and the Grand Junction Companies took up and completed an extension to Coventry. The Birmingham and Worcester Canal was commenced in 1,791, the cost being a little over L600,000, and it was opened for through traffic July 21, 1815. By an agreement of September 18, 1873, this canal was sold to the Gloucester and Berkeley Canal Co. (otherwise the Sharpness Dock Co.), and has thus lost its distinctive local name. The Birmingham and Warwick commenced in 1793; was finished in 1800. Communication with Liverpool by water was complete in 1826, the carriage of goods thereto which had previously cost L5 per ton, being reduced to 30s. For a through cut to London, a company was started in May, 1836, with a nominal capital of L3,000,000, in L100 shares, and the first cargoes were despatched in August, 1840. In April, 1840, an Act was passed to unite the Wyrley and Essington Canal Co. with the Birmingham Canal Co., leading to the extension, at a cost of over L120,000, of the canal system to the lower side of the town. There are 2,800 miles of canals in England, and about 300 miles in Ireland. The total length of what may properly be called Birmingham canals is about 130 miles, but if the branches in the "Black Country" be added thereto, it will reach to near 250 miles. The first iron boat made its appearance on canal waters July 24, 1787; the first propelled by steam arrived here from London, September 29, 1826. The adaptation of steam power to general canal traffic, however, was not carried to any great extent, on account of the injury caused to the banks by the "wash" from the paddles and screws, though, when railways were first talked about, the possibility of an inland steam navigation was much canvassed. When the Bill for the London and Birmingham Railway was before Parliament, in 1833, some enterprising carriers started (on Midsummer-day) an opposition in the shape of a stage-boat, to run daily and do the distance, with goods and passengers, in 16 hours. The Birmingham and Liverpool Canal Company introduced steam tugs in 1843. On Saturday, November 11, they despatched 16 boats, with an aggregate load of 380 tons, to Liverpool, drawn by one small vessel of 16-horse power, other engines taking up the "train" at different parts of the voyage. Mr. Inshaw, in 1853, built a steamboat for canals with a screw on each side of the rudder. It was made to draw four boats with 40 tons of coal in each at two and a half miles per hour, and the twin screws were to negative the surge, but the iron horses of the rail soon put down, not only all such weak attempts at competition, but almost the whole canal traffic itself, so far as general merchandise and carriage of light goods and parcels was concerned. "Flyboats" for passengers at one time ran a close race with the coaches and omnibuses between here, Wolverhampton, and other places, but they are old people now who can recollect travelling in that manner in their youth.

Canal Accidents.—The banks of the Birmingham and Worcester Canal, near Wheeley's Road, gave way on May 26, 1872, causing considerable damage to the properties near at hand. A similar occurrence took place at Aston, July 20, 1875; and a third happened at Solihull Lodge Valley, October 27, 1880, when about 80ft. of an embankment 30-ft. high collapsed.

Canal Reservoir, better known as "The Reservoir," near Monument Lane, a popular place of resort, covers an area of 62A. 1R. 5P., and is three-quarters of a mile long. Visitors and others fond of boating can be accommodated here to their heart's content.

Cannon.—The first appearance of these instruments of destruction in connection with the English army was in the time of Edward III. in his wars with the Scotch and the French, the first great battle of historical note in which they were used being that of Cressy, in 1346. The manufacture of "small arms," as they are called, has been anything but a small feature in the trade history of our past, but cannon-founding does not appear to have been much carried on, though a local newspaper of 1836 mentioned that several 250 and 300-pounder guns were sent from here in that year for the fortifications on the Dardanelles.

Cannon Hill Park covers an area of 57a. 1r. 9p., and was presented to the town by Miss Ryland, the deed of conveyance bearing date April 18th, 1873. The nearest route to this Park is by way of Pershore Road and Edgbaston Lane, omnibuses going that way every half-hour.

Caps.—The inventor of percussion caps is not known, but we read of them as being made here as early as 1816, though they were not introduced into "the service" until 1839. The manufacture of these articles has several times led to great loss of life among the workers, notes of which will be found under the head of "Explosions." See also "Trades."

Carlyle.—The celebrated philosopher, Thomas Carlyle, resided here for a short time in 1824; and his notes about Birmingham cannot but be worth preserving. Writing to his brother John under date Aug. 10, he says:—

"Birmingham I have now tried for a reasonable time, and I cannot complain of being tired of it. As a town it is pitiful enough—a mean congeries of bricks, including one or two large capitalists, some hundreds of minor ones, and, perhaps, a hundred and twenty thousand sooty artisans in metals and chemical produce. The streets are ill-built, ill-paved, always flimsy in their aspect—often poor, sometimes miserable. Not above one or two of them are paved with flagstones at the sides; and to walk upon the little egg-shaped, slippery flints that supply their places is something like a penance. Yet withal it is interesting for some of the commons or lanes that spot and intersect the green, woody, undulating environs to view this city of Tubal Cain. Torrents of thick smoke, with ever and anon a burst of dingy flame, are issuing from a thousand funnels. 'A thousand hammers fall by turns.' You hear the clank of innumerable steam engines, the rumbling of cars and vans, and the hum of men interrupted by the sharper rattle of some canal boat loading or disloading, or, perhaps, some fierce explosion when the cannon founders [qy: the proof-house] are proving their new-made ware. I have seen their rolling-mills, their polishing of teapots, and buttons and gun-barrels, and lire-shovels, and swords, and all manner of toys and tackle. I have looked into their ironworks where 150,000 men are smelting the metal in a district a few miles to the north: their coal mines, fit image, of Arvenus; their tubes and vats, as large as country churches, full of copperas and aqua fortis and oil of vitroil; and the whole is not without its attractions, as well as repulsions, of which, when we meet, I will preach to you at large."

Carr's Lane.—Originally this is believed to have been known as "Goddes Cart Lane," and was sufficiently steep to be dangerous, as evidenced by accidents noted in past history.

Carr's Lane Chapel, the meeting house of the old Independents, or as they are now called, the Congregationalists, will be noticed under "Places of Worship."

Cartoons.—If some of our fore-fathers could but glance at the illustrations or the portait caricatures of local public men and their doings, now given us almost daily, we fear they would not credit us moderns with much advancement in the way of political politeness, however forward we may be in other respects. Many really good cartoons have appeared, and neither side can be said to hold a monopoly of such sketchy skilfulness, but one of the best (because most truthful) was the cartoon issued in October 1868, giving the portrait of a "Vote-as-you're-told" electer, led by the nose by his Daily Post.

Castle.—Birmingham Castle is named in an ancient document as being situated a "bowshot southwestward of the church," but the exact site thereof has never been traced. It is supposed to have been erected about the year 1140, and to have been demolished by order of King Stephen, in 1176.

Castle Street takes its name from the hostlery once so famous among our coach officers.

Catacombs.—There is a large number of massively-built stone vaults underneath Christ Church, each divided into tiers of catacombs, or receptacles for the dead. It is in one of these that the remains of Baskerville at last found a resting place.—The catacombs at the General Cemetery are many, being cut out of the sandstone rock known as Key Hill, and a large number have been and can be excavated underneath the church in the Warstone Lane Cemetery.

Cathedral.—See "Places of Warship—Catholic."

Cat Shows.—The first Cat Show held here was opened November 29th, 1873, and was a very successful speculation; but the exhibitions of the two following years did not pay and since then the grimalkins have been left at home.

Cattle Show.—As first started (in 1849, when it was held near Kent Street), and at Bingley Hall in the following year, this was an annual show of cattle, sheep, and pigs only, but after years has made it a gathering place for specimens, of nearly everything required on a farm, and the "Show" has become an "Exhibition," under which heading full notice will be found.

Cemeteries.—The burial grounds attached to the Churches were formerly the only places of interment save for suicides and murderers—the former of whom were buried at some cross-road, with a stake driven through the body, while the latter were frequently hung in chains and got no burial at all. In 1807 the first addendum to our churchyards was made by the purchase of 13,192 square yards of land in Park Street, which cost L1,600. Having been laid out and enclosed with substantial railed walls at a further outlay of L764, the ground was duly consecrated July 16, 1813, and for some years was the chief receptacle for decaying humanity of all classes, many thousands of whom were there deposited. By degrees the ground came to be looked upon as only fit for the poorest of the poor, until, after being divided by the railway, this "God's Acre" was cared fir by none, and was well called the "black spot" of the town. Since the passing of the Closed Burial Grounds Bill (March 18, 1878) the Corporations have taken possession, and at considerable expense have re-walled the enclosure and laid it out as a place of health resort for the children of the neighbourhood. The burial grounds of St. Bartholomew's, St. Martin's, St. Mary's, and St. George's have also been carefully and tastefully improved in appearance, and we can now venture to look at most of our churchyards without shame.

The General Cemetery at Key Hill was originated at a meeting held Oct. 18, 1832, when a proprietary Company was formed, and a capital fixed at L12,000, in shares of L10 each. The total area of the property is about twelve acres, eight of which are laid out for general burials, in a edition to the catacombs cut into the sandstone rock.

The Church of England Cemetery in Warstone Lane is also the property of a private Company, having a capital of L20,000 in L10 shares. The area is nearly fifteen acres, the whole of which was consecrated as a burial ground for the Church on August 20, 1848.

The Catholic Cemetery of St. Joseph, at Nechell's Green, received its first consignment in 1850.

