I have commenced by giving all the preceding detail, in order to show the groundwork on which I base the estimate of the cost of compressed air power to consumers, in terms of indicated horse power per annum, as given in Table II. I may say that, in estimating the engine power and coal consumption, I have not, as in the original report, made purely theoretical calculations, but have taken diagrams from engines in actual use (although of somewhat smaller size than those intended to be employed), and have worked out the results therefrom. It will, I hope, be seen that, with all the safeguards we have provided, we may fairly reckon upon having for sale the stated quantity of air produced by means of the plant, as estimated, and at the specified annual cost; and that therefore the statement of cost per indicated horse power per annum may be fairly relied upon. Thus the cost of compressed air to the consumer, based upon an average charge of 5d. per 1,000 cubic feet, will vary from L6 14s. per indicated horse power per annum to L18 13s. 3d., according to circumstances and mode of application.

A compressed air motor is an exceedingly simple machine—much simpler than an ordinary steam engine. But the air may also be used in an ordinary steam engine; and in this case it can be much simplified in many details. Very little packing is needed, as there is no nuisance from gland leakage; the friction is therefore very slight. Pistons and glands are packed with soapstone, or other self-lubricating packing; and no oil is required except for bearings, etc. The company will undertake the periodical inspection and overhauling of engines supplied with their power, all which is included in the estimates. The total cost to consumers, with air at an average of 5d. per 1,000 cubic feet, may therefore be fairly taken as follows:

Min. Max. Cost of air used L6 14 01/2 L18 13 3 Oil. waste, packing, etc. 1 0 0 1 0 0 Interest, depreciation, etc., 121/2 per cent. on L10, the cost of engine per indicated horse power 1 5 0 1 5 0 ———— ————- L8 19 01/2 L20 18 3

The maximum case would apply only to direct acting engines, such as Tangye pumps, air power hammers, etc., where the air is full on till the end of the stroke, and where there is no expansion. The minimum given is at the average rate of 5d. per 1,000 cubic feet; but as there will be rates below this, according to a sliding scale, we may fairly take it that the lowest charge will fall considerably below L6 per indicated horse power per annum.—Journal of Gas Lighting.

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THE BERTHON COLLAPSIBLE CANOE.

An endeavor has often been made to construct a canoe that a person can easily carry overland and put into the water without aid, and convert into a sailboat. The system that we now call attention to is very well contrived, very light, easily taken apart, and for some years past has met with much favor.



Mr. Berthon's canoes are made of impervious oil-skin. Form is given them by two stiff wooden gunwales which are held in position by struts that can be easily put in and taken out. The model shown in the figure is covered with oiled canvas, and is provided with a double paddle and a small sail. Fig. 2 represents it collapsed and being carried overland.



Mr. Berthon is manufacturing a still simpler style, which is provided with two oars, as in an ordinary canoe. This model, which is much used in England by fishermen and hunters, has for several years past been employed in the French navy, in connection with movable defenses. At present, every torpedo boat carries one or two of these canoes, each composed of two independent halves that may be put into the water separately or be joined together by an iron rod.

These boats ride the water very well, and are very valuable for exploring quarters whither torpedo boats could not adventure without danger.[1]—La Nature.

[Footnote 1: For detailed description see SUPPLEMENT, No. 84.]

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THE FIFTIETH ANNIVERSARY OF THE OPENING OF THE FIRST GERMAN STEAM RAILROAD.

There was great excitement in Nuernberg on the 7th of December, 1835, on which day the first German railroad was opened. The great square on which the buildings of the Nuernberg and Furth "Ludwig's Road" stood, the neighboring streets, and, in fact, the whole road between the two cities, was filled with a crowd of people who flocked from far and near to see the wonderful spectacle. For the first time, a railroad train filled with passengers was to be drawn from Nuernberg to Furth by the invisible power of the steam horse. At eight o'clock in the morning, the civil and military authorities, etc., who took part in the celebration were assembled on the square, and the gayly decorated train started off to an accompaniment of music, cannonading, cheering, etc. Everything passed off without an accident; the work was a success. The engraving in the lower right-hand corner represents the engine and cars of this road.

It will be plainly seen that such a revolution could not be accomplished easily, and that much sacrifice and energy were required of the leaders in the enterprise, prominent among whom was the merchant Johannes Scharrer, who is known as the founder of the "Ludwig's Road."

One would naturally suppose that such an undertaking would have met with encouragement from the Bavarian Government, but this was not the case. The starters of the enterprise met with opposition on every side; much was written against it, and many comic pictures were drawn showing accidents which would probably occur on the much talked of road. Two of these pictures are shown in the accompanying large engraving, taken from the Illustrirte Zeitung. As shown in the center picture, right hand, it was expected by the railway opponents that trains running on tracks at right angles must necessarily come in collision. If anything happened to the engine, the passengers would have to get out and push the cars, as shown at the left.



Much difficulty was experienced in finding an engineer capable of attending to the construction of the road; and at first it was thought that it would be best to engage an Englishman, but finally Engineer Denis, of Munich, was appointed. He had spent much time in England and America studying the roads there, and carried on this work to the entire satisfaction of the company.

All materials for the road were, as far as possible, procured in Germany; but the idea of building the engines and cars there had to be given up, and, six weeks before the opening of the road, Geo. Stephenson, of London, whose engine, Rocket, had won the first prize in the competitive trials at Rainhill in 1829, delivered an engine of ten horse power, which is still known in Nuernberg as "Der Englander."

Fifty years have passed, and, as Johannes Scharrer predicted, the Ludwig's Road has become a permanent institution, though it now forms only a very small part of the network of railroads which covers every portion of Germany. What changes have been made in railroads during these fifty years! Compare the present locomotives with the one made by Cugnot in 1770, shown in the upper left-hand cut, and with the work of the pioneer Geo. Stephenson, who in 1825 constructed the first passenger railroad in England, and who established a locomotive factory in Newcastle in 1824. Geo. Stephenson was to his time what Mr. Borsig, whose great works at Moabit now turn out from 200 to 250 locomotives a year, is to our time.

Truly, in this time there can be no better occasion for a celebration of this kind than the fiftieth anniversary of the opening of the first German railroad, which has lately been celebrated by Nuernberg and Furth.

The lower left-hand view shows the locomotive De Witt Clinton, the third one built in the United States for actual service, and the coaches. The engine was built at the West Point Foundry, and was successfully tested on the Mohawk and Hudson Railroad between Albany and Schenectady on Aug. 9, 1831.

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IMPROVED COAL ELEVATOR.

An illustration of a new coal elevator is herewith presented, which presents advantages over any incline yet used, so that a short description may be deemed interesting to those engaged in the coaling and unloading of vessels. The pen sketch shows at a glance the arrangement and space the elevator occupies, taking less ground to do the same amount of work than any other mode heretofore adopted, and the first cost of erecting is about the same as any other.

When the expense of repairing damages caused by the ravages of winter is taken into consideration, and no floats to pump out or tracks to wash away, the advantages should be in favor of a substantial structure.

The capacity of this hoist is to elevate 80,000 bushels in ten hours, at less than one-half cent per bushel, and put coal in elevator, yard, or shipping bins.



The endless wire rope takes the cars out and returns them, dispensing with the use of train riders.

A floating elevator can distribute coal at any hatch on steam vessels, as the coal has to be handled but once; the hoist depositing an empty car where there is a loaded one in boat or barge, requiring no swing of the vessel.

Mr. J.R. Meredith, engineer, of Pittsburg, Pa., is the inventor and builder, and has them in use in the U.S. engineering service.—Coal Trade Journal.

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STEEL-MAKING LADLES.

The practice of carrying melted cast iron direct from the blast furnace to the Siemens hearth or the Bessemer converter saves both money and time. It has rendered necessary the construction of special plant in the form of ladles of dimensions hitherto quite unknown. Messrs. Stevenson & Co., of Preston, make the construction of these ladles a specialty, and by their courtesy, says The Engineer, we are enabled to illustrate four different types, each steel works manager, as is natural, preferring his own design. Ladles are also required in steel foundry work, and one of these for the Siemens-Martin process is illustrated by Fig. 1. These ladles are made in sizes to take from five to fifteen ton charges, or larger if required, and are mounted on a very strong carriage with a backward and forward traversing motion, and tipping gear for the ladle. The ladles are butt jointed, with internal cover strips, and have a very strong band shrunk on hot about half way in the depth of the ladle. This forms an abutment for supporting the ladle in the gudgeon band, being secured to this last by latch bolts and cotters. The gearing is made of cast steel, and there is a platform at one end for the person operating the carriage or tipping the ladle. Stopper gear and a handle are fitted to the ladles to regulate the flow of the molten steel from the nozzle at the bottom.



Fig. 2 shows a Spiegel ladle, of the pattern used at Cyfarthfa. It requires no description. Fig. 3 shows a tremendous ladle constructed for the North-Eastern Steel Company, for carrying molten metal from the blast furnace to the converter. It holds ten tons with ease. It is an exceptionally strong structure. The carriage frame is constructed throughout of 1 in. wrought-iron plated, and is made to suit the ordinary 4 ft. 81/2 in. railway gauge. The axle boxes are cast iron, fitted with gun-metal steps. The wheels are made of forged iron, with steel tires and axles. The carriage is provided with strong oak buffers, planks, and spring buffers; the drawbars also have helical compression springs of the usual type. The ladle is built up of 1/2 in. wrought-iron plates, butt jointed, and double riveted butt straps. The trunnions and flange couplings are of cast steel. The tipping gear, clearly shown in the engraving, consists of a worm and wheel, both of steel, which can be fixed on either side of the ladle as may be desired. From this it will be seen that Messrs. Stevenson & Co. have made a thoroughly strong structure in every respect, and one, therefore, that will commend itself to most steel makers. We understand that these carriages are made in various designs and sizes to meet special requirements. Thus, Fig. 4 shows one of different design, made for a steel works in the North. This is also a large ladle. The carriage is supported on helical springs and solid steel wheels. It will readily be understood that very great care and honesty of purpose is required in making these structures. A breakdown might any moment pour ten tons of molten metal on the ground, with the most horrible results.

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APPARATUS FOR DEMONSTRATING THAT ELECTRICITY DEVELOPS ONLY ON THE SURFACE OF CONDUCTORS.

Mr. K.L. Bauer, of Carlsruhe, has just constructed a very simple and ingenious apparatus which permits of demonstrating that electricity develops only on the surface of conductors. It consists (see figure) essentially of a yellow-metal disk, M, fixed to an insulating support, F, and carrying a concentric disk of ebonite, H. This latter receives a hollow and closed hemisphere, J, of yellow metal, whose base has a smaller diameter than that of the disk, H, and is perfectly insulated by the latter. Another yellow-metal hemisphere, S, open below, is connected with an insulating handle, G. The basal diameter of this second hemisphere is such that when the latter is placed over J its edge rests upon the lower disk, M. These various pieces being supposed placed as shown in the figure, the shell, S, forms with the disk, M, a hollow, closed hemisphere that imprisons the hemisphere, J, which is likewise hollow and closed, and perfectly insulated from the former.



The shell, S, is provided internally with a curved yellow-metal spring, whose point of attachment is at B, and whose free extremity is connected with an ebonite button, K, which projects from the shell, S. By pressing this button, a contact may be established between the external hemisphere (formed of the pieces, S and M), and the internal one, J. As soon as the button is left to itself, the spring again begins to bear against the interior surface of S, and the two hemispheres are again insulated.

The experiment is performed in this wise: The shell, S, is removed. Then a disk of steatite affixed to an insulating handle is rubbed for a few instants with a fox's "brush," and held near J until a spark occurs. Then the apparatus is grasped by the support, F, and an elder-pith ball suspended by a flaxen thread from a good conducting support is brought near J. The ball will be quickly repelled, and care must be taken that it does not come into contact with J. After this the apparatus is placed upon a table, the shell, S, is taken by its handle, G, and placed in the position shown in the figure, and a momentary contact is established between the two hemispheres by pressing the button, K. Then the shell, S, is lifted, and the disk, M, is touched at the same time with the other hand. If, now, the pith ball be brought near S, it will be quickly repelled, while it will remain stationary if it be brought near J, thus proving that all the electricity passed from J to S at the moment of contact.—La Lumiere Electrique.

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THE COLSON TELEPHONE.

This apparatus has recently been the object of some experiments which resulted in its being finally adopted in the army. We think that our readers will read a description of it with interest. Its mode of construction is based upon a theoretic conception of the lines of force, which its inventor explains as follows in his Elementary Treatise on Electricity:

"To every position of the disk of a magnetic telephone with respect to the poles of the magnet there corresponds a certain distribution of the lines of force, which latter shift themselves when the disk is vibrating. If the bobbin be met by these lines in motion, there will develop in its wire a difference of potential that, according to Faraday's law, will be proportional to their number. All things equal, then, a telephone transmitter will be so much the more potent in proportion as the lines set in motion by the vibrations of the disk and meeting the bobbin wire are greater in number. In like manner, a receiver will be so much the more potent in proportion as the lines of force, set in motion by variations in the induced currents that are traversing the bobbin and meeting the disk, are more numerous. It will consequently be seen that, generally speaking, it is well to send as large a number of lines of force as possible through the bobbin."



In order to obtain such a result, the thin tin-plate disk has to be placed between the two poles of the magnet. The pole that carries the fine wire bobbin acts at one side and in the center of the disk, while the other is expanded at the extremity and acts upon the edge and the other side. This pole is separated from the disk by a copper washer, and the disk is thus wholly immersed in the magnetic field, and is traversed by the lines of force radiatingly.

This telephone is being constructed by Mr. De Branville, with the greatest care, in the form of a transmitter (Fig. 2) and receiver (Fig. 3). At A may be seen the magnet with its central pole, P, and its eccentric one, P'. This latter traverses the vibrating disk, M, through a rubber-lined aperture and connects with the soft iron ring, F, that forms the polar expansion. These pieces are inclosed in a nickelized copper box provided with a screw cap, C. The resistance of both the receiver and transmitter bobbin is 200 ohms.



The transmitter is 31/2 in. in diameter, and is provided with a re-enforcing mouthpiece. It is regulated by means of a screw which is fixed in the bottom of the box, and which permits of varying the distance between the disk and the core that forms the central pole of the magnet. The regulation, when once effected, lasts indefinitely. The regulation of the receiver, which is but 21/4 in. in diameter, is performed once for all by the manufacturer. One of the advantages of this telephone is that its regulation is permanent. Besides this, it possesses remarkable power and clearness, and is accompanied with no snuffling sounds, a fact doubtless owing to all the molecules of the disk being immersed in the magnetic field, and to the actions of the two poles occurring concentrically with the disk. As we have above said, this apparatus is beginning to be appreciated, and has already been the object of several applications in the army. The transmitter is used by the artillery service in the organization of observatories from which to watch firing, and the receiver is added to the apparatus pertaining to military telegraphy. The two small receivers are held to the lens of the operator by the latter's hat strap, while the transmitter is suspended in a case supported by straps, with the mouthpieces near the face (Fig. 1).

In the figure, the case is represented as open, so as to show the transmitter. The empty compartment below is designed for the reception and carriage of the receivers, straps, and flexible cords. This arrangement permits of calling without the aid of special apparatus, and it has also the advantage of giving entire freedom to the man on observation, this being something that is indispensable in a large number of cases.



In certain applications, of course, the receivers may be combined with a microphone; yet on an aerial as well as on a subterranean line the transmitter produces effects which, as regards intensity and clearness, are comparable with those of a pile transmitter.

Stations wholly magnetic may be established by adding to the transmitter and two receivers a Sieur phonic call, which will actuate them powerfully, and cause them to produce a noise loud enough for a call. It would be interesting to try this telephone on a city line, and to a great distance on those telegraph lines that are provided with the Van Rysselberghe system. Excellent results would certainly be obtained, for, as we have recently been enabled to ascertain, the voice has a remarkable intensity in this telephone, while at the same time perfectly preserving its quality.—La Nature.

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[NATURE.]



THE MELDOMETER.

The apparatus which I propose to call by the above name ([mu][epsilon][lambda][delta][omega], to melt) consists of an adjunct to the mineralogical microscope, whereby the melting-points of minerals may be compared or approximately determined and their behavior watched at high temperatures either alone or in the presence of reagents.