The introduction and extension of railways have played sad havoc with a number of the old burial grounds belonging to our forefathers. As mentioned above the London and North Western took a slice out of Park Street Cemetery. The Great Western cleared the Quakers' burial ground in Monmouth Street (where the Arcade now stands) the remains of the departed Friends being removed to their chapel yard in Bull Street, and a curious tale has been told in connection therewith. It is said that the representative of the Society of Friends was a proper man of business, as, indeed, most of them are, and that he drove rather a hard bargain with the railway directors, who at last were obliged to give in to what they considered to be an exorbitant demand for such a small bit of freehold. The agreement was made and the contract signed, and Friend Broadbrim went on his way rejoicing; but not for long. In selling the land he apparently forgot that the land contained bones, for when the question of removing the dead was mooted, the Quaker found he had to pay back a goodly portion of the purchase money before he obtained permission to do so. In clearing the old streets away to make room for New Street Station, in 1846, the London and North Western found a small Jewish Cemetery in what was then known as the "Froggery," but which had long been disused. The descendants of Israel carefully gathered the bones and reinterred them in their later-dated cemetery in Granville Street, but even here they did not find their last resting-place, for when, a few years back, the Midland made the West Suburban line, it became necessary to clear out this ground also, and the much-disturbed remains of the poor Hebrews were removed to Witton. The third and last of the Jewish Cemeteries, that in Betholom Row, which was first used in or about 1825, and has long been full, is also doomed to make way for the extension of the same line.—During the year 1883 the time-honoured old Meeting-house yard, where Poet Freeth, and many another local worthy, were laid to rest, has been carted off—dust and ashes, tombs and tombstones—to the great graveyard at Witton, where Christian and Infidel, Jew and Gentile, it is to be hoped, will be left at peace till the end of the world.

In 1860, the Corporation purchased 105 acres of land at Witton for the Borough Cemetery. The foundation stones of two chapels were laid August 12, 1861, and the Cemetery was opened May 27, 1863, the total cost being nearly L40,000. Of the 105 acres, 53 are consecrated to the use of the Church of England, 35 laid out for Dissenters, and 14 set aside for Catholics and Jews.

Census.—The numbering of the people by a regular and systematic plan once in every ten years, only came into operation in 1801, and the most interesting returns, as connected with this town and its immediate neighbourhood, will be found under the heading of "Population."

Centre of Birmingham.—As defined by the authorities for the settlement of any question of distance, Attwood's statue at the top of Stephenson Place, in New Street, is reckoned as the central spot of the borough. In olden days, Nelson's monument, and prior to that, the Old Cross, in the Bull Ring, was taken as the centre. As an absolute matter of fact, so far as the irregular shape of the borough area will allow of such a measurement being made, the central spot is covered by Messrs. Harris and Norton's warehouse in Corporation Street.

Centenarians.—John Harman, better known as Bishop Vesey, died in 1555, in his 103rd year. James Sands, who died at Harborne in 1625, was said to have been 140 years old, and his wife lived to be 120. Joseph Stanley, of Aston, died in May, 1761, in his 106th year. Wesley, under date of March 19, 1768, wrote of having seen George Bridgens, then in his 107th year; Hutton, in noticing the long life of Bridgens, also mentions one John Pitt who lived to be 100, a Mrs. Moore who reached 104, and an old market man who completed his 107th year. A Mr. Clarkson died here, in February, 1733, aged 112. William Jennens, the Jennens of untold, but much coveted, wealth, died in June, 1798, aged 103. John Roberts, of Digbeth, had a family of twenty-eight children, six by his third wife, whom he married when nearly eighty, and lived to see his 103rd year, in 1792, dying July 6. Thomas Taylor, a cobbler, stuck to his last until a week of his death, July 8, 1796, at 103. T. Blakemore died November 12, 1837, aged 105. Mrs. E. Bailey, founder of the Female Charity School, was also 105 at her death, December 2, 1854. Another old lady was Elizabeth Taylor, who died at Sparkbrook, March 5, 1864, aged 104 years. Mary Hemming, of Moseley Wake Green, died December 5, 1881, in her 104th year.

Centenary Celebrations, more or less worthy of note, are continuously recurring, and the date of some few are here preserved. Our loyal grandfathers honoured the hundredth, anniversary of the Revolution of 1688, by a public dinner, November 4, 1788. Old Bluecoat boys in like manner kept the centenary of their school, August 24, 1824. Admirers of the Philosopher Priestley chose All Fools' Day, 1831, as the fitting day to celebrate the anniversary of his birth. The Centenary of the Protestant Dissenting Charity Schools was worthily celebrated by the raising of a special sum amounting to L1,305, as an addition to the funds. In January, 1859, Robert Burns' anniversary was remembered by the holding a supper in Aston Hall, at which only half-a-dozen Scotchmen were present out of half-a-hundred guests. The Dissenting Ministers of this and the neighbouring counties, who, for a hundred years, have met together once a month, celebrated the event by a quiet luncheon-dinner, December 13, 1882. The Tercentenary of the Free Grammar School was celebrated with learned speeches April 16, 1852; that of Good Queen Bess, by a public prayer meeting, November 16, 1858; and that of Shakespeare, April 23, 1864, by the founding of a Shakespeare Memorial Library. The thousandth anniversary of Alfred the Great, October 29, 1849, was made much of by the Political Knowledge Association, which had not been in existence it thousand days. The fact of John Bright being M.P. for Birmingham for a quarter of a century, was celebrated in June, 1883, by the Liberal Association, who got up a "monster" procession in imitation of the celebrated Attwood procession of the old days of Reform. The holiday was most thoroughly enjoyed by the public generally, and immense numbers of people thronged the streets to hear the bands and see what was to be seen.

Chamberlain Memorial.—See "Statues," &c.

Chamber of Commerce.—In 1783 there was a "Standing General Commercial Committee," composed of the leading merchants and Manufacturers, who undertook the duty of looking after the public interests of the town (not forgetting their own peculiarly private ditto). That they were not so Liberal as their compeers of to-day may be gathered from the fact of their strongly opposing the exportation of brass, and on no account permitting a workman to go abroad.

Chamber of Manufacturers.—When Pitt, in 1784, proposed to tax coal, iron, copper, and other raw materials, he encountered a strong opposition from the manufacturers, prominent among whom were Boulton (Soho), Wilkinson (Bradley), and Wedgwood (Potteries), who formed a "Chamber," the first meeting of which was held here in February, 1785. The Minister was induced to alter his mind.

Chandeliers.—Many beautiful works of art have been manufactured in this town, which, though the wonder and admiration of strangers, receive but faint notice here, and find no record except in the newspaper of the day or a work like the present. Among such may be ranked the superb brass chandelier which Mr. R.W. Winfield sent to Osborne in 1853 for Her Majesty, the Queen. Designed in the Italian style, this fine specimen of the brassworkers' skill, relieved by burnishing and light matted work, ornamented with figures of Peace, Plenty, and Love in purest Parian, masks of female faces typical of night, and otherwise decorated in the richest manner, was declared by the late Prince Consort as the finest work he had ever seen made in this country and worthy to rank with that of the masters of old. Not so fortunate was Mr. Collis with the "Clarence chandelier" and sideboard he exhibited at the Exhibition of 1862. Originally made of the richest ruby cut and gilded glass for William IV., it was not finished before that monarch's death, and was left on the maker's hand. Its cost was nearly L1,000, but at the final sale of Mr. Collis's effects in Dec. 1881 it was sold for L5.

Chapels and Churches.—See "Places of Worship."

Charity.—Charitable collections were made in this neighbourhood in 1655, for the Redmontese Protestants, Birmingham giving L15 11s. 2d., Sutton Coldfield L14, and Aston L4 14s. 2d. On the 6th of June, 1690, L13 18s. 1-1/2d. were collected at St. Martin's "for ye Irish Protestants." In 1764 some Christmas performances were given for the relief of aged and distressed housekeepers, and the charitable custom thus inaugurated was kept up for over seventy years. In the days of monks and monasteries, the poor and needy, the halt and lame, received charitable doles at the hands of the former and at the gates of the latter, but it would be questionable how far the liberality of the parsons, priests, and preachers of the present day would go were the same system now in vogue. It has been estimated that nearly L5,000 is given every year in what may be called the indiscriminate charity of giving alms to those who ask it in the streets or from door to door. By far the largest portion of this amount goes into the hands of the undeserving and the worthless, and the formation of a central relief office, into which the charitably-disposed may hand in their contributions, and from whence the really poor and deserving may receive help in times of distress, has been a long felt want. In 1869 a "Charity Organisation Society" was established here, and it is still in existence, but it does not appear to meet with that recognised support which such an institution as suggested requires. In 1882 a special fund was started for the purpose of giving aid to women left with children, and about L380 was subscribed thereto, while the ordinary income was only L680. The special fund can hardly be said as yet to have got into working order, but when the cost of proving the property of the recipients, with the necessary expenses of office rent, salaries, &c., have been deducted from the ordinary income, the amount left to be distributed among the persons deemed by the officials deserving of assistance is small indeed, the expenses reaching about L330 per year. In 1880 it cost L329 18s. 4d. to give away food, cash, and clothing, &c., valued at L386 16s. 6d., an apparent anomally which would not be so glaring if the kind-hearted and charitable would only increase the income of the Society, or re-organise it upon a wider basis.—For statistics of poverty and the poor see "Pauperism" and "Poor Rates."

Charitable Trusts.—See "Philanthropical Institutions," &c.