As I now use it, it consists of a narrow ribbon of platinum (2 mm. wide) arranged to traverse the field of the microscope. The ribbon, clamped in two brass clamps so as to be readily renewable, passes bridgewise over a little scooped-out hollow in a disk of ebony (4 cm. diam.). The clamps also take wires from a battery (3 Groves cells); and an adjustable resistance being placed in circuit, the strip can be thus raised in temperature up to the melting-point of platinum.

The disk being placed on the stage of the microscope the platinum strip is brought into the field of a 1" objective, protected by a glass slip from the radiant heat. The observer is sheltered from the intense light at high temperatures by a wedge of tinted glass, which further can be used in photometrically estimating the temperature by using it to obtain extinction of the field. Once for all approximate estimations of the temperature of the field might be made in terms of the resistance of the platinum strip, the variation of such resistance with rise of temperature being known. Such observations being made on a suitably protected strip might be compared with the wedge readings, the latter being then used for ready determinations. Want of time has hindered me from making such observations up to this.

The mineral to be experimented on is placed in small fragments near the center of the platinum ribbon, and closely watched while the current is increased, till the melting-point of the substance is apparent. Up to the present I have only used it comparatively, laying fragments of different fusibilities near the specimen. In this way I have melted beryl, orthoclase, and quartz. I was much surprised to find the last mineral melt below the melting-point of platinum. I have, however, by me as I write, a fragment, formerly clear rock-crystal, so completely fused that between crossed Nicols it behaves as if an amorphous body, save in the very center where a speck of flashing color reveals the remains of molecular symmetry. Bubbles have formed in the surrounding glass.

Orthoclase becomes a clear glass filled with bubbles: at a lower temperature beryl behaves in the same way.

Topaz whitens to a milky glass—apparently decomposing, throwing out filmy threads of clear glass and bubbles of glass which break, liberating a gas (fluorine?) which, attacking the white-hot platinum, causes rings of color to appear round the specimen. I have now been using the apparatus for nearly a month, and in its earliest days it led me right in the diagnosis of a microscopical mineral, iolite, not before found in our Irish granite, I think. The unlooked-for characters of the mineral, coupled with the extreme minuteness of the crystals, led me previously astray, until my meldometer fixed its fusibility for me as far above the suspected bodies.

Carbon slips were at first used, as I was unaware of the capabilities of platinum.

A form of the apparatus adapted, at Prof. Fitzgerald's suggestion, to fit into the lantern for projection on the screen has been made for me by Yeates. In this form the heated conductor passes both below and above the specimen, which is regarded from a horizontal direction.

J. JOLY.

Physical Laboratory, Trinity College, Dublin.

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[AMERICAN ANNALS OF THE DEAF AND DUMB.]



TOUCH TRANSMISSION BY ELECTRICITY IN THE EDUCATION OF DEAF-MUTES.

Progress in electrical science is daily causing the world to open its eyes in wonder and the scientist to enlarge his hopes for yet greater achievements. The practical uses to which this subtile fluid, electricity, is being put are causing changes to be made in time-tested methods of doing things in domestic, scientific, and business circles, and the time has passed when startling propositions to accomplish this or that by the assistance of electricity are dismissed with incredulous smiles. This being the case, no surprise need follow the announcement of a device to facilitate the imparting of instruction to deaf children which calls into requisition some service from electricity.

The sense of touch is the direct medium contemplated, and it is intended to convey, with accuracy and rapidity, messages from the operator (the teacher) to the whole class simultaneously by electrical transmission.[1]

[Footnote 1: By the same means two deaf-mutes, miles apart, might converse with each other, and the greatest difficulty in the way of a deaf-mute becoming a telegraph operator, that of receiving messages, would be removed. The latter possibilities are incidentally mentioned merely as of scientific interest, and not because of their immediate practical value. The first mentioned use to which the device may be applied is the one considered by the writer as possibly of practical value, the consideration of which suggested the appliance to him.]

An alphabet is formed upon the palm of the left hand and the inner side of the fingers, as shown by the accompanying cut, which, to those becoming familiar with it, requires but a touch upon a certain point of the hand to indicate a certain letter of the alphabet.

A rapid succession of touches upon various points of the hand is all that is necessary in spelling a sentence. The left hand is the one upon which the imaginary alphabet is formed, merely to leave the right hand free to operate without change of position when two persons only are conversing face to face.

The formation of the alphabet here figured is on the same principle as one invented by George Dalgarno, a Scottish schoolmaster, in the year 1680, a cut of which maybe seen on page 19 of vol. ix. of the Annals, accompanying the reprint of a work entitled "Didascalocophus." Dalgarno's idea could only have been an alphabet to be used in conversation between two persons tete a tete, and—except to a limited extent in the Horace Mann School and in Professor Bell's teaching—has not come into service in the instruction of deaf-mutes or as a means of conversation. There seems to have been no special design or system in the arrangement of the alphabet into groups of letters oftenest appearing together, and in several instances the proximity would seriously interfere with distinct spelling; for instance, the group "u," "y," "g," is formed upon the extreme joint of the little finger. The slight discoverable system that seems to attach to his arrangement of the letters is the placing of the vowels in order upon the points of the fingers successively, beginning with the thumb, intended, as we suppose, to be of mnemonic assistance to the learner. Such assistance is hardly necessary, as a pupil will learn one arrangement about as rapidly as another. If any arrangement has advantage over another, we consider it the one which has so grouped the letters as to admit of an increased rapidity of manipulation. The arrangement of the above alphabet, it is believed, does admit of this. Yet it is not claimed that it is as perfect as the test of actual use may yet make it. Improvements in the arrangement will, doubtless, suggest themselves, when the alterations can be made with little need of affecting the principle.

In order to transmit a message by this alphabet, the following described appliance is suggested: A matrix of cast iron, or made of any suitable material, into which the person receiving the message (the pupil) places his left hand, palm down, is fixed to the table or desk. The matrix, fitting the hand, has twenty-six holes in it, corresponding in position to the points upon the hand assigned to the different letters of the alphabet. In these holes are small styles, or sharp points, which are so placed as but slightly to touch the hand. Connected with each style is a short line of wire, the other end of which is connected with a principal wire leading to the desk of the operator (the teacher), and there so arranged as to admit of opening and closing the circuit of an electric current at will by the simple touch of a button, and thereby producing along the line of that particular wire simultaneous electric impulses, intended to act mechanically upon all the styles connected with it. By these impulses, produced by the will of the sender, the styles are driven upward with a quick motion, but with only sufficient force to be felt and located upon the hand by the recipient. Twenty-six of these principal or primary wires are run from the teacher's desk (there connected with as many buttons) under the floor along the line of pupils' desks. From each matrix upon the desk run twenty-six secondary wires down to and severally connecting with the twenty-six primary wires under the floor. The whole system of wires is incased so as to be out of sight and possibility of contact with foreign substances. The keys or buttons upon the desk of the teacher are systematically arranged, somewhat after the order of those of the type writer, which allows the use of either one or both hands of the operator, and of the greatest attainable speed in manipulation. The buttons are labeled "a," "b," "c," etc., to "z," and an electric current over the primary wire running from a certain button (say the one labeled "a") affects only those secondary wires connected with the styles that, when excited, produce upon the particular spot of the hands of the receivers the tactile impression to be interpreted as "a." And so, whenever the sender touches any of the buttons on his desk, immediately each member of the class feels upon the palm of his hand the impression meant to be conveyed. The contrivance will admit of being operated with as great rapidity as it is probable human dexterity could achieve, i.e., as the strokes of an electric bell. It was first thought of conveying the impressions directly by slight electric shocks, without the intervention of further mechanical apparatus, but owing to a doubt as to the physical effect that might be produced upon the persons receiving, and as to whether the nerves might not in time become partly paralyzed or so inured to the effect as to require a stronger and stronger current, that idea was abandoned, and the one described adopted. A diagram of the apparatus was submitted to a skillful electrical engineer and machinist of Hartford, who gave as his opinion that the scheme was entirely feasible, and that a simple and comparatively inexpensive mechanism would produce the desired result.



The matter now to consider, and the one of greater interest to the teacher of deaf children, is, Of what utility can the device be in the instruction of deaf-mutes? What advantage is there, not found in the prevailing methods of communication with the deaf, i.e., by gestures, dactylology, speech and speech-reading, and writing?