Chartism.—Following the great Reform movement of 1832, in which Birmingham led the van, came years of bad harvests, bad trade, and bitter distress. The great Chartist movement, though not supported by the leaders of the local Liberal party, was taken up with a warmth almost unequalled in any other town in the Kingdom, meetings being held daily and nightly for months in succession, Feargus O'Connor, Henry Vincent, and many other "orators of the fiery tongue," taking part. On the 13th of August, 1838, a monstre demonstration took place on Holloway Head, at which it was reckoned there were over 100,000 persons present, and a petition in favour of "The Charter" was adopted that received the signatures of 95,000 people in a few days. The Chartist "National Convention" met here May 13, 1839, and noisy assemblages almost daily affrighted the respectable townsmen out of their propriety. It was advised that the people should abstain from all exciseable articles, and "run for gold" upon the savings banks—very good advice when given by Attwood in 1832, but shockingly wicked in 1839 when given to people who could have had but little in the savings or any other banks. This, and the meetings which ensued, so alarmed the magistrates for the safety of property that, in addition to swearing in hundreds of special constables, they sent to London for a body of police. These arrived on July 4, and unfortunately at the time a stormy meeting was being held in the Bull Ring, which they were at once set to disperse, a work soon accomplished by the free use they made of their staves. The indignant Brums, however, soon rallied and drove the police into the Station, several being wounded on either side. The latent fury thus engendered burst out in full force on the 15th when the notorious Chartist Riots commenced, but the scenes then enacted, disgraceful as they were, may well be left in oblivion, especially as the best of "the points" of the Charter are now part of the laws of the land. Besides many others who were punished more or less, two of the leaders, Wm. Lovett and John Collins, were sentenced to one year's imprisonment for a seditious libel in saying that "the people of Birmingham were the best judges of their own rights to meet in the Bull Ring, and the best judges of their own power and resources to obtain justice." On the 27th July, 1849, Lovett and Collins were accorded a public welcome on their release from prison, being met at the Angel by a crowd of vehicles, bands of music, &c., and a procession (said to have numbered nearly 30,000), accompanied them to Gosta Green where speeches were delivered; a dinner, at which 800 persons sat down, following on the site of "The People's Hall of Science," in Loveday Street. In 1841, Joseph Sturge gave in his adhesion to some movement for the extension of the franchise to the working classes, and at his suggestion a meeting was held at the Waterloo Rooms (Feb. 25th, 1842), and a memorial to the Queen drawn up, which in less than a month received 16,000 signatures. On the 5th of April, 87 delegates from various parts of England, Ireland, and Scotland, assembled here, and after four days' sitting formed themselves into "The National Complete Suffrage Union," whose "points" were similar to those of the Charter, viz., manhood suffrage, abolition of the property qualification, vote by ballot, equal electoral districts, payment of election expenses and of members, and annual Parliaments. On the 27th of December, another Conference was held (at the Mechanics' Institute), at which nearly 400 delegates were present, but the apple of discord had been introduced, and the "Complete Suffrage Union" was pooh-poohed by the advocates of "the Charter, the whole Charter, and nothing but the Charter," and our peace-loving townsman, whom The Times had dubbed "the Birmingham Quaker Chartist," retired from the scene. From that time until the final collapse of the Chartist movement, notwithstanding many meetings were held, and strong language often used, Birmingham cannot be said to have taken much part in it, though, in 1848 (August 15th), George J. Mantle, George White, and Edward King, three local worthies in the cause, found themselves in custody for using seditious language.

Chauntries.—In 1330 Walter of Clodeshale, and in 1347 Richard of Clodeshale, the "Lords of Saltley," founded and endowed each a Chauntry in old St. Martin's Church, wherein daily services should be performed for themselves, their wives, and ancestors, in their passage through purgatory. In like manner, in 1357, Philip de Lutteley gave to the Lutteley chantry in Enville Church, a parcel of land called Morfe Woode, "for the health of his soul, and the souls of all the maintained of the said chantry;" and in 1370 he gave other lands to the chantry, "for the priest to pray at the altar of St. Mary for the health of his soul, and Maud his wife, and of Sir Fulke de Birmingham," and of other benefactors recited in the deed. It is to be devoutly hoped that the souls of the devisees and their friends had arrived safely at their journeys' end before Harry the Eighth's time, for he stopped the prayers by stopping the supplies.

Cherry Street took its name from the large and fruitful cherry orchard which we read of as being a favourite spot about the year 1794.

Chess.—See "Sports and Sporting."

Chicago Fire.—The sum of L4,300 was subscribed and sent from here towards relieving the sufferers by this calamity.

Children.—A society known as "The Neglected Children's Aid Society," was founded in 1862, by Mr. Arthur Ryland, for the purpose of looking after and taking care of children under fourteen found wandering or begging, homeless or without proper guardianship. It was the means of rescuing hundreds from the paths of dishonesty and wretchedness, but as its work was in a great measure taken up by the School Board, the society was dissolved Dec. 17, 1877. Mr. Thos. Middlemore, in 1872, pitying the condition of the unfortunate waifs and strays known as "Street Arabs," took a house in St. Luke's Road for boys, and one in Spring Road for girls, and here he has trained nearly a thousand poor children in ways of cleanliness and good behaviour prior to taking the larger part of them to Canada. A somewhat similar work, though on a smaller scale, is being carried on by Mr. D. Smith, in connection with the mission attached to the Bloomsbury Institution. In both instances the children are found good homes, and placed with worthy people on their arrival in Canada, and, with scarcely an exception all are doing well. The total cost per head while at the Homes and including the passage money is about L16, and subscriptions will be welcomed, so that the work of the Institutions may be extended as much as possible.

Chimes.—The earliest note we can find respecting the chimes in the tower of St. Martin's is in a record dated 1552, which states there were "iiij belles, with a clocke, and a chyme."

Chimnies.—Like all manufacturing towns Birmingham is pretty well ornamented with tall chimnies, whose foul mouths belch forth clouds of sooty blackness, but the loftiest and most substantial belongs to the town itself. At the Corporation Wharf in Montague Street the "stack" is 258 feet in height, with a base 54 feet in circumference, and an inside diameter of 12 feet. About 250,000 bricks were used in its construction, which was completed in September, 1879.—Householders of an economical turn must remember it is not always the cheapest plan to clean their chimnies by "burning them out," for in addition to the danger and risk of damage by so doing, the authorities of Moor Street have the peculiar custom of imposing a penalty (generally 10s.) when such cases are brought before them. Should such an event occur by mischance keep all doors and windows shut, and do not admit the sweeps who may come knocking at your door, unless fully prepared with the half-crowns they require as bribes not to tell the police. As a rule it is cheaper to trust to "Robert" not seeing it.

China Temple Field was a noted place for amusements about the year 1820, and was situate where Cattell Road is now. Originally it formed part of the grounds of Bordesley Hall, which was wrecked in the riots of 1791.

Choral Society.—This Society held its first Choral Concert, August 2, 1836. The Festival Choral Society was established in 1845.

Cholera.—This dreadful epidemic has never yet been felt in severity in this town, though several fatal cases were reported in August, 1832. In July, 1865, great alarm was caused by the fact of 243 inmates of the Workhouse being attacked with choleraic symptoms, but they all recovered.

Church Pastoral Aid Society.—There is a local branch of this Society here, and about L1,300 per annum is gathered in and forwarded to the parent society, who in return grant sums in aid of the stipends of thirty Curates and as many Scripture readers, amounting to nearly L4,700 per year.

Churchrates.—Prior to 1831, Churchrates had been regularly levied, and, to a great extent, cheerfully paid, but with the other reforms of that Reforming age came the desire to re-form this impost, by doing away with it altogether, and at a meeting held on August 7, 1832, the ratepayers assembled not only denounced it, but petitioned Parliament for its entire abolition. Between that year and 1837, Churchrates of 6d. to 9d. in the L were not at all infrequent, but in the latter year there was a sweet little row, which led to an alteration. At a vestry meeting held March 28, the redoubtable George Frederick Muntz, with George Edmonds, and other "advanced" men of the times, demanded a personal examination of the books, &c., &c., with the result doubtless anticipated and wished for—a general shindy, free fight, and tumult. For his share in the riot, G.F.M. was put on his trial in the following year (March 30 to April 1) and had to pay over L2,000 in the shape of costs, but he may be said to have won something after all, for a better feeling gradually took the place of rancour, and a system of "voluntary" rates—notably one for the rebuilding of St. Martin's—was happily brought to work. The Bill for the abolition of Churchrates was passed July 13, 1868.

Church Street.—In 1764 at Warwick a legal battle was fought as to a right of way through the New Hall Park, the path in dispute being the site of the present Church Street.

Circuses.—The first notice we have of any circus visiting Birmingham is that of Astley's which came here October 7, 1787. In 1815 Messrs. Adams gave performances in a "new equestrian circus on the Moat," and it has interest in the fact that this was the first appearance locally of Mr. Ryan, a young Irishman, then described as "indisputably the first tight-rope dancer in the world of his age." Mr. Ryan, a few years later, started a circus on his own account, and after a few years of tent performances, which put money in his pocket, ventured on the speculation of building a permanent structure in Bradford-street, opening his "New Grand Arena" there in 1827. Unfortunately, this proved a failure, and poor Ryan went to the wall. The circus (known now as the Circus Chapel), long lay empty, but was again re-opened May 19, 1838, as an amphitheatre, but not successfully. In 1839 the celebrated Van Amburgh, whose establishment combined the attractions of a circus and a menagerie, visited this town, and his performances were held, rather strangely, at the Theatre Royal. On the night of the Bull Ring Riots, July 15th, when there was "a full house," the startling news that a number of buildings were on fire, &c., was shouted out just at the moment that Van Amburgh was on the stage with a number of his well-trained animals. He himself was reclining on the boards, his head resting on the sides of a tawny lion, while in his arms was a beautiful child, four or five years old, playing with the ears of the animal. The intelligence naturally caused great excitement, but the performer went quietly on, hoisting the little darling to his shoulder, and putting his animals through their tricks as calmly as if nothing whatever was the matter. In 1842, Ducrow's famous troupe came, and once again opened Ryan's Circus in the Easter week, and that was the last time the building was used for the purpose it was originally erected for. Cooke's, Hengler's, Newsome's, and Sanger's periodical visits are matters of modern date. The new building erected by Mr. W.R. Inshaw, at foot of Snow Hill, for the purposes of a Concert Hall, will be adaptable as a Circus.