I. The language of gestures, first systematized and applied to the conveying of ideas to the deaf by the Abbe de l'Epee during the latter part of the last century, has been, in America, so developed and improved upon by Gallaudet, Peet, and their successors, as to leave but little else to be desired for the purpose for which it was intended. The rapidity and ease with which ideas can be expressed and understood by this "language" will never cease to be interesting and wonderful, and its value to the deaf can never fail of being appreciated by those familiar with it. But the genius of the language of signs is such as to be in itself of very little, if any, direct assistance in the acquisition of syntactical language, owing to the diversity in the order of construction existing between the English language and the language of signs. Sundry attempts have been made to enforce upon the sign-language conformity to the English order, but they have, in all cases known to the writer, been attended with failure. The sign-language is as immovable as the English order, and in this instance certainly Mahomet and the mountain will never know what it is to be in each other's embrace. School exercises in language composition are given with great success upon the basis of the sign-language. But in all such exercises there must be a translation from one language to the other. The desideratum still exists of an increased percentage of pupils leaving our schools for the deaf, possessing a facility of expression in English vernacular. This want has been long felt, and endeavoring to find a reason for the confessedly low percentage, the sign-language has been too often unjustly accused. It is only when the sign-language is abused that its merit as a means of instruction degenerates. The most ardent admirers of a proper use of signs are free to admit that any excessive use by the pupils, which takes away all opportunities to express themselves in English, is detrimental to rapid progress in English expression.

II. To the general public, dactylology or finger spelling is the sign-language, or the basis of that language, but to the profession there is no relation between the two methods of communication. Dactylology has the advantage of putting language before the eye in conformity with English syntax, and it has always held its place as one of the elements of the American or eclectic method. This advantage, however, is not of so great importance as to outweigh the disadvantages when, as has honestly been attempted, it asserts its independence of other methods. Very few persons indeed, even after long practice, become sufficiently skillful in spelling on the fingers to approximate the rapidity of speech. But were it possible for all to become rapid spellers, another very important requisite is necessary before the system could be a perfect one, that is, the ability to read rapid spelling. The number of persons capable of reading the fingers beyond a moderate degree of rapidity is still less than the number able to spell rapidly. While it is physically possible to follow rapid spelling for twenty or thirty minutes, it can scarcely be followed longer than that. So long as this is true, dactylology can hardly claim to be more than one of the elements of a system of instruction for the deaf.

III. Articulate speech is another of the elements of the eclectic method, employed with success inversely commensurate with the degree of deficiency arising from deafness. Where the English order is already fixed in his mind, and he has at an early period of life habitually used it, there is comparatively little difficulty in instructing the deaf child by speech, especially if he have a quick eye and bright intellect. But the number so favored is a small percentage of the great body of deaf-mutes whom we are called upon to educate. When it is used as a sole means of educating the deaf as a class its inability to stand alone is as painfully evident as that of any of the other component parts of the system. It would seem even less practicable than a sole reliance upon dactylology would be, for there can be no doubt as to what a word is if spelled slowly enough, and if its meaning has been learned. This cannot be said of speech. Between many words there is not, when uttered, the slightest visible distinction. Between a greater number of others the distinction is so slight as to cause an exceedingly nervous hesitation before a guess can be given. Too great an imposition is put upon the eye to expect it to follow unaided the extremely circumscribed gestures of the organs of speech visible in ordinary speaking. The ear is perfection as an interpreter of speech to the brain. It cannot correctly be said that it is more than perfection. It is known that the ear, in the interpretation of vocal sounds, is capable of distinguishing as many as thirty-five sounds per second (and oftentimes more), and to follow a speaker speaking at the rate of more than two hundred words per minute. If this be perfection, can we expect the eye of ordinary mortal to reach it? Is there wonder that the task is a discouraging one for the deaf child?

But it has been asserted that while a large percentage (practically all) of the deaf can, by a great amount of painstaking and practice, become speech readers in some small degree, a relative degree of facility in articulation is not nearly so attainable. As to the accuracy of this view, the writer cannot venture an opinion. Judging from the average congenital deaf-mute who has had special instruction in speech, it can safely be asserted that their speech is laborious, and far, very far, from being accurate enough for practical use beyond a limited number of common expressions. This being the case, it is not surprising that as an unaided means of instruction it cannot be a success, for English neither understood when spoken, nor spoken by the pupil, cannot but remain a foreign language, requiring to pass through some other form of translation before it becomes intelligible.

There are the same obstacles in the use of the written or printed word as have been mentioned in connection with dactylology, namely, lack of rapidity in conveying impressions through the medium of the English sentence.

I have thus hastily reviewed the several means which teachers generally are employing to impart the use of English to deaf pupils, for the purpose of showing a common difficulty. The many virtues of each have been left unnoticed, as of no pertinence to this article.

The device suggested at the beginning of this paper, claiming to be nothing more than a school room appliance intended to supplement the existing means for giving a knowledge and practice of English to the deaf, employs as its interpreter a different sense from the one universally used. The sense of sight is the sole dependence of the deaf child. Signs, dactylology, speech reading, and the written and printed word are all dependent upon the eye for their value as educational instruments. It is evident that of the two senses, sight and touch, if but one could be employed, the choice of sight as the one best adapted for the greatest number of purposes is an intelligent one; but, as the choice is not limited, the question arises whether, in recognizing the superior adaptability to our purpose of the one, we do not lose sight of a possibly important, though secondary, function in the other. If sight were all-sufficient, there would be no need of a combination. But it cannot be maintained that such is the case. The plan by which we acquire our vernacular is of divine, and not of human, origin, and the senses designed for special purposes are not interchangeable without loss. The theory that the loss of a certain sense is nearly, if not quite, compensated for by increased acuteness of the remaining ones has been exploded. Such a theory accuses, in substance, the Maker of creating something needless, and is repugnant to the conceptions we have of the Supreme Being. When one sense is absent, the remaining senses, in order to equalize the loss, have imposed upon them an unusual amount of activity, from which arises skill and dexterity, and by which the loss of the other sense is in some measure alleviated, but not supplied. No additional power is given to the eye after the loss of the sense of hearing other than it might have acquired with the same amount of practice while both faculties were active. The fact, however, that the senses, in performing their proper functions, are not overtaxed, and are therefore, in cases of emergency, capable of being extended so as to perform, in various degrees, additional service, is one of the wise providences of God, and to this fact is due the possibility of whatever of success is attained in the work of educating the deaf, as well as the blind.

In the case of the blind, the sense of touch is called into increased activity by the absence of the lost sense; while in the case of the deaf, sight is asked to do this additional service. A blind person's education is received principally through the two senses of hearing and touch. Neither of these faculties is so sensible to fatigue by excessive use as is the sense of sight, and yet the eye has, in every system of instruction applied to the deaf, been the sole medium. In no case known to the writer, excepting in the celebrated case of Laura Bridgman and a few others laboring under the double affliction of deafness and blindness, has the sense of touch been employed as a means of instruction.[1]

[Footnote 1: This article was written before Professor Bell had made his interesting experiments with his "parents' class" of a touch alphabet, to be used upon the pupil's shoulder in connection with the oral teaching.—E.A.F.]

Not taking into account the large percentage of myopes among the deaf, we believe there are other cogent reasons why, if found practicable, the use of the sense of touch may become an important element in our eclectic system of teaching. We should reckon it of considerable importance if it were ascertained that a portion of the same work now performed by the eye could be accomplished equally as well through feeling, thereby relieving the eye of some of its onerous duties.

We see no good reason why such accomplishment may not be wrought. If, perchance, it were discovered that a certain portion could be performed in a more efficient manner, its value would thus be further enhanced.

In theory and practice, the teacher of language to the deaf, by whatever method, endeavors to present to the eye of the child as many completed sentences as are nominally addressed to the ear—having them "caught" by the eye and reproduced with as frequent recurrence as is ordinarily done by the child of normal faculties.

In our hasty review of the methods now in use we noted the inability to approximate this desirable process as a common difficulty. The facility now ordinarily attained in the manipulation of the type writer, and the speed said to have been reached by Professor Bell and a private pupil of his by the Dalgarno touch alphabet, when we consider the possibility of a less complex mechanism in the one case and a more systematic grouping of the alphabet in the other, would lead us to expect a more rapid means of communication than is ordinarily acquired by dactylology, speech (by the deaf), or writing. Then the ability to receive the communication rapidly by the sense of feeling will be far greater. No part of the body except the point of the tongue is as sensible to touch as the tips of the fingers and the palm of the hand. Tactile discrimination is so acute as to be able to interpret to the brain significant impressions produced in very rapid succession. Added to this advantage is the greater one of the absence of any more serious attendant physical or nervous strain than is present when the utterances of speech fall upon the tympanum of the ear. To sum up, then, the advantages of the device we find—

First. A more rapid means of communication with the deaf by syntactic language, admitting of a greater amount of practice similar to that received through the ear by normal children.