Climate.—From the central position in which Birmingham is situated, and its comparative elevation, the town has always been characterised as one of the healthiest in the kingdom. Dr. Priestley said the air breathed here was as pure as any he had analysed. Were he alive now and in the habit of visiting the neighbourhood of some of our rolling mills, &c., it is possible he might return a different verdict, but nevertheless the fact remains that the rates of mortality still contrast most favourably as against other large manufacturing towns.

Clocks.—One of Boulton's specialties was the manufacture of clocks, but it was one of the few branches that did not pay him. Two of his finest astronomical clocks were bought by the Empress of Russia, after being offered for sale in this country in vain. His friend, Dr. Small, is said to have invented a timepiece containing but a single wheel. The "town clocks" of the present day are only worth notice on account of their regular irregularity, and those who wish to be always "up to the time o' day," had best set their watches by the instrument placed in the wall of the Midland Institute. The dome of the Council House would be a grand position in which to place a really good clock, and if the dials were fitted with electric lights it would be useful at all hours, from near and far.

Clubs.—No place in the kingdom can record the establishment of more clubs than Birmingham, be they Friendly Clubs, Money Clubs (so-called), or the more taking Political Clubs, and it would be a hard task to name them all, or say how they flourished, or dropped and withered. In the years 1850-60 it was estimated that at publichouses and coffeehouses there were not less than 180 Money Clubs, the members paying in weekly or fortnightly subscriptions of varying amount for shares L5 to L100, and though there cannot be the slightest doubt that many of our present mastermen owe their success in life to this kind of mutual help, the spirit of gambling in money shares proved, on the whole, to be disastrous to the members who went in for good interest on their deposits. Of Friendly Clubs we shall have something to say under another beading. Respecting the Political Clubs and those of a general nature we may say that the earliest we have note of is the "Church and King Club," whose first meeting was held at the Royal Hotel, Nov. 27, 1792. Of a slightly different nature was the "Hampden Club," established in 1815, but which was closed by the suspension of the Habeas Corpus Act in 1817. During the troublous times of 1830-40, many clubs, or "smoke-room palavers," existed, but, perhaps the only one that really showed results was the Branch Club (or local agency), connected with the Land Scheme of Feargus O'Connor [see "Land Societies"], and that ultimately dwindled to naught. On July 5, 1847, a club on the plan of the London "Whittington" was started here, but when or why it ended deponent knoweth not.—The Union Clubhouse, corner of Newhall Street and Colmore Row, which cost L16,000, was built in 1868-9, being opened May 3rd of the latter year. This must be considered as the chief neutral ground in local club matters, gentlemen of all shades of politics, &c., being members. The number of members is limited to 400, with 50 "temporary" members, the entrance fee being L15 15s., and the annual subscription L7 7s.—The Town and District Club, opened at the Shakespeare Rooms, in August, 1876, also started on the non-political theory: the town members paying L3 3s per annum, and country members a guinea or guinea and half, according to their residence being within 25 or 100 miles.—A Liberal Club was founded October 16, 1873, under the auspices of Mr. Joseph Chamberlain and took possession of its present rooms in Corporation Street, January 20, 1880, pending the completion of the palatial edifice now in course of erection in Edmund Street, at the corner of Congreve Street. The "Forward Liberal Club," opened in Great Hampton Street, October 30, 1880. A "Junior Liberal Club" celebrated their establishment by a meeting in the Town Hall, November 16, 1880. The Conservatives, of course, have not been at all backward in Club matters, for there has been some institution or other of the kind connected with the party for the last hundred years. The Midland Conservative Club was started July 4, 1872, and has its head-quarters now in Waterloo-street, the old County Court buildings being remodelled for the purpose. A Junior Conservative Club opened in Castle Street, June 25, 1874; a Young Men's Conservative Club commenced July 26, 1876; the Belmont Conservative Club, July 30, 1877; and the Hampton Conservative Club, August 21st of same year. In fact, every ward in the borough, and every parish and hamlet in the suburbs now has its Conservative and Liberal Club; the workingmen having also had their turn at Club-making, the Birmingham Heath working men opening up shop, August 25, 1864; the Saltley boys in October, 1868; the St. Albanites following suit December 1, 1873; and the Ladywood men, November 30, 1878. A Club of more pretentious character, and called par excellence "The Working-man's Club," was begun July 20, 1863, but the industriously-inclined members thereof did not work together well, and allowed the affair to drop through. Backed by several would-be-thought friends of the working class, another "Working Men's Club" sprung into existence April 29, 1875, with a nominal capital of L2,500 in 10s. shares. Rooms were opened in Corn Exchange Passage on the 31st of May, and for a time all promised well. Unfortunately the half-sovereigns did not come in very fast, and the landlord, though he knew "Nap" to be a very favourite game, did not choose, to be caught napping, and therefore "took his rest" at the end of the fifth half-year, and in so doing rent the whole fabric of the club.—The Edgbaston Art Club was organised in 1878; the Chess Club in 1841; the Germania Club in 1856; the Gymnastic Club in 1866; the Dramatic Club in May, 1865; the Farmer's Club in May, 1864, the Pigeon flying Club at Quilter's in 1875, &c., &c. Club law has great attractions for the Brums—every profession and every trade hath its club, and all the "fanciers" of every sort and kind club by themselves, till their name is "Legion."

Coaches.—From its being situated as it were in the very heart of the kingdom, Birmingham, in the olden days, and it is but fifty years ago, was an important converging central-point of the great mailcoach system, and a few notes in connection therewith cannot be uninteresting. Time was when even coaching was not known, for have we not read how long it took ere the tidings of Prince Rupert's attack on our town reached London. A great fear seems to have possessed the minds of the powers that were in regard to any kind of quick transmission whatever, for in the year 1673 it was actually proposed "to suppress the public coaches that ran within fifty or sixty miles of London," and to limit all the other vehicles to a speed of "thirty miles per day in summer, and twenty-five in winter"—for what might not be dreaded from such an announcement as that "that remarkable swift travelling coach, 'The Fly,' would leave Birmingham on Mondays and reach London on the Thursdays following." Prior to and about 1738, an occasional coach was put on the road, but not as a regular and periodical conveyance, the fare to London being 25 shillings, "children on lap, and footmen behind, being charged half-price." A "Flying Coach" commenced running direct to the Metropolis on May 28th, 1745, and was evidently thought to be an event of some importance, as it was advertised to do the distance in two days "if the roads permitted." In July, 1782, the same journey was accomplished in 14 hours, showing a great improvement in the arrangements of the road. The first mail coaches for the conveyance of letters was started by Mr. Palmer, of Bath, in 1784, the earliest noticed as passing through here being on August 23, 1785, but the first direct mail from this town dates only from May 25, 1812. In February, 1795, the Western mailcoaches were delayed nearly a week together in consequence of a rapid thaw rendering the roads impassable. In 1777 fifty-two coaches passed through here to London and sixteen to Bristol every week. In 1829 at least 100 departed from or passed through the town daily, 550 persons travelling between here and London. In 1832 Mr. Lecount estimated the general results of the road and canal traffic between here and London as follows: Pessengers, 233,155; goods, 62,389 tons; parcels, 46,799; beasts, 50,839; sheep, 365,000; pigs, 15,364; the amount expended in cost of transit being L1,338,217. In 1837 it was estimated that L6,789 was received per week from coach passengers on the road from here to London, L1,571 for parcels per coach, and L729 from persons posting along the same roads; and that L8,120 was received for goods by canals and waggons, not including iron, timber, cattle, minerals, or other goods at low tonnage—L17,209 per week. There was, notwithstanding the large number of coaches leaving here every day, no direct conveyance from Birmingham to Edinburgh. The best and usual route was by Walsall, Manchester, Preston, and Carlisle; distances and times being, Manchester, 78-1/2 miles, 8 hours, fare, 14s.; Manchester to Carlisle, 118 miles, 12 hours 55 minutes by the mail, including stoppage of fifty minutes at Preston for post office purposes, fare, L1 2s. 6d.; Carlisle to Edinburgh, 95 miles, 9 hours 35 minutes, fare, 18s.; coachmen and guards' fees about 15s.; all hotel charges, &c., were paid by the passenger. Total distance, 291-1/2 miles; travelling time, 30-1/2 hours; cost, L3 9s. 6d., in all. The mail coach which left the Albion reached London in 10-1/2 hours, which would be reckoned as very good travelling, even in these days. For some time after the introduction of railways, the coaching interest was still of some account, for as late as 1840 there were 54 coaches and omnibuses running from here every 24 hours.— There has been a kind of modern revival of the good old coaching days, but it has not become popular in this part of the country, though quite a summer feature on the Brighton Road. A four-in-hand, driven by the Earl of Aylesford, was put on the road from here to Coventry, at latter end of April, 1878; and another ran for part of the summer, in 1880, to Leamington. The introduction of railways set many persons to work on the making of "steam coaches" to travel on the highways. Captain Ogle coming here on one of his own inventing September 8th, 1832, direct from Oxford, having travelled at from ten to fourteen miles per hour. Our local geniuses were not behindhand, and Messrs. Heaton Bros., and the well-known Dr. Church brought out machines for the purpose. Both parties started joint-stock companies to carry out their inventions, and in that respect both parties succeeded, for such was the run for shares, that in June, 1833, when Heatons' prospectus came out, offering to the public 2,000 L10 shares, no less than 3,000 were asked for in one day. There was also a third company in the field, the "London, Birmingham, and Liverpool," with a nominal capital of L300,000; but none of them prospered; for though they could construct the engines and the coaches, they could not make receipts cover expenses. Heatons' ran theirs for some little time to Wolverhampton and back, and even to the Lickey; the Doctor came out every month with something new; and even the big Co. managed to bring one carriage all the way from London (August 28th, 1835). Others besides Captain Ogle also came here on their iron horses, and there was plenty of fun and interest for the lookers-on generally— but no trade and no interest for the speculators. For steam coaches of the present day, see "Tramways."

Coal was not in common use much before 1625, and for a long time was rather shunned by householders, more especially in the rural parts where the black diamonds were looked upon as something altogether uncanny. Prior to the opening of the first canal, the roads leading from the Black Country daily presented the curious feature of an almost unending procession of carts and waggons bringing the supplies needed by our manufacturers, and high prices were the rule of the day. The first boatload was brought in on November 6th, 1769, and soon after the price of coal at the wharf was as low as 4d. per cwt.—See "Trades."

Cobbett delivered a lecture on the Corn Laws, &c., at Beardsworth's Repository, May 10 1830.

Cobden.—There was a general closing of places of business here on April 6, 1865, the day on which Richard Cobden was buried.

Cockfighting.—Aris's Gazette of December 26, 1780, announced in one of its advertisements that "the Annual Subscription Match of Cocks" would be fought at Duddeston Hall, commonly called "Vauxhall," on the New Year's day and day after.—The same paper printed an account of another Cockfight, at Sutton, as late as April 17, 1875.

Coffeehouses.—Coffee, which takes its name from the Abyssinian province of Kaffa, was introduced into this country in the early part of the 17th century, the first coffeehouse being opened in London in 1652. Until very late years coffeehouses in provincial towns were more noted for their stuffy untidiness than aught else, those of Birmingham not excepted, but quite a change has come o'er the scene now, and with all the brave glitter of paint and glaring gas they attempt to rival the public-houses. The Birmingham Coffeehouse Company, Limited (originally miscalled The Artizan's Clubhouse Company), which came into existence March 27, 1877, with a capital of L20,000 in 10s. shares, has now near upon a score of houses open, and their business is so successful that very fair dividends are realised.

Coffins.—Excluding textile fabrics and agricultural produce, Birmingham supplies almost every article necessary for the comfort of man's life, and it is therefore not surprising that some little attention has been given to the construction of the "casket" which is to enclose his remains when dead. Coffins of wood, stone, lead, &c., have been known for centuries, but coffins of glass and coffins of brass must be ranked amongst the curiosities of our later trades. Two of the latter kind polished, lacquered, and decorated in a variety of ways, with massive handles and emblazoned shields, were made here some few years back for King Egbo Jack and another dark-skinned potentate of South Africa. "By particular request" each of these coffins were provided with four padlocks, two outside and two inside, though how to use the latter must have been a puzzle even for a dead king. The Patent Metallic Air-tight Coffin Co., whose name pretty accurately describes their productions, in 1861 introduced hermetically-sealed coffins with plate glass panels in the lid, exceedingly useful articles in case of contagious diseases, &c., &c. The trade in coffin "furniture" seems to have originated about 1760, when one ingenious "Mole" pushed it forward; and among the list of patents taken out in 1796 by a local worthy there is one for "a patent coffin," though its particular speciality could not have met with much approval, as although some thousands of bodies have been removed from our various sepultures nothing curious or rarer than rotten boards and old lead has been brought to light.

Coinage.—So far had our patriotic forefathers proceeded in the art of making money that about the middle of the last century it was estimated over one half the copper coin in circulation was counterfeit, and that nine-tenths thereof was manufactured in Birmingham, where 1,000 halfpennies could be had of the makers for 25s. Boulton's big pennies were counterfeited by lead pennies faced with copper. One of these would be a curiosity now. The bronze coinage was first issued December 1, 1860, and soon after Messrs. Ralph Heaton & Sons made 100 tons of bronze coins for the Mint. They are distinguished by the letter "H" under the date. The number, weight, and value of this issue were as follows:—

Tons Nominal Value. 62 or 9,595,245 pennies .. L25,396 17 1 28 or 5,504,382 halfpennies .. 11,469 10 11 10 or 3,884,446 farthings .. 4,096 5 4 ———————— ——————— 100 or 15,484,043 pieces .. L40,962 13 4

The same firm has had several similar contracts, the last being in hand at the present time. The bronze is composed of 95 parts copper, 4 tin, and 1 zinc.

Colleges.—See "Schools," &c.

Colmore Row, which now extends from the Council House to the Great Western Hotel (including Ann Street and Monmouth Street) is named after the Colmore family, the owners of the freehold. Great Colmore Street, Caroline and Charlotte Streets, Great and Little Charles Streets, Cregoe, Lionel, and Edmund Streets, all take their names from the same source.

Colonnade.—This very handsome and (for Birmingham) rather novel-looking building, was opened Jan. 10, 1883, being erected by Mr. A. Humpage, at a cost of about L70,000, from the designs of Mr. W.H. Ward. The Colonnade proper runs round the entire building, giving frontage to a number of shops, the upper portion of the block being partly occupied by the Midland Conservative Club, and the rest of the building, with the basement, fitted up as a Temperance Hotel and "Restaurant."

Comets.—The inhabitants were very much terrified by the appearance of a comet in December, 1680. At Michaelmas, 1811, an exceedingly brilliant comet appeared, supposed to have been the same which was seen at the birth of Jesus Christ. Donati's comet was first observed June 2, 1858, but was most brilliant in September and October. The comets of 1861 and 1883 were also visible here.

Commissioners.—The first local governing body of the town, though with but the merest shadow of power as compared with the Corporation of to-day, were the Street Commissioners appointed under an Act of Geo. III. in 1769, their duties being confined almost solely to repairing, cleansing, and "enlightening" the streets of the town, appointing watchmen, &c., their power of raising funds being limited to 1s. in the L. By succeeding Acts of 1773, 1801, 1812, and 1828, the powers of the Commissioners were considerably enlarged, and they must be credited with the introduction of the first set of local improvement schemes, including the widening of streets, clearing the Bull Ring of the houses round St. Martin's Church, making owners lay out proper streets for building, purchasing the market tolls, building of Town Hall and Market Hall, regulating carriages, and "suppressing the smoke nuisance arising from engines commonly called steam engines," &c., and, though they came in for their full share of obloquy and political rancour, it cannot be denied they did good and faithful service to the town. The Commissioners had the power of electing themselves, every vacancy being filled as it occurred by those who remained, and, as the Act of 1828 increased their number to no less than 89, perhaps some little excuse may be made for the would-be leading men of the day who were left out in the cold. Be that as it may, the Charter of Incorporation put them aside, and gave their power and authority into the hands of a popularly-elected representative body. The Commissioners, however, remained as a body in name until the last day of December, 1851, when, as a token of remembrance, they presented the town with the ornamental fountain formerly standing in the centre of the Market Hall, but which has been removed to Highgate Park. On the transfer of their powers to the Corporation, the Commissioners handed over a schedule of indebtedness, showing that there was then due on mortgage of the "lamp rate," of 4 per cent, L87,350; on the "Town Hall rate," at 4 per cent., L25,000; annuities, L947 3s. 4d.; besides L7,800, at 5 percent., borrowed by the Duddeston and Nechells Commissioners, making a total of L121,097 3s. 4d.

Commons.—Handsworth Common was enclosed in 1793. An Act was passed in 1798 for enclosing and allotting the commons and waste land in Birmingham. The commons and open fields of Erdington and Witton were enclosed and divided in 1801.

Concert Halls, &c.—The Birmingham Concert Hall, better known as "Holder's," was built in 1846, though for years previous the house was noted for its harmonic meetings; the present Hall has seats for 2,200 persons. Day's Concert Hall was erected in 1862 the opening night, September 17, being for the benefit of the Queen's Hospital, when L70 was realised therefor; the Hall will accommodate 1,500.—The Museum Concert Hall was opened Dec. 20, 1863, and will hold about 1,000 people.—A very large building intended for use as a Concert Hall, &c., will soon be opened in Snow Hill, to be conducted on temperance principles.—A series of popular Monday evening concerts was commenced in the Town Hall, Nov. 12, 1844, and was continued for nearly two years.—Twopenny weekly "Concerts for the People" were started at the Music Hall, Broad Street (now Prince of Wales' Theatre), March 25, 1847, but they did not take well.—Threepenny Saturday evening concerts in Town Hall, were begun in November, 1879.

Conferences and Congresses of all sorts of people have been held here from time to time, and a few dates are here annexed:—A Conference of Wesleyan ministers took place in 1836, in 1844, 1854, 1865, and 1879, being the 136th meeting of that body. Four hundred Congregational ministers met in Congress Oct. 5, 1862. A Social Science Congress was held Sept. 30, 1868. A Trades Union Conference Aug. 23, 1869. National Education League Conference, Oct. 12, 1869. National Republican Conference, May 12, 1873. Conference on Sanitary Reform, Jan. 14, 1875. A Co-operative Societies Conference, July 3, 1875. A Conference of Christians in Needless Alley, Oct. 27, 1875. The Midland Counties' Church Defence Associations met in the Exchange, Jan. 18, 1876, and on the 9th of Feb. the advocates for disestablishing and disendowing the Church said their say in the Masonic Hall, resolutions in favour of sharing the loaves and fishes being enthusiastically carried by the good people who covet not their neighbours' goods. A Domestic Economy Congress was held July 17, 1877. A Church Conference held sittings Nov. 7, 1877. The friends of International Arbitration met in the Town Hall, May 2, 1878, when 800 delegates were present, but the swords are not yet beaten into ploughshares. How to lessen the output of coal was discussed March 5, 1878, by a Conference of Miners, who not being then able to settle the question, met again June 17, 1879, to calmly consider the advisableness of laying idle all the coalpits in the country for a time, as the best remedy they could find for the continued reduction of wages. The 18th Annual Conference of the British Association of Gas Managers was held here June 14, 1881, when about 500 of those gentlemen attended. A considerable amount of gassy talk anent the wonderful future naturally arose, and an endowment fund of L323 was banked to provide a medal for "any originality in connection with the manufacture and application of gas," but the Gas Committee of Birmingham, without any vast improvement in the manufacture, still keep to their original idea of sharing profits with ratepayers, handing over L25,000 each year to the Borough rates. On Bank Holiday, August 6, 1883, a Conference of Bakers took place here, and at the same date the 49th "High Court" of Foresters assembled at the Town Hall, their last visit having been in 1849.