Second. Ability to receive this rapid communication for a longer duration and without ocular strain.

Third. Perfect freedom of the eye to watch the expression on the countenance of the sender.

Fourth. In articulation and speech-reading instruction, the power to assist a class without distracting the attention of the eye from the vocal organs of the teacher.

Fifth. Freedom of the right hand of the pupil to make instantaneous reproduction in writing of the matter being received through the sense of feeling, thereby opening the way for a valuable class exercise.

Sixth. The possible mental stimulus that accompanies the mastery of a new language, and the consequent ability to receive known ideas through a new medium.

Seventh. A fresh variety of class exercises made possible.

The writer firmly believes in the good that exists in all methods that are, or are to be; in the interdependence rather than the independence of all methods; and in all school-room appliances tending to supplement or expedite the labors of the teacher, whether they are made of materials delved from the earth or snatched from the clouds.

S. TEFFT WALKER,

Superintendent of the Kansas Institution, Olathe, Kans.

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WATER GAS.

THE RELATIVE VALUE OF WATER GAS AND OTHER GASES AS IRON REDUCING AGENTS.

By B.H. THWAITE.

In order to approximately ascertain the relative reducing action of water gas, carbon monoxide, and superheated steam on iron ore, the author decided to have carried out the following experiments, which were conducted by Mr. Carl J. Sandahl, of Stockholm, who also carried out the analyses. The ore used was from Bilbao, and known as the Ruby Mine, and was a good average hematite. The carbonaceous material was the Trimsaran South Wales anthracite, and contained about 90 per cent. of carbon.

A small experimental furnace was constructed of the form shown by illustration, about 4 ft. 6 in. high and 2 ft. 3 in. wide at the base, and gradually swelling to 2 ft. 9 in. at the top, built entirely of fireclay bricks. Two refractory tubes, 2 in. square internally, and the height of the furnace, were used for the double purpose of producing the gas and reducing the ore.

The end of the lower tube rested on a fireclay ladle nozzle, and was properly jointed with fireclay; through this nozzle the steam or air was supplied to the inside of the refractory tubes. In each experiment the ore and fuel were raised to the temperature "of from 1,800 to 2,200 deg. Fahr." by means of an external fire of anthracite. Great care was taken to prevent the contact of the solid carbonaceous fuel with the ore. In each experiment in which steam was used, the latter was supplied at a temperature equivalent to 35 lb. to the square inch.

The air for producing the carbon monoxide (CO) gas was used at the temperature of the atmosphere. As near as possible, the same conditions were obtained in each experiment, and the equivalent weight of air was sent through the carbon to generate the same weight of CO as that generated when steam was used for the production of water gas.



First Experiment, Steam (per se).—Both tubes, A and B, were filled with ore broken to the size of nuts. The tube, A, was heated to about 2,000 deg. Fahr., the upper one to about 1,500 deg.

NOTE.—In this experiment, part of the steam was dissociated in passing through the turned-up end of the steam supply pipe, which became very hot, and the steam would form with the iron the magnetic oxide (Fe{3}O{4}). The reduction would doubtless be due to this dissociation. The pieces of ore found on lowest end of the tube, A, were dark colored and semi-fused; part of one of these pieces was crushed fine, and tested; see column I. The remainder of these black pieces was mixed with the rest of the ore contained in tube, A, and ground and tested; see column II. The ore in upper tube was all broken up together and tested; see column III. When finely crushed, the color of No. I. was bluish black; No. II., a shade darker red; No. III., a little darker than the natural color of the ore. The analyses gave:

-+ -+ -+ - I. II. III. + -+ -+ - per cent. per cent. per cent. Ferric oxide (Fe{2}O{3}). 68.55 76.47 84.81 Ferrous oxide (FeO). 16.20 9.50 1.50 + -+ -+ - Total. 84.75 85.97 86.31 + -+ -+ - Calculated: Ferric oxide (Fe{2}O{3}). 32.55 55.36 81.47 Magnetic oxide (Fe{3}O{4}). 52.20 30.61 4.84 Ferrous oxide (FeO). + -+ -+ - Total. 84.75 85.97 86.31 + -+ -+ - Percentage of total oxygen reduced. 6.93 4.02 1.07 Metallic iron. 60.59 60.92 60.54 -+ -+ -+ -

Second Experiment, Water Gas.—The tube, A, was filled with small pieces of anthracite, and heated until all the volatile matter had been expelled. The tube, B, was then placed in tube, A, the joint being made with fireclay, and to prevent the steam from carrying small particles of solid carbon into ore in the upper tube, the anthracite was divided from the ore by means of a piece of fine wire gauze. The steam at a pressure of about 35 lb. to the square inch was passed through the anthracite. The tube, A, was heated to white heat, the tube, B, at its lower end to bright red, the top to cherry red.

- - - - - - - - - -+ Experiment. 1st. 2d. 3d. + - - - - - - - - - - Number. I. II. III. I. II. III. IV. I. II. III. - - - - - - - - - -+ Total Iron. 60.59 60.92 60.54 65.24 61.71 61.93 57.23 59.73 57.93 55.54 + - - - - - - - - - -

Iron occurring as - - - - - - - - - -+ FeO. 12.60 7.39 1.17 46.98 18.59 4.03 0.84 29.45 2.69 1.12 Fe{2}O{3} 47.99 53.33 59.37 18.26 43.12 57.90 56.39 30.28 55.24 54.42 + - - - - - - - - - -

Per cent. of Oxides. - - - - - - - - - -+ FeO. 16.20 9.50 1.50 60.40 23.90 5.18 1.08 37.86 3.46 1.44 Fe{2}O{3}. 68.55 76.47 84.81 26.08 61.60 82.71 80.55 43.26 78.91 77.74 Total. 84.75 85.97 86.31 86.48 85.50 87.89 81.63 81.12 82.37 79.18 + - - - - - - - - - -

Oxygen in Ore. - - - - - - - - - -+ Before experiment. 25.97 26.10 26.05 27.96 26.45 26.54 24.52 25.60 24.81 23.80 After experiment. 24.16 25.05 25.77 21.24 23.79 25.96 24.40 21.39 24.44 23.64 Difference. 1.81 1.05 0.28 6.72 2.66 0.58 0.12 4.21 0.37 0.16 + - - - - - - - - - -

Per cent. of oxygen reduced. - - - - - - - - - -+ oxygen reduced. 6.93 4.02 1.07 24.03 10.02 2.18 0.49 16.44 1.49 0.42 + - - - - - - - - - -

Degree of Oxidation of the Ore after the Experiment. - - - - - - - - - -+ FeO. ... ... ... 84.66 ... ... ... 18.40 ... ... Fe{3}O{4}. 52.20 30.61 4.84 37.82 77.01 28.12 3.88 62.72 11.14 4.64 Fe{2}O{3}. 32.55 55.36 81.47 ... 8.49 59.77 77.75 ... 71.23 74.54 Total. 84.75 85.97 85.97 85.97 85.97 85.97 85.97 85.97 85.97 85.97 + - - - - - - - - - -

- - - The ore having been exposed to Steam. Water gas. Carbon monoxide. - - -

Four Samples were Tested.—I. The bottom layer, 11/4 in. thick; the color of ore quite black, with small particles of reduced spongy metallic iron. II. Layer above I., 41/4 in. thick; the color was also black, but showed a little purple tint. III. Layer above II., 5 in. thick; purple red color. IV. Layer above III., ore a red color. The analyses gave:

- - - - - I. II. III. IV. - - - - per cent. per cent. per cent. per cent. Ferric oxide (Fe{2}O{3}). 26.08 61.60 82.71 80.55 Ferrous oxide (FeO). 60.40 23.90 5.18 1.08 - - - - Total. 86.48 85.50 87.89 81.63 - - - - Calculated: Ferric oxide (Fe{2}O{3}). ... 8.49 59.77 77.75 Magnetic oxide (Fe{3}O{4}). 37.82 77.01 28.12 3.88 Ferrous oxide (FeO). 48.66 - - - - Total. 86.48 85.41 87.89 81.63 - - - - Percentage of total oxygen reduced. 24.03 10.02 2.26 0.49 Metallic iron. 65.24 61.71 61.93 57.23 - - - - -

NOTE.—All the carbon dioxide (CO_{2}) occurring in the ore as calcic carbonate was expelled.

Third Experiment, Carbon monoxide (CO).—The tube A was filled with anthracite in the manner described for the second experiment, and heated to drive off the volatile matter, before the ore was placed in the upper tube, B, and the anthracite was divided from the ore by means of a piece of fine wire gauze. The lower tube, A, was heated to the temperature of white heat, the upper one, B, to a temperature of bright red. I. Layer, 1 in. thick from the bottom; ore dark brownish colored. II. Layer 4 in. thick above I.; ore reddish brown. III. Layer 11 in. thick above II.; ore red color. The analyses gave:

-+ -+ -+ - I. II. III. + -+ -+ - per cent. per cent. per cent. Ferric oxide (Fe{2}O{3}). 43.26 78.91 77.74 Ferrous oxide (FeO). 37.86 3.46 1.44 + -+ -+ - Total. 81.12 82.37 79.18 + -+ -+ - Calculated: Ferric oxide (Fe{2}O{3}). ... 71.23 74.54 Magnetic oxide (Fe{3}O{4}). 62.72 11.14 4.64 Ferrous oxide (FeO). 18.40 + -+ -+ - Total. 81.12 82.37 79.18 + -+ -+ - Percentage of total oxygen reduced. 16.44 1.49 0.42 Metallic iron. 59.73 57.93 55.54 -+ -+ -+ -

NOTE.—The carbon monoxide (CO) had failed to remove from the ore the carbon dioxide existing as calcic carbonate. The summary of experiments in the following table appears to show that the water gas is a more powerful reducing agent than CO in proportion to the ratio of as

4.21 x 100 4.21 : 6.72, or —————— = 52 per cent. 72

Mr. B.D. Healey, Assoc. M. Inst. C.E., and the author are just now constructing large experimental plant in which water gas will be used as the reducing agent. This plant would have been at work before this but for some defects in the valvular arrangements, which will be entirely removed in the new modifications of the plant.

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ANTISEPTIC MOUTH WASH.

Where an antiseptic mouth wash is needed, Mr. Sewill prescribes the use of perchloride of mercury in the following form: One grain of the perchloride and 1 grain of chloride of ammonium to be dissolved in 1 oz. of eau de Cologne or tincture of lemons, and a teaspoonful of the solution to be mixed with two-thirds of a wineglassful of water, making a proportion of about 1 of perchloride in 5,000 parts.—Chemist and Druggist.

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ANNATTO.

[Footnote: Read at an evening meeting of the North British Branch of the Pharmaceutical Society, January 21.]

By WILLIAM LAWSON.

The subject which I have the honor to bring shortly before your notice this evening is one that formed the basis of some instructive remarks by Dr. Redwood in November, 1855, and also of a paper by Dr. Hassall, read before the Society in London in January, 1856, which latter gave rise to an animated discussion. The work detailed below was well in hand when Mr. MacEwan drew my attention to these and kindly supplied me with the volume containing reports of them. Unfortunately, they deal principally with the adulterations, while I was more particularly desirous to learn the composition in a general way, and especially the percentage of coloring resin, the important constituent in commercial annatto. Within the last few years it was one of the articles in considerable demand in this part of the country; now it is seldom inquired for. This, certainly, is not because butter coloring has ceased to be employed, and hence the reason for regretting that the percentage of resin was not dealt with in the articles referred to, so that a comparison could have been made between the commercial annatto of that period and that which exists now. In case some may not be in possession of literature bearing on it—which, by the way, is very meager—it may not be out of place to quote some short details as to its source, the processes for obtaining it, the composition of the raw material, and then the method followed in the present inquiry will be given, together with the results of the examination of ten samples; and though the subject doubtless has more interest for the country than for the town druggist, still, I trust it will have points of interest for both.

Annatto is the coloring matter derived from the seeds of an evergreen plant, Bixa Orellana, which grows in the East and West Indian Islands and South America, in the latter of which it is principally prepared. Two kinds are imported, Spanish annatto, made in Brazil, and flag or French, made mostly in Cayenne. These differ considerably in characters and properties, the latter having a disagreeable putrescent odor, while the Spanish is rather agreeable when fresh and good. It is, however, inferior to the flag as a coloring or dyeing agent. The seeds from which the substance is obtained are red on the outside, and two methods are followed in order to obtain it. One is to rub or wash off the coloring matter with water, allow it to subside, and to expose it to spontaneous evaporation till it acquires a pasty consistence. The other is to bruise the seeds, mix them with water, and allow fermentation to set in, during which the coloring matter collects at the bottom, from which it is subsequently removed and brought to the proper consistence by spontaneous evaporation. These particulars, culled from Dr. Redwood's remarks, may suffice to show its source and the methods for obtaining it.

Dr. John gives the following as the composition of the pulp surrounding the seeds: Coloring resinous matter, 28; vegetable gluten, 26.5; ligneous fiber, 20; coloring, 20; extractive matter, 4; and a trace of spicy and acid matter.

It must be understood, however, that commercial annatto, having undergone processes necessary to fit it for its various uses, as well as to preserve it, differs considerably from this; and though it may not be true, as some hint, that manufacturing in this industry is simply a term synonymous with adulterating, yet results will afterward be given tending to show that there are articles in the market which have little real claim to the title. I tried, but failed, to procure a sample of raw material on which to work, with a view to learn something of its characters and properties in this state, and thus be able to contrast it with the manufactured or commercial article. The best thing to do in the circumstances, I thought, was to operate on the highest priced sample at disposal, and this was done in all the different ways that suggested themselves. The extraction of the resin by means of alcohol—the usual way, I believe—was a more troublesome operation than it appeared to be, as the following experiment will show: One hundred grains of No. 8 were taken, dried thoroughly, reduced to fine powder, and introduced into a flask containing 4 ounces of alcohol in the form of methylated spirit, boiled for an hour—the flask during the operation being attached to an inverted condenser—filtered off, and the residue treated with a smaller amount of the spirit and boiled for ten minutes. This was repeated with diminishing quantities until in all 14 ounces had been used before the alcoholic solution ceased to turn blue on the addition to it of strong sulphuric acid, or failed to give a brownish precipitate with stannous chloride. As the sample contained a considerable quantity of potassium carbonate, in which the resin is soluble, it was thought that by neutralizing this it might render the resin more easy of extraction. This was found to be so, but it was accompanied by such a mass of extractive as made it in the long run more troublesome, and hence it was abandoned. Thinking the spirit employed might be too weak, an experiment with commercial absolute alcohol was carried out as follows: One hundred grains of a red sample, No. 4, were thoroughly dried, powdered finely, and boiled in 2 ounces of the alcohol, filtered, and the residue treated with half an ounce more. This required to be repeated with fresh half ounces of the alcohol until in all 71/2 were used; the time occupied from first to last being almost three hours. This was considered unsatisfactory, besides being very expensive, and so it, also, was set aside, and a series of experiments with methylated spirit alone was set in hand. The results showed that the easiest and most satisfactory way was to take 100 grains (this amount being preferred, as it reduces error to the minimum), dry thoroughly, powder finely, and macerate with frequent agitation for twenty-four hours in a few ounces of spirit, then to boil in this spirit for a short time, filter, and repeat the boiling with a fresh ounce or so; this, as a rule, sufficing to completely exhaust it of its resin. Wynter Blyth says that the red resin, or bixin, is soluble in 25 parts of hot alcohol. It appears from these experiments that much more is required to dissolve it out of commercial annatto.

The full process followed consisted in determining the moisture by drying 100 grains at 212 deg. F. till constant, and taking this dried portion for estimation of the resin in the way just stated. The alcoholic extract was evaporated to dryness over a water-bath, the residue dissolved in solution of sodium carbonate, and the resin precipitated by dilute sulphuric acid (these reagents being chosen as the best after numerous trials with others), added in the slightest possible excess. The resin was collected on a tared double filter paper, washed with distilled water until the washings were entirely colorless, dried and weighed.

The ash was found in the usual way, and the extractive by the difference. In the ash the amount soluble was determined, and qualitatively examined, as was the insoluble portion in most of them.