Conservative Associations have been in existence for at least fifty years, as the formation of one in December, 1834, is mentioned in the papers of the period. The present one, which is formed on a somewhat similar plan to that of the Liberal Association, and consists of 300 representatives chosen from the wards, held its first meeting May 18, 1877. Associations of a like nature have been formed in most of the wards, and in Balsall Heath, Moseley, Aston, Handsworth, and all the suburbs and places around.

Constables.—In 1776 it was necessary to have as many as 25 constables sworn in to protect the farmers coming to the weekly market.—See also "Police."

Consuls.—There are Consulates here for the following countries (for addresses see Directory):—Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Chili, France, Germany, Greece, Liberia, Portugal, Spain and Italy, Turkey, United States, United States of Columbia, and Uruguay.

Convents.—See "Religious Institutions."

Co-operative Societies at one time were put in the same category as Chartist, Socialist, and Communistic Associations, all banned alike. Nevertheless, in the old "Reform days" the theory of co-operation was most enthusiastically taken up by the workers of this town, even more so than in any other place in the kingdom. As early as 1828 several attempts had been made to form such societies, but the one which appeared the most likely to succeed was the so-called "Labour Exchange," situated in the old Coach Yard, in Bull Street, formed on the basis so eloquently and perseveringly advocated by Robert Owen. The principle of this Exchange was to value all goods brought in at the cost of the raw material, plus the labour and work bestowed thereon, the said labour being calculated at the uniform rate of 6d. per hour. On the reception of the goods "notes" to the value were given which could be handed over as equivalent for any other articles there on sale, and for a time this rather crude plan was successful. Sharp customers, however found that by giving in an advanced valuation of their own goods they could by using their "notes" procure others on which a handsome profit was to be made outside the Labour Mart, and this ultimately brought the Exchange to grief. Mr. William Pare and Mr. George Jacob Holyoake, were foremost among the advocates of Co-operation at the period, and a most interesting history of "Co-operation in England" has been written by the latter gentleman. Other societies were also in operation from time to time, the longest-lived being the "Economic Provision Company," which was commenced at Handsworth in 1830 by some of the workers at Soho and Soho Foundry, 139 of whom clubbed 20s. each as a starting fund. After a few months' trial, the profits were allowed to accumulate until they made up L5 per share, on which capital no less than L6,000 were paid in dividends during the first thirty years. The Supply Associations of the present day are somewhat differently constituted, such establishments as the one in Corporation Street (formerly in Cannon Street) and that in High Street being on the most extensive scale, offering to the general public all the advantages derivable from the use of large capital, combined with a fair division of profits to the customer, as well as to the shareholders. The Birmingham Household Supply Association in Corporation Street supplies all the necessaries required in the household, in addition to eatables and drinkables of the very best quality, including Messrs. Walter Showell and Sons' ales, which are sent out at the same prices as from the firm's own offices, either in cask or bottle.

Cornavii.—The ancient inhabitants of this part of England, but who were subdued by the Romans. Whether the said inhabitants had any name for the particular spot now called Birmingham must for ever remain doubtful.

Corn Exchange, in High-street, was opened October 28, 1847. The original capital of the Company was L5,000, in shares of L25 each; but the total cost of erection was a little over L6,000. The length of the interior is 172 feet and the breadth 40 feet.

Corn Laws.—Long before the formation of the Anti-Corn Law League in 1838, a movement for the repeal of the obnoxious imposts had been started in this town, a petition being sent from here to Parliament in March, 1815, with 48,600 signatures attached. The doings of the League and their ultimate success is an off-told tale, the men of Birmingham of course taking their part in the struggle, which culminated on the 26th of June, 1846, in the passing of Sir Robert Peel's Bill for the total repeal of all duties levied on corn and breadstuffs.

Coroners.—The first borough coroner, the late Dr. Birt Davies, was appointed May 15, 1839, and he held the office till July, 1875, when Mr. Henry Hawkes was chosen as his successor, only one member of the Town Council voting against him. The preent coroner has introduced several improvements on the old system, especially in the matters of holding inquests at public-houses, and the summoning of jurors. Formerly the latter were chosen from the residents nearest to the scene of death, some gentlemen being continually called upon, while the occasional exhibition of a dead body in the back lumberroom of an inn yard, among broken bottles and gaping stablemen, was not conductive to the dignity of a coroner's court or particularly agreeable to the unfortunate surgeon who might have to perform a post mortem. Thanks to the persevering tenacity of Mr. Hawkes we have a proper court in Moor-street, and a mortuary at every police station to which bodies can at once be taken. The jurors are now chosen by rotation, so that having been once called upon to act as a good citizen in such a capacity no gentleman need fear a fresh summons for some years to come. Mr. Hooper, the coroner for South Staffordshire, received his appointment in 1860.

Corporation.—The Charter of Incorporation of the Borough of Birmingham, authorising the formation of a Governing body, consisting of Mayor, Aldermen, and Councillors, duly elected by the Burgesses, dates from October 31, 1838. The elections took place in December, the first meeting being held on the 27. The borough was originally divided into 13 wards, but has since been, by Order in Council, made into 16, though the number of Aldermen (16) and Councillors (48) has not been increased. The Mayor is elected for one year, the Councillors for three, and the Aldermen for six. The first Mayor chosen was William Schofield, Esq., who was succeeded by P.H. Muntz, Esq., in 1839 and 1840, the election taking place at the November sitting in each year. Since 1840, the Mayoral chair has been successively filled by:—

1841, S. Beale; 1842, J. James; 1843, T. Weston; 1844, T. Phillips; 1845, H. Smith; 1846, R. Martineau; 1847, C. Geach; 1848, S. Thornton; 1849, W. Lucy; 1850, W. Lucy; 1851, H. Smith; 1852, H. Hawkes; 1853, J. Baldwin; 1854, J. Palmer; 1855, T. R, T. Hodgson; 1856, J. Ratcliff; 1857, J. Ratcliff; 1858, Sir J. Ratcliff, Kt.; 1859, T. Lloyd; 1860, A. Ryland; 1861, H. Manton; 1862, C. Sturge; 1863, W. Holliday; 1864, H. Wiggin; 1865, E. Yates; 1866, G. Dixon; 1867, T. Avery; 1868, H. Holland; 1869, T. Prime; 1870, G. B. Lloyd; 1871, J. Sadler; 1872, A. Biggs; 1873, J. Chamberlain; 1874, J. Chamberlain; 1875, J. Chamberlain; 1876, G. Baker; 1877, W. Kenrick; 1878, J. Collings; 1879, R. Chamberlain; 1880, R. Chamberlain; 1881, T. Avery; 1882, W. White; 1883, W. Cook; 1884, W. Martineau.

The members of the Council in 1862 subscribed L200 for the purchase of a "Mayor's Chain," the first to wear "the glittering gaud," strange to say, being a Quaker, Charles Sturge to wit. To this chain a valuable addition has since been made in the shape of a stone, worth L150, presented to the Town Council by Mr. W. Spencer, June 27, 1873, as being the first diamond cut in Birmingham, and which was appropriately mounted. For the names and addresses of the Aldermen and Councillors of the various wards (changes taking place yearly) reference should be made to "The Birmingham Red Book" published annually, in which will also be found a list of all the borough officials, &c.

Corporation Stock.—The balance against the Borough in the shape of loans, or mortgages on the then rates, when the Town Council took over from the Street Commissioners was L121,100. By the end of 1864 the Borough debts stood at L638,300, at varying rates of interest. After the purchase of the Gas and Water Works, and the commencement of the Improvement Scheme, this amount was vastly increased, the town's indebtedness standing in 1880 at no less than L6,226,145. The old system of obtaining loans at the market price of the day, and the requirement of the Local Government Board that every separate loan should be repaid in a certain limited number of years, when so large an amount as 6-1/4 millions came to be handled necessitated a consolidation scheme, which has since been carried out, to the relief of present ratepayers and a saving to those who will follow. The whole of the liabilities in the Borough on loans were converted into Corporation three and a half per cent. stock at the commencement of 1881, the operation being performed by the Bank of England. The tenders for same were opened Jan. 18th, when it was found that L1,200,000 had been applied for at and slightly over the minimum rate of L98 per L100. The remaining L800,000 was allotted to a syndicate, who afterwards applied for it at the minimum price. Persons having money to invest cannot do better than visit the Borough Treasurer, Mr. Hughes, who will give every information as to the mode of investing even a L10 note in the Birmingham Corporation Stock.

Council House.—See "Public Buildings."

County Areas.—The total areas of this and adjoining counties are:— Warwickshire 566,458 acres, Worcestershire 472,453, Staffordshire 732,434, and Shropshire 841,167.

County Court.—First opened in Birmingham at the Waterloo Rooms, Waterloo Street, April 28th, 1847. R. G. Welford, Esq., Q.C., acting as judge until September, 1872. He was followed by H. W. Cole, Esq., Q.C., who died in June, 1876; James Motteram, Esq., Q.C., who died Sept. 19, 1884: the present judge being W. Chambers, Esq., Q.C. The Circuit (No. 21) includes the towns and places of Aston, Atherstone, Balsall Heath, Curdworth, Castle Bromwich, Erdington, Gravelly Hill, Handsworth, Harborne, King's Heath, King's Norton, Lea Marston, Little Bromwich, Maxstoke, Minworth, Moseley, Nether Whitacre, Perry Barr, Saltley, Selly Oak, Sutton Coldfield, Tamworth, Water Orton and Wishaw.