The results are as follows:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Moisture 21.75 21.60 20.39 69.73 18.00 18.28 15.71 38.18 19.33 22.50 Resin 3.00 2.90 1.00 8.80 3.00 1.80 5.40 12.00 5.90 9.20 Extrac- tive 57.29 59.33 65.00 19.47 58.40 65.67 26.89 20.82 23.77 28.50 Ash 17.96 16.17 13.61 2.00 20.60 14.25 52.00 29.00 51.00 39.80 - 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 - Ashes: Almost Soluble 13.20 12.57 7.50 wholly 10.0 11.75 18.5 20.0 15.0 13.8 Insoluble 4.76 3.60 6.11 NaCl. 10.6 2.50 33.5 9.0 36.0 26.0

The first six are the ordinary red rolls, with the exception of No. 4, which is a red mass, the only one of this class direct from the manufacturers. The remainder are brown cakes, all except No. 7 being from the manufacturers direct. The ash of the first two was largely common salt; that of No. 3 contained, besides this, iron in some quantity. No. 4 is unique in many respects. It was of a bright red color, and possessed a not disagreeable odor. It contained the largest percentage of moisture and the lowest of ash; had, comparatively, a large amount of coloring matter; was one of the cheapest, and in the course of some dairy trials, carried out by an intelligent farmer, was pronounced to be the best suited for coloring butter. So far as my experience goes, it was a sample of the best commercial excellence, though I fear the mass of water present and the absence of preserving substances will assist in its speedy decay. Were such an article easily procured in the usual way of business, there would not be much to complain of, but it must not be forgotten that it was got direct from the manufacturers—a somewhat suggestive fact when the composition of some other samples is taken into account. No. 5 emitted a disagreeable odor during ignition. The soluble portion of the ash was mostly common salt, and the insoluble contained three of sand—the highest amount found, although most of the reds contained some. No. 6 was a vile-looking thing, and when associated in one's mind with butter gave rise to disagreeable reflections. It was wrapped in a paper saturated with a strongly smelling linseed oil. When it was boiled in water and broken up, hairs, among other things, were observed floating about. It contained some iron. The first cake, No. 7, gave off during ignition an agreeable odor resembling some of the finer tobaccos, and this is characteristic more or less of all the cakes. The ash weighed 52 per cent., the soluble part of which, 18.5, was mostly potassium carbonate, with some chlorides and sulphates; the insoluble, mostly chalk with iron and alumina. No. 8—highest priced of all—had in the mass an odor which I can compare to nothing else than a well rotted farmyard manure. Twenty parts of the ash were soluble and largely potassium carbonate, the insoluble being iron for the most part. The mineral portions of Nos. 9 and 10 closely resemble No. 7.

On looking over the results, it is found that the red rolls contained starchy matters in abundance (in No. 4 the starch was to a large extent replaced by water), and an ash, mostly sodium chloride, introduced no doubt to assist in its preservation as well as to increase the color of the resin—a well known action of salt on vegetable reds. The cakes, which are mostly used for cheese coloring, I believe, all appeared to contain turmeric, for they gave a more or less distinct reaction with the boric acid test, and all except No. 8 contained large quantities of chalk. These results in reference to extractive, etc., reveal nothing that has not been known before. Wynter Blyth, who gives the only analyses of annatto I have been able to find, states that the composition of a fair commercial sample (which I take to mean the raw article) examined by him was as follows: water, 24.2; resin, 28.8; ash, 22.5; and extractive, 24.5; and that of an adulterated (which I take to mean a manufactured) article, water, 13.4; resin, 11.0; ash (iron, silica, chalk, alumina, and common salt), 48.3; and extractive. 27.3. If this be correct, it appears that the articles at present in the market, or at least those which have come in my way, have been wretched imitations of the genuine thing, and should, instead of being called adulterated annatto, be called something else adulterated, but not seriously, with annatto. I have it on the authority of the farmer previously referred to, that 1/4 of an ounce of No. 4 is amply sufficient to impart the desired cowslip tint to no less than 60 lb. of butter. When so little is actually required, it does not seem of very serious importance whether the adulterant or preservative be flour, chalk, or water, but it is exasperating in a very high degree to have such compounds as Nos. 3 and 6 palmed off as decent things when even Nos. 1, 2, and 5 have been rejected by dairymen as useless for the purpose. In conclusion, I may be permitted to express the hope that others may be induced to examine the annatto taken into stock more closely than I was taught to do, and had been in the habit of doing, namely, to see if it had a good consistence and an odor resembling black sugar, for if so, the quality was above suspicion.

* * * * *



JAPANESE RICE WINE AND SOJA SAUCE.

Professor P. Cohn has recently described the mode in which he has manufactured the Japanese sake or rice wine in the laboratory. The material used was "Tane Kosi," i.e., grains of rice coated with the mycelium, conidiophores, and greenish yellow chains of conidia of Aspergillus Oryzoe. The fermentation is caused by the mycelium of this fungus before the development of the fructification. The rice is first exposed to moist air so as to change the starch into paste, and then mixed with grains of the "Tane Kosi." The whole mass of rice becomes in a short time permeated by the soft white shining mycelium, which imparts to it the odor of apple or pine-apple. To prevent the production of the fructification, freshly moistened rice is constantly added for two or three days, and then subjected to alcoholic fermentation from the Saccharomyces, which is always present in the rice, but which has nothing to do with the Aspergillus. The fermentation is completed in two or three weeks, and the golden yellow, sherry-like sake is poured off. The sample manufactured contained 13.9 per cent. of alcohol. Chemical investigation showed that the Aspergillus mycelium transforms the starch into glucose, and thus plays the part of a diastase.

Another substance produced from the Aspergillus rice is the soja sauce. The soja leaves, which contain little starch, but a great deal of oil and casein, are boiled, mixed with roasted barley, and then with the greenish yellow conidia powder of the Aspergillus. After the mycelium has fructified, the mass is treated with a solution of sodium chloride, which kills the Aspergillus, another fungus, of the nature of a Chalaza, and similar to that produced in the fermentation of "sauerkraut," appearing in its place. The dark-brown soja sauce then separates.

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ALUMINUM.

[Footnote: Annual address delivered by President J.A. Price before the meeting of the Scranton Board of Trade, Monday, January 18, 1886.]

By J.A. PRICE.

Iron is the basis of our civilization. Its supremacy and power it is impossible to overestimate; it enters every avenue of development, and it may be set down as the prime factor in the world's progress. Its utility and its universality are hand in hand, whether in the magnificent iron steamship of the ocean, the network of iron rail upon land, the electric gossamer of the air, or in the most insignificant articles of building, of clothing, and of convenience. Without it, we should have miserably failed to reach our present exalted station, and the earth would scarcely maintain its present population; it is indeed the substance of substances. It is the Archimedean lever by which the great human world has been raised. Should it for a moment forget its cunning and lose its power, earthquake shocks or the wreck of matter could not be more disastrous. However axiomatic may be everything that can be said of this wonderful metal, it is undoubtedly certain that it must give way to a metal that has still greater proportions and vaster possibilities. Strange and startling as may seem the assertion, yet I believe it nevertheless to be true that we are approaching the period, if not already standing upon the threshold of the day, when this magical element will be radically supplanted, and when this valuable mineral will be as completely superseded as the stone of the aborigines. With all its apparent potency, it has its evident weaknesses; moisture is everywhere at war with it, gases and temperature destroy its fiber and its life, continued blows or motion crystallize and rob it of its strength, and acids will devour it in a night. If it be possible to eliminate all, or even one or more, of these qualities of weakness in any metal, still preserving both quantity and quality, that metal will be the metal of the future.

The coming metal, then, to which our reference is made is aluminum, the most abundant metal in the earth's crust. Of all substances, oxygen is the most abundant, constituting about one-half; after oxygen comes silicon, constituting about one-fourth, with aluminum third in all the list of substances of the composition. Leaving out of consideration the constituents of the earth's center, whether they be molten or gaseous, more or less dense as the case may be, as we approach it, and confining ourselves to the only practical phase of the subject, the crust, we find that aluminum is beyond question the most abundant and the most useful of all metallic substances.

It is the metallic base of mica, feldspar, slate, and clay. Professor Dana says: "Nearly all the rocks except limestones and many sandstones are literally ore-beds of the metal aluminum." It appears in the gem, assuming a blue in the sapphire, green in the emerald, yellow in the topaz, red in the ruby, brown in the emery, and so on to the white, gray, blue, and black of the slates and clays. It has been dubbed "clay metal" and "silver made from clay;" also when mixed with any considerable quantity of carbon becoming a grayish or bluish black "alum slate."

This metal in color is white and next in luster to silver. It has never been found in a pure state, but is known to exist in combination with nearly two hundred different minerals. Corundum and pure emery are ores that are very rich in aluminum, containing about fifty-four per cent. The specific gravity is but two and one-half times that of water; it is lighter than glass or as light as chalk, being only one-third the weight of iron and one-fourth the weight of silver; it is as malleable as gold, tenacious as iron, and harder than steel, being next the diamond. Thus it is capable of the widest variety of uses, being soft when ductility, fibrous when tenacity, and crystalline when hardness is required. Its variety of transformations is something wonderful. Meeting iron, or even iron at its best in the form of steel, in the same field, it easily vanquishes it at every point. It melts at 1,300 degrees F., or at least 600 degrees below the melting point of iron, and it neither oxidizes in the atmosphere nor tarnishes in contact with gases. The enumeration of the properties of aluminum is as enchanting as the scenes of a fairy tale.

Before proceeding further with this new wonder of science, which is already knocking at our doors, a brief sketch of its birth and development may be fittingly introduced. The celebrated French chemist Lavoisier, a very magician in the science, groping in the dark of the last century, evolved the chemical theory of combustion—the existence of a "highly respirable gas," oxygen, and the presence of metallic bases in earths and alkalies. With the latter subject we have only to do at the present moment. The metallic base was predicted, yet not identified. The French Revolution swept this genius from the earth in 1794, and darkness closed in upon the scene, until the light of Sir Humphry Davy's lamp in the early years of the present century again struck upon the metallic base of certain earths, but the reflection was so feeble that the great secret was never revealed. Then a little later the Swedish Berzelius and the Danish Oersted, confident in the prediction of Lavoisier and of Davy, went in search of the mysterious stranger with the aggressive electric current, but as yet to no purpose. It was reserved to the distinguished German Wohler, in 1827, to complete the work of the past fifty years of struggle and finally produce the minute white globule of the pure metal from a mixture of the chloride of aluminum and sodium, and at last the secret is revealed—the first step was taken. It took twenty years of labor to revolve the mere discovery into the production of the aluminum bead in 1846, and yet with this first step, this new wonder remained a foetus undeveloped in the womb of the laboratory for years to come.

Returning again to France some time during the years between 1854 and 1858, and under the patronage of the Emperor Napoleon III., we behold Deville at last forcing Nature to yield and give up this precious quality as a manufactured product. Rose, of Berlin, and Gerhard, in England, pressing hard upon the heels of the Frenchman, make permanent the new product in the market at thirty-two dollars per pound. The despair of three-quarters of a century of toilsome pursuit has been broken, and the future of the metal has been established.

The art of obtaining the metal since the period under consideration has progressed steadily by one process after another, constantly increasing in powers of productivity and reducing the cost. These arts are intensely interesting to the student, but must be denied more than a reference at this time. The price of the metal may be said to have come within the reach of the manufacturing arts already.

A present glance at the uses and possibilities of this wonderful metal, its application and its varying quality, may not be out of place. Its alloys are very numerous and always satisfactory; with iron, producing a comparative rust proof; with copper, the beautiful golden bronze, and so on, embracing the entire list of articles of usefulness as well as works of art, jewelry, and scientific instruments.

Its capacity to resist oxidation or rust fits it most eminently for all household and cooking utensils, while its color transforms the dark visaged, disagreeable array of pots, pans, and kitchen implements into things of comparative beauty. As a metal it surpasses copper, brass, and tin in being tasteless and odorless, besides being stronger than either.

It has, as we have seen, bulk without weight, and consequently may be available in construction of furniture and house fittings, as well in the multitudinous requirements of architecture. The building art will experience a rapid and radical change when this material enters as a component material, for there will be possibilities such as are now undreamed of in the erection of homes, public buildings, memorial structures, etc. etc., for in this metal we have the strength, durability, and the color to give all the variety that genius may dictate.

And when we take a still further survey of the vast field that is opening before us, we find in the strength without size a most desirable assistant in all the avenues of locomotion. It is the ideal metal for railway traffic, for carriages and wagons. The steamships of the ocean of equal size will double their cargo and increase the speed of the present greyhounds of the sea, making six days from shore to shore seem indeed an old time calculation and accomplishment. A thinner as well as a lighter plate; a smaller as well as a stronger engine; a larger as well as a less hazardous propeller; and a natural condition of resistance to the action of the elements; will make travel by water a forcible rival to the speed attained upon land, and bring all the distant countries in contact with our civilization, to the profit of all. This metal is destined to annihilate space even beyond the dream of philosopher or poet.

The tensile strength of this material is something equally wonderful, when wire drawn reaches as high as 128,000 pounds, and under other conditions reaches nearly if not quite 100,000 pounds to the square inch. The requirements of the British and German governments in the best wrought steel guns reach only a standard of 70,000 pounds to the square inch. Bridges may be constructed that shall be lighter than wooden ones and of greater strength than wrought steel and entirely free from corrosion. The time is not distant when the modern wonder of the Brooklyn span will seem a toy.

It may also be noted that this metal affords wide development in plumbing material, in piping, and will render possible the almost indefinite extension of the coming feature of communication and exchange—the pneumatic tube.

The resistance to corrosion evidently fits this metal for railway sleepers to take the place of the decaying wooden ties. In this metal the sleeper may be made as soft and yielding as lead, while the rail may be harder and tougher than steel, thus at once forming the necessary cushion and the avoidance of jar and noise, at the same time contributing to additional security in virtue of a stronger rail.

In conductivity this metal is only exceeded by copper, having many times that of iron. Thus in telegraphy there are renewed prospects in the supplanting of the galvanized iron wire—lightness, strength, and durability. When applied to the generation of steam, this material will enable us to carry higher pressure at a reduced cost and increased safety, as this will be accomplished by the thinner plate, the greater conductivity of heat, and the better fiber.

It is said that some of its alloys are without a rival as an anti-friction metal, and having hardness and toughness, fits it remarkably for bearings and journals. Herein a vast possibility in the mechanic art lies dormant—the size of the machine may be reduced, the speed and the power increased, realizing the conception of two things better done than one before. It is one of man's creative acts.

From other of its alloys, knives, axes, swords, and all cutting implements may receive and hold an edge not surpassed by the best tempered steel. Hulot, director in the postage stamp department, Paris, asserts that 120,000 blows will exhaust the usefulness of the cushion of the stamp machine, and this number of blows is given in a day; and that when a cushion of aluminum bronze was substituted, it was unaffected after months of use.

If we have found a metal that possesses both tensile strength and resistance to compression; malleability and ductility—the quality of hardening, softening, and toughening by tempering; adaptability to casting, rolling, or forging; susceptibility to luster and finish; of complete homogeneous character and unusually resistant to destructive agents—mankind will certainly leave the present accomplishments as belonging to an effete past, and, as it were, start anew in a career of greater prospects.

This important material is to be found largely in nearly all the rocks, or as Prof. Dana has said, "Nearly all rocks are ore-beds of the metal." It is in every clay bank. It is particularly abundant in the coal measures and is incidental to the shales or slates and clays that underlie the coal. This under clay of the coal stratum was in all probability the soil out of which grew the vegetation of the coal deposits. It is a compound of aluminum and other matter, and, when mixed with carbon and transformed by the processes of geologic action, it becomes the shale rock which we know and which we discard as worthless slate. And it is barely possible that we have been and are still carting to the refuse pile an article more valuable than the so greatly lauded coal waste or the merchantable coal itself. We have seen that the best alumina ore contains only fifty-four per cent. of metal.

The following prepared table has been furnished by the courtesy and kindness of Mr. Alex. H. Sherred, of Scranton.

ALUMINA.

Blue-black shale, Pine Brook drift 27.36 Slate from Briggs' Shaft coal 15.93 Black fire clay, 4 ft. thick, Nos. 4 and 5 Rolling Mill mines 23.53 First cut on railroad, black clay above Rolling Mill 32.60 G vein black clay, Hyde Park mines 28.67