County Officials.—For names and addresses of the Lord Lieutenant, Deputy Lieutenant, High Sheriff, County Magistrates, and other official gentlemen connected with the county of Warwick, see "Red Book."

Court of Bankruptcy holden at Birmingham (at the County Court, in Corporation Street) comprises all the places within the district of the County Court of Warwickshire holden at Birmingham, Tamworth and Solihull, and all the places in the district of the County Court of Worcestershire holden at Redditch.

Court Of Judicature.—Birmingham, Wolverhampton, Walsall, and Worcester, are District Registries of the Supreme Court of Judicature.

Court Leet.—The origin of that peculiar kind of Local Government Board, known in the olden days as the Court Leet of the Manor of Birmingham, is lost in the misty shadows of our past history. Doubtless there were many onerous duties connected therewith, and very possibly the officials considered themselves as "men of high degree," but what those duties actually were, and what the remuneration for their due fulfilment, appears to have been matter of doubt, even so late as a hundred and a few odd years ago. The rights, powers, and privileges of the officers of this Court had evidently been questioned by some of our Radical-minded great-grandfathers, as we find it was deemed necessary to assemble a jury on the 20th day of October, 1779, to "ascertain and present" the same, and from a little pamphlet at that time published, we extract the following:—

The Office of Low Bailiff.—"The Jury find and present that this officer is annually elected by the Jury, and that his office is in the nature of Sheriff of the Manor; that to him all the process of the Court is to be directed, and that it is his right and duty to summon all Juries to this court. And the Low Bailiff, at each fair, is entitled to one penny for each stall or standing pitched in the said fairs."

The Office of High Bailiff.—"The Jury find and present that this Officer is annually elected by the Jury; and that it is his duty to see that the fairs be duly proclaimed, and that due order be preserved in the fairs and markets; and if he sees any person in such fairs or markets using unlawful games, to the injury of ignorant persons and thoughtless youths, he may seize them and commit them to custody, to be taken before a proper magistrate. That it is his duty to see that all persons exposing any wares for sale in the fairs or markets, or as shopkeepers within the manor, have legal weights and measures."

The other officers of the Court Leet, whose duties are also defined in the aforesaid pamphlet, are the "Constables," the "Headborough," two "Affeirers" (who looked after the rents and dues belonging to the Lord of the Manor), two "Leather Sealers" (once important officers, when there was a Leather Market, but whose duties in and about the year named seemed to be confined to attending at the yearly dinners given by the High Bailiff), two "Ale-conners, otherwise high tasters," and two "Flesh-conners, otherwise low tasters." From their name it might be thought the duties of the last named officers were limited to the inspection of meat or flesh, but it will be seen that they were of a more comprehensive character:—

"Their duty is to see that all butchers, fishmongers, poulterers, bakers, and other sellers of victuals, do not sell or expose to sale within this Manor any unwholesome, corrupt, or contagious flesh, fish, or other victuals; and in case any such be exposed to sale, we find that the said Officers, by the ancient custom of the Manor may seize, burn, or destroy the same, or otherwise present the offenders at the next Court Leet to be holden for this Manor."



As we are now officered, inspectored and policed, and generally looked after as to our eating and drinking, &c., in the most improved modern style possible, it is not necessary to further fill space by saying what the "Headborough" had to do, or how many "Constables" assisted him. The last meeting of the Court Leet, long shorn of all its honours and privileges, was held October 28, 1851.

Court Of Record.—This was also called the "Mayor's Court," and was authorised in the Charter of Incorporation for the recovery of small debts under L20, the officers consisting of a Judge, Registrar, and two Sergeants-at-Mace. In 1852 (Oct. 26) the Town Council petitioned the Queen to transfer its powers to the County Court, which was acceded to in the following spring.

Court of Requests.—Constituted by Act of Parliament in 1752 this Court for "the more easy and speedy recovery of small debts within the town of Birmingham and the adjoining hamlet of Deritend" continued in operation until the present County Court system became the law of the land. Its powers were originally limited to debts not exceeding 40s. in amount (which was increased to L5 by an Act passed in 1807), the periods of imprisonment to which defaulting debtors were liable being apportioned out at the rate of one day in durance for each shilling due, except in special cases, wherein an addition (not to exceed three months) might be the reward for fraudulent concealment of property from creditors. The "Court" consisted of no less than six dozen judges, or, as the Act styled them, "Commissioners," from whose decisions there was no appeal whatever. These Commissioners were at first chosen from the ratepayers in a haphazard style, no mental or property qualification whatever being required, though afterwards it was made incumbent that they should be possessed of an income from real estate to value of L50 per year, or be worth L1,000 personalty. From the writings of William Hutton, himself one of the Commissioners, and other sources, we gather that justice, or what was supposed to be equivalent thereto, was administered in a rough-and-ready fashion of the rudest kind, the cases being frequently disposed of at the rate of thirty to forty per hour, and when we consider that imprisonment resulted at an average of one case in ten the troubles attendant upon impecuniosity in those days may be better imagined then described. The Court House, which is now occupied by sundry tradesmen, lay a little back from High-street, nearly opposite New-street, and in itself was no mean structure, having been (it is said), erected about the year 1650, as the town house of John Jennens, or Jennings, one of the wealthy family, the claims to whose estates have been unending, as well as unprofitable, barring, of course, to the long-robed and bewigged fraternity. A narrow passage from the right of the entrance hall leads by a dark winding staircase to the cellars, now filled with merchandise, but which formerly constituted the debtors' prison, or, as it was vulgarly called, "The Louse Hole," and doubtless from its frequently-crowded and horribly-dirty condition, with half-starved, though often debauched and dissipated, occupants, the nasty name was not inappropriately given. Shocking tales have been told of the scenes and practices here carried on, and many are still living who can recollect the miserable cry of "Remember the poor debtors," which resounded morning, noon, and night from the heavily-barred windows of these underground dungeons. The last batch of unfortunates here confined were liberated August 16, 1844.

Creche.—An institution which has been open in Bath Row for several years, and a great blessing to many poor mothers in its neighbourhood, but it is so little known that it has not met with the support it deserves, and is therefore crippled in its usefulness for want of more subscribers. The object of the institution is to afford, during the daytime, shelter, warmth, food, and good nursing to the infants and young children of poor mothers who are compelled to be from home at work. This is done at the small charge of 2d. per day—a sum quite inadequate to defray the expenses of the charity. The average number of children so sheltered is about 100 per week, and the number might be greatly increased if there were more funds. Gifts of coal, blankets, linen, perambulators, toys, pictures, &c., are greatly valued, and subscriptions and donations will be gladly received by the hon. treasurer.

Crescent, Cambridge Street.—When built it was thought that the inhabitants of the handsome edifices here erected would always have an extensive view over gardens and green fields, and certainly if chimney pots and slated roofs constitute a country landscape the present denizens cannot complain. The ground belongs to the Grammar School, the governors of which leased it in 1789 to Mr. Charles Norton, for a term of 120 years, at a ground rent of L155 10s. per year, the lessee to build 34 houses and spend L12,000 thereon; the yearly value now is about L1,800. On the Crescent Wharf is situated the extensive stores of Messrs. Walter Showell & Sons, from whence the daily deliveries of Crosswells Ales are issued to their many Birmingham patrons. Here may be seen, stacked tier upon tier, in long cool vistas, close upon 6,000 casks of varying sizes containing these celebrated ales, beers, and stouts. This stock is kept up by daily supplies from the brewery at Langley Green, many boats being employed in the traffic.

Cricket.—See "Sports."

Crime.—A few local writers like to acknowledge that Birmingham is any worse than other large towns in the matter of crime and criminals, and the old adage respecting the bird that fouls its own nest has been more than once applied to the individuals who have ventured to demur from the boast that ours is par excellence, a highly moral, fair-dealing, sober, and superlatively honest community. Notwithstanding the character given it of old, and the everlasting sneer that is connected with the term "Brummagem," the fast still remains that our cases of drunkenness are far less than in Liverpool, our petty larcenies fewer than in Leeds, our highway robberies about half compared with Manchester, malicious damage a long way under Sheffield, and robberies from the person not more than a third of those reported in Glasgow; while as to smashing and coining, though it has been flung at us from the time of William of Orange to the present day; that all the bad money ever made must be manufactured here, the truth is that five-sixths of the villainous crew who deal in that commodity obtain their supplies from London, and not from our little "hardware village." But alas! there is a dark side to the picture, indeed, for, according to the Registrar-General's return of June, 1879 (and the proportionate ratio, we are sorry to say, still remains the same), Birmingham holds the unenviable position of being the town where most deaths from violence occur, the annual rate per 1,000 being 1.08 in Birmingham, 0.99 in Liverpool, 0.38in Sheffield, 0.37 in Portsmouth, the average for the kingdom being even less than that—"the proportional fatality from violence being almost invariably more than twice as large in Birmingham as in Sheffield."

Cross.—In the Bull Ring, when Hutton first came here, a poor wayfarer seeking employ, there was a square building standing on arches called "The Cross," or "Market Cross," the lower part giving a small shelter to the few countrywomen who brought their butter and eggs to market, while the chamber above provided accommodation for meetings of a public character. When the Corn Cheaping, the Shambles, and all the other heterogeneous collection of tumbledown shanties and domiciles which in the course of centuries had been allowed to gather round St. Martin's were cleared away, the Market Cross was demolished, and its exact site is hardly ascertainable. At Dale End there was a somewhat similar erection known as the "Welsh Cross," taking its peculiar name, says Hutton, from the locality then called "Welsh End," on account of the number of Welsh people living on that side of the town; though why the "Taffies" were honoured with a distinct little market house of their own is not made clear. This building was taken down in 1803, the 3-dial clock, weathercock, &c., being advertised for sale, October 12, 1802.

Crown.—The old Crown Inn, Deritend, is one of the very few specimens we have of the style of architecture adopted in the days of old, when timber was largely used in place of our modern bricks. Leland mentions the Crown Inn as existing in 1538, and a much longer history than that is claimed for it. In 1817 there was another Old Crown Inn in New Street, on the spot where Hyam's now stands, access to the Cherry Orchard being had through its yard, the right of way thus obtained being the origin of the present Union Passage.

Crystal Palaces.—It was proposed in August, 1853, that the Corporation should join with the Midland Railway Co. and the Corporation of Sutton in the erection of a "Sydenham Palace" in Sutton Park: Birmingham to lease 250 acres for 999 years, at 1s. per acre, find from L20,000 to L30,000 for the building and divide profits, the Midland Railway Co. being willing to make branch from Bromford and run cheap trains. The scheme was highly approved, but the Suttonites killed the goose that was to lay them such golden eggs by refusing to lease the land for more than ninety-nine years and wanting 20s. per acre rent. In July, 1877, a "Sutton Park Crystal Palace Co. (Lim.)" was registered, with a capital of L25,000 in L5 shares, for buying Mr. Cole's Promenade Gardens, erecting Hotel, Aquarium, Skating Rink, Concert Hall, Winter Gardens, &c., and the shares were readily taken up. Additional grounds were purchased, and though the original plans have not yet been all carried out, a very pleasant resort is to be found there. Day's, in Smallbrook Street, is also called a "Crystal Palace," on account of the style of decoration, and the immense mirror the proprietor purchased from the Hyde Park Exhibition of 1851.

Curzon Hall, built originally for the purposes of the Dog Shows, was opened in 1865. It is the property of a company, and cost about L7,500. The building is well suited and has been often used for exhibitions, panoramas, circus entertainments, &c., the hall being 103 ft. long by 91 ft. wide; the stage is of the fullest width, with a depth of 45 ft. There is room for 3,000 seats.

Danielites.—A tribe who eschew fish, flesh, and fowl, and drink no alcohol; neither do they snuff, smoke, or chew tobacco. At a fruit banquet, held on August, 1877, it was decided to organise a "Garden of Danielites" in Birmingham.

Dates.—The most complete work giving the dates of all the leading events in the world's history is "Haydn's Book of Dates," the latest edition bringing them down to 1882. For local events, the only "Local Book of Dates" published is that of 1874, but "Showell's Dictionary of Birmingham" (by the same author), will be found to contain more reliable data than any book hitherto issued. For information of a general character, respecting the immediate neighbourhood and adjoining counties, our readers cannot do better than refer to the files of Birmingham newspapers, preserved in the Reference Library, or write to the present editors of the said papers, gentlemen noted for their urbanity, and readiness to tell anybody anything.

Dawson, George, See "Parsons, Preachers, and Priests," and "Statues."

Deaf and Dumb Asylum.—See "Philanthropic Institutions."

Debating Societies.—From time immemorial the Brums have had their little Parliaments, mostly in public-house parlours and clubrooms, and certain Sunday nights gathering at "Bob Edmonds" and other well-known houses have acquired quite an historical interest; but the regularly-constituted "Spouting Clubs" of the present day cannot claim a very long existence, the Birmingham Debating Society having held their first palaver on the 3rd of Dec., 1846. In 1855 they joined the Edgbastonians. The latest of the kind started in 1884, is known as the Birmingham Parliamentary Debating Society, and has its premier, parties, and political fights, in proper Parliamentary style.

Deer Stealers.—There was a taste for venison in more classes than one in 1765, for it was found necessary to offer rewards for the detection of those persons who stole the deer from Aston Park.

Dental Hospital.—See "Hospitals."

Deodands.—Prior to the passing of 9 and 10 Vict., 1846, Coroner's Juries had the power of imposing a "deodand" or penalty on any article or animal which had been instrumental in causing the death of a human being, the said animal or article being forfeited if the owner did not pay.

Deritend.—In some antique records the name has been spelt "Duratehend." For this and other reasons it has been thought to have had its origin rather from the ancient British, as "dur" is still the Welsh word for water, and its situation on the Rea (a Gaelic word signifying a running stream) seems to give a little foundation therefor. Mr. Tonlmin Smith, in whose family the "Old Crown House" has descended from the time it was built, and who, therefore, is no mean authority, was of opinion that the name was formerly "Der-yat-end," or "Deer-Gate-End," from the belief that in ancient days there was here an ancient deer forest. Leland said he entered the town by "Dirtey," so perhaps after all Deritend only means "the dirty end." Like the name of the town itself, as well as several other parts of it, we can only guess at the origin.

Deritend Bridge.—Old records show that some centuries back there was a bridge here of some sort, and occasionally we find notes of payments made for repairs to the roads leading to the gates of the bridge, or to the watchmen who had charge thereof, who appear to have been in the habit of locking the gates at night, a procedure which we fear our "Dirtyent" neighbours of to-day would be inclined to resent. The Act for building the present bridge was obtained in 1784; the work was commenced in 1789, but not completed till 1814.

Dickens, Charles, made his first appearance amongst us at a Polytechnic Conversazione held February 28, 1844, his last visit being to distribute prizes to students of the Midland Institute, January 6, 1870. In December, 1854, he gave the proceeds of three "Readings," amounting to L227, to the funds of the Institute, in which he always took great interest.—See also "Theatrical Notes," &c.

Digbeth, or Dyke Path, or Ducks' Bath, another puzzle to the antiquarians. It was evidently a watery place, and the pathway lay low, as may be seen at "Ye Olde Leather Bottel."

Dining Halls.—Our grandfathers were content to take their bread and cheese by the cosy fireside of a public-house kitchen; this was followed by sundry publicans reserving a better room, in which a joint was served up for their "topping customers." One who got into trouble and lost his license, conceived the idea of opposing his successor, and started dining-rooms, sending out for beer as it was required, but not to his old shop. This innovation took, and when the railways began bringing in their streams of strangers, these dining-rooms paid well (as several of the old ones do still). The next step was the opening of a large room in Slaney Street (June 8, 1863), and another in Cambridge Street, with the imposing title of "Dining Halls," wherein all who were hungry could be fed at wholesale prices—provided they had the necessary cash. Our people, however, are not sufficiently gregarious to relish this kind of feeding in flocks, barrackroom fashion, and though the provisions were good and cheap, the herding together of all sorts spoilt the speculation, and Dining Halls closed when "Restaurants" opened.—See "Luncheon Bars."

Diocese.—Birmingham is in the diocese of Worcester, and in the Archdeaconry of Coventry.

Directories.—The oldest Birmingham Directory known was printed in 1770, but there had been one advertised a few years earlier, and every now and then, after this date one or other of our few printers ventured to issue what they called a directory, but the procuring a complete list of all and every occupation carried on in Birmingham appears to have been a feat beyond their powers, even sixty years back. As far as they did go, however, the old directories are not uninteresting, as they give us glimpses of trade mutations and changes compared with the present time that appear strange now even to our oldest inhabitants. Place for instance the directory of 1824 by the side of White's directory for 1874 (one of the most valuable and carefully compiled works of the kind yet issued). In the former we find the names of 4,980 tradesmen, the different businesses under which they are allotted numbering only 141; in 1874 the trades and professions named tot up to 745, under which appears no less than 33,462 names. In 1824, if we are to believe the directory, there were no factors here, no fancy repositories, no gardeners or florists, no pearl button makers, no furniture brokers or pawnbrokers (!), no newsagents, and, strange to say, no printer. Photographers and electro-platers were unknown, though fifty years after showed 68 of the one, and 77 of the latter. On the other hand, in 1824, there were 78 auger, awlblade and gimlet makers, against 19 in 1874; 14 bellows makers, against 5; 36 buckle and 810 button makers, against 10 and 265; 52 edge tool makers and 176 locksmiths, against 18 of each in 1874; hinge-makers were reduced from 53 to 23; gilt toy makers, from 265 to 15. (Considering the immense quantity of gilt trifles now sent out yearly, we can only account for these figures by supposing the producers to have been entered under various other headings). Among the trades that have vanished altogether, are steelyard makers, of whom there were 19 in 1824; saw-makers, of whom there were 26; tool-makers, of whom there were 79, and similorers, whatever they might have been. Makers of the time-honoured snuffers numbered 46 in 1824, and there were even half-a-dozen manufacturers left at work in 1874. The introduction of gas-lighting only found employ, in the first-named year, for three gasfitters; in 1874, there were close upon 100. Pewterers and manufacturers of articles in Britannia metal numbered 75 in 1824, against 19 in 1874, wire-drawers in the same period coming down from 237 to 56. The Directories of the past ten years have degenerated into mere bulky tomes, cataloguing names certainly, but published almost solely for the benefit (?) of those tradesmen who can be coaxed into advertising in their pages. To such an extent has this been carried, that it is well for all advertisers to be careful when giving their orders, that they are dealing with an established and respectable firm, more than one bogus Directory having come under the notice of the writer during the past year or two. The issue of a real Post Office Directory for 1882, for which the names, trades, and addresses were to be gathered by the letter-carriers, and no body of men could be more suitable for the work, or be better trusted, was hailed by local tradesmen as a decided step in advance (though little fault could be found with the editions periodically issued by Kelly), but unfortunately the proposed plan was not successfully carried out, and in future years the volume will be principally valued as a curiosity, the wonderfully strange mistakes being made therein of placing the honoured name of Sir Josiah Mason under the head of "Next-of-Kin Enquiry Agents," and that, too, just previous to the exposure of the numerous frauds carried out by one of the so-called agents and its curiousness is considerably enhanced by the fact that a like error had been perpetrated in a recent edition of Kelly's Directory